NUQTAH Journal of Theological Studies

Editor: Dr. Shumaila Majeed

(Bi-Annual)
Languages: Urdu, Arabic and English
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Institute, Sialkot (51310), Pakistan.
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Pioneering Apologetic Rationalism in the Sub-Continent: Syed

Ahmad Khan and Syed Ameer Ali

Dr Humaira Ahmad
Associate Professor,
Department of Islamic Thought and Civilization,
University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
Email: [email protected]

Published online: 30th December 2022

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NUQTAH Vol. 2, No. 2: (July to December 2022) 203

Pioneering Apologetic Rationalism in the Sub-Continent:

Syed Ahmad Khan and Syed Ameer Ali

Abstract
Islamic Modernism has been a dominant and effective discourse in the Muslim
world since the arrival of modernity. It is multi-dimensional, encompassing
rationalists, nationalists and even socialists. Apologetic rationalism is one of the
early dimensions developed primarily as a response to the onslaught of modern
scientific theories and the scientific method which seemed to threaten the Islamic
way of life, thought and belief system. While taking a defensive and apologetic
position, Muslim apologetics tried to prove the superiority of Islam on all other
creeds and religions by declaring natural laws to be in sync with Islam, and all
scientific discoveries and inventions as continuation of the scientific and
rationalistic spirit endorsed by all the prophets and the Qur’ān. Secondly, all
apologetics elevated the persona of Prophet Muḥammad PBUH and tried to prove
that he was a true leader in the modern sense of the term and was undoubtedly
progressive and enlightened. In the sub-continent, this effort was led by two
towering pioneers: Sir Syed Aḥmad Khan and Syed Ameer Ali. This article is an
insight into the apologetics of these two influential pioneers and Muslim
Modernists. Sir Syed’s name is heralded is one of the foremost modernists whose
efforts in construction of new ilm al kalam led him towards a controversial and
heterodox position. Sayyid Ameer Ali, a jurist and trained through western
education, produced the influential apologetic work on Islamic history and Prophet
Muḥammad (PBUH).
 NUQTAH Vol. 2, No. 2: (July to December 2022) 204

Keywords: Islamic Modernism, Apologetic Rationalism, Naturalism, Syed

Ameer Ali, Sir Syed Aḥmad

1. Introduction

1.1 The Discourse of Islamic Modernism

Islamic Modernism developed as an intellectual discourse across the Muslim World

and the sub-continent as result of the infiltration of Western ideas during colonial
times. It looked for ways and means to accommodate modern ideas in an Islamic
framework in response to the onslaught of modernity and western hegemony. As
an intellectual activity engendered by western ideological movements and
foundations, “Islamic Modernism produced a new worldview, which sought
expression in hostility to imperialism, love for nationalism and an urge to modify
Islamic tradition.”1 Advocates of this thought posed fundamental theological
question which “revolved around the question of the validity of knowledge derived
from the Qur’ān, Ḥadīth, the consensus of the theologian (ijma‘), and juristic
reasoning by analogy (qiyas).”2 In order to answer this question, they tried to
“interpret the first two sources and “transform the last two in order to formulate a
reformist project in the light of prevalent standards of scientific rationality and
modern social theory.”3 The modernists accepted the concepts associated with
Western Civilization, such as scientific progress and individual freedom on one
hand and on the other hand their sincere .connection with Islamic beliefs provided
them with strong cultural identity. Muslim Modernists accepted the Qur’ān as the
word of God and its interpretation as the word of man subject to change according
to the changing circumstances and context. The Islamic Modernist discourse
doubted the authenticity of Hadīth as the word of Prophet Muḥammad (PBUH) on
account of addition of fabricated traditions, criticized the blind acceptance of Fiqh,
NUQTAH Vol. 2, No. 2: (July to December 2022) 205

and labelled it as outdated. “They preached the need and acceptability of a selective
synthesis of Islam and modern Western thought; condemned unquestioned
reverence and imitation of the past; reasserted their right to reinterpret (ijtihād)
Islam in light of modern conditions; and sought to provide an Islamically based
rationale for educational, legal, and social reform to revitalize a dormant Muslim
community.”4 Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi, a renowned historian commented on this
line of thought in the following words:

“It has been recognized in all Muslim countries that in many respects the mutable
part of the Shari’yyah requires considerable overhauling and the immutable bases
need a new interpretation ― (Islam is) not a code of certain rigid laws or even legal
concepts but a dynamic force, a concept of life, not of law, a guidance for the springs
of thought and action and not a static code of action. In other words, Islam is alive
and dynamic ideology and not a dead unprogressive and static collection of
injunctions and prohibitions. It requires a new interpretation at every stage of our
development and cannot be content merely with precedents and past usage. Islam
does not discard precedents and traditions, but it lays emphasis upon the progressive
unfolding of the creative instincts of mankind in accordance with eternal principles
defined by revelation.”5

Islamic Modernism presented a wide diversity of thought ranging from harsh critics
of Western Colonialism and imperialism to advocates of reformation in Muslim
societies. Among them were severe opponents of Muslim intellectuals
compromising with imperial leaders and adopting European ideological premises.6
However, all of them tried to find the causes of Muslim deterioration and European
control. Some of them attributed it to the lack of progress in science and technology;
others mounted a fierce defense of Islam and tried to prove its compatibility with
technology, and that of the Qur’ān with scientific truths. All of them concurred that
Muslim societies needed a major Reformation on the pattern of Christian
NUQTAH Vol. 2, No. 2: (July to December 2022) 206

Reformation by Martin Luther (1483-1546).7 They challenged the orthodox

interpretations of Islam by traditional ulama and preached renewal and reform in
Islam.

Early modernists such as Sir Syed Aḥmad Khan (1817-1898) and Muḥammad
Abduh (1849-1905) can be identified as rationalists. They tried to infuse Western
rationalism and modern practice in Islamic thought by operating at social and
intellectual levels. They were eclectic in their interpretation and particularly applied
the spirit of rationalism which is characteristic of the Mu‘tazila.8 “At intellectual
level, they wanted to reconcile Islamic beliefs with Newtonian Physics which was
the dominant paradigm of the day. At social level, they were willing for a complete
reformation of Muslim societies along the lines of European society. They idealized
the social organization of European society and they labeled all those customs of
Muslim society against the true teachings of Islam which were not in vogue in
Europe or clashed with the changing times.”9

1.2 The Discourse of Apologetics

Early modernists from Sub-Continent and Egypt while aware of the decline of
Muslim civilization responded to West in an apologetic manner. This defensive
attitude rested on the belief of eternal validity of Islam and took pride in its
relevance for all times and areas.10 These apologetics tried hard by what can only
be described as bending backwards to show the applicability of Islam to western
elements.11 Jamal ad Din Afghani and Muhammad Abduh, early modernists argued
that Western science is borrowed from the Arabs; hence contending that Islam as a
religion, far from being in conflict with science, encourages and nourishes it.12
Although the argument was true but “little attention was paid by the apologists to
explain the actual role of science in Muslim societies and its relation with
 NUQTAH Vol. 2, No. 2: (July to December 2022) 207

authorities; great attention was called to the mere fact that Arab science existed.”13
Most of the literature of apologetic modernism bore testimony to man’s struggle in
current times: quest for leadership and the need for a way of life and attitude to
Islam that can be embraced in the modern epoch.

A prolific orientalist A. R. Gibbs comments on this method where apologetics

leaving a side the essential questions and focusing on “the perfection of the Qur’ān
and the personality of Muḥammad (PBUH). Both of these were old and familiar
themes in Islam, and modern writers thus elaborated upon an extensive literature
which went back to the early centuries.”14
This article attempts to provide an insight into the thoughts and arguments of Syed
Aḥmad Khan (1817-1898) and Syed Ameer Ali (1849-1928) who were the original
torch bearers of the Muslim apologetics. Both men were the earlier modernists in
the sub-continent and influenced later thinkers substantially.

2. Reformulation and Radical Reinterpretation of Beliefs in

the Light of Modern Science: Syed Aḥmad Khan

Syed Aḥmad Khan (1817-1898) was indeed the most influential thinker and
reformer in the Indian sub-continent. His intellectual works include Asbab-i-
Baghawat-i-Hind (Reasons of the Indian Revolt, An Account of the Loyal
Mohammedan of India in 1860, Review of Hunter’s Book in 1872, in which he
proved that India was not Dar-al-ḥarb in 1872, Tabyīn al-Kalam (explanation of
words) 1862-63, Essays on the Life of Mohammed (1870), and Tafsīr-al-Qur’ān
(1880-89). He also wrote many articles in his famous Journal Tahdhīb-al-Akhlāq
(The Refinement of Manners). All his writings reflect his desire and effort to
convince Muslims not to consider western knowledge as anti-Islamic.15 He was not
a traditional ālim and was not deeply religious but was raised and trained in the
traditional Muslim environment. He was eventually swayed by Western supremacy
NUQTAH Vol. 2, No. 2: (July to December 2022) 208

and accepted the dominance of the European way of life and institutions. However,
his real motivation was the uplift and progress of the Muslims of India. He had
come to the conclusion that the new age was defined by Western domination and
Muslims must embrace modernity in order to thrive. He too faced the dilemma that
Muslims are facing even to this day; embrace modernity but not lose their religion.
However, he did not see any essential dichotomy between the spirit of Islam and
modernity. However, according to him, the current perceptions and practices of
Muslims needed to be reformed.16

Sir Syed was of the view that the root problem of the decline of India and
particularly Muslim India was not British domination as assumed by thinkers and
reformers of the 19th century. The root problem was the cultural, intellectual and
moral decadence of the Muslim community. There was no problem with Islam but
the problem was with the Muslim understanding of Islam. The real Islam, according
to Sir Syed was compatible with all the cultural and intellectual advancements of
European nations. Muslims in their golden age possessed characteristics and
outlook like that of contemporary Europeans.17

Under the impulse of uplifting Muslims and in order to prove the harmony of
Islam with modern science and modernity, he ventured into constructing a modern
Ilm al-Kalām. In one of his addresses, he summed up this task, “Today we are, as
before, in need of a modern Ilm-al Kalām, by which we should refute the doctrine
of modern science and undermine their foundations, or show that they are in
conformity with the articles of Islamic faith. When I am endeavoring to introduce
these sciences among the Muslims, then it is my duty to defend the religion of
Islam, and to reveal its original bright face.”18 In an effort to prove to compatibility
of Islam with modern science, he derived all arguments from the traditional
orthodox literature.19
NUQTAH Vol. 2, No. 2: (July to December 2022) 209

While outlining fifteen principles for his project of Tafsīr, he considered Waḥi and
natural law as identical.20 He wrote a commentary on the Qur’ān21 and introduced
previously unknown novel themes in his Tafsīr. Sticking to the principle of Tafsīr
ul Qur’ān bil Qur’ān,22 he was very critical of classical exegetes for placing too
much focus on Scholasticism, incorporating weak and fabricated Hadīths and
deriving material from untrue and baseless stories of Judaism known as Israiliyyat.
Sir Syed understood the central position of the Qur’ān in the lives of Muslims and
therefore, he accepted the immutable nature of Qur’ānic text but as an apologist, he
tried to justify religious dogmas of the Qur’ān in the light of modern science. He
gave precedence to the scientific truths wherever he found an apparent
incompatibility with science. In his quest to harmonize the meaning of Qur’ān with
modern scientific discoveries, he took into consideration the parts dealing with
literary aspects of the Qur’ān of classical commentaries despite his criticism on the
subject matter of the exegesis. In his opinion, while interpreting the Qur’ān modern
scientific inventions and discoveries must be taken into account as Qur’ān does not
clash with the laws of nature. Modern scientific discoveries are the manifestations
of God’s promises in reality, while the Qur’ān presents God’s promises in words;
former is the Word of God while the latter is the Work of God. In his quest of
equating laws of nature in accordance with religion, he advocated that prophets
were the foremost promulgators of immutable laws of nature and the concept of
miracle therefore, contradicts laws of nature. To believe in any miracle amounts to
repudiation of faith and accuse God of falsehood.23 Therefore anything
contradicting the laws of nature is untrue. This methodology led Sir Syed to deny
miracles, supernatural beings, and other.24

He opposed the literalist understanding of Qur’ānic expressions and tried to

take evidence from the example of classical ulama. The Qur’ān often uses
allegories, metaphors and indirect expression and when this happens, then if
NUQTAH Vol. 2, No. 2: (July to December 2022) 210

anything contradicts common sense and human intellect, then common sense and
intellect is being given precedence.25 Qur’ānic descriptions which he considered
‘supernatural’ in their literal sense were described as metaphors and indirect
expressions of reality according to him.26 Classical ulama and exegetes could not
deny miracles because of insufficient scientific advancement at that time.
“However, since very little was known about pre-Islamic Arabic literature, he
concluded that it was possible for words and phrases to have meanings other than
those explained by lexicologists. Hence, it is imperative also to apply other sources
and to accept meanings of the Qur’ān which are based on such sources, even if
these are absent from the dictionaries.”27 He proved that the Qur’ān can never
contradict the laws of nature.

Sir Syed applied western historiographical critical methodology while writing a

biography of the Prophet Muḥammad (PBUH), titled Essays on the Life of
Muhḥammad (1870) in English and Khutbat-e-Aḥmadiyya in Urdu, on the pattern
of traditional Seerah writing. This discourse was primarily aimed at refuting the
polemical work of William Muir’s The Life of Muḥammad.28 Nevertheless it was
inspired and intellectually benefited largely from manuscripts of the British
Libraries and other sympathetic Western works on Islam such as that of Thomas
Carlyle (1795-1881). He declared that Prophet Muḥammad (PBUH) sided with
reason and intellect.

“We will compare his moral code with the law of Nature. We will judge it in the
light of Knowledge, reason and experience that man has been able to gain. If the
moral code is quite true to Nature, we shall accept the prophet as true…A French
scholar has said that nobody was as truthful as the prophet Muḥammad who neither
showed any miracle nor claimed a rank for himself which is beyond human nature
to attain. He only claimed to be a moral preacher who taught right conduct and
warned us of wrong path. For these things, he is above all comparison. His religion
is a religion of Nature.”29
NUQTAH Vol. 2, No. 2: (July to December 2022) 211

While writing this biography in refutations of the polemical claims of Muir, he very
much accepted his objections on Ḥadīth and Sunnah.30 This work set the pattern for
the apologetic approach regarding Prophet Muḥammad (PBUH).31 He accepted
most of the allegations of Muir on the Hadīth tradition and tried to present the
Prophet (PBUH) in a manner acceptable to Western critics.32

“He critically examined the second source of Islamic knowledge, Sunnah and was
largely influenced by Biblical criticism of the transmission of the ḥadīth’s reports
by European scholars like Carl Pfander (1803-1865) and William Muir (1819-
1905), he “eventually came to reject almost all ḥadīth as unreliable.”33 He did not
reject Sunnah, even though Ḥadīth is the source through which sunnah is
conveyed.34 He believed that Qur’ān is a miracle due to its universality as it allows
every generation to interpret and find meaning according to the epoch. On the other
hand, tradition and Ḥadīth based interpretation limits on the meaning of Qur’ān to
particular time, “thus obscuring its universality.”35

In his response to William Muir on slavery, he identified freedom and slavery as

two exclusive categories which cannot exist together in divine approval. A person
is born free and no one is allowed to take another man as slave. However, in earlier
societies both religious and secular slavery was sanctioned. It is only a credit to
Islamic tradition which not only rejected it on moral grounds but also limited it by
giving incentives to release slaves. Actually, there is no place of slavery within
Islam.36

Sir Syed defended Ijtihād and condemned taqlīd in unmistakable terms. In his
words: “The Ahl-i-Sunnah wal-Jama’ of the later ages have evolved the strangely
erroneous concept that the principle of ijtihād is no longer to be acted upon and
now no one can become mujtahid. This error in belief has done us great spiritual
and worldly harm. It is, therefore, essential that we should give up this belief and
resolve upon investigating all matters, whether they concern religion or worldly
life. We must remember that circumstances keep on changing and we are faced
NUQTAH Vol. 2, No. 2: (July to December 2022) 212

daily with new problems and needs. If, therefore, we do not have living mujtahids,
how shall we ask those who are dead about questions which were not material facts
of life in their time. We must have a mujtahid of our age and time.”37

In order to bring about social reform, he issued a journal Taḥdhīb ul Akhlāq named
after the ethical treatise of Ibn Miskawayh in which he made a case for adopting
Western habits and manners. The journal published articles on variety of topics
ranging from hygiene to dogma and rationalism. This served the dual a purpose:
social reformation and breaking down of Western values as foreign. Syed wrote
extensively on the concept of Jihād in Islam. He argued that the wars waged by the
Prophet of Islam (PBUH) were defensive in nature and that Islam forbids the use
of violence as an instrument to convert other people. Sir Syed also emphasized that
the events of 1857 could not be regarded as Jihād because the protected cannot
wage Jihād against the protectors and Muslims were living under the protection of
the British in India.38

Ignoring the harsh criticism towards his approach and works, Sir Syed took upon
himself the onerous task of convincing young Muslims that the truthfulness and
superiority of Islam towards all other creeds was never in doubt.39 In order to prove
this, he opted for the apologetic and defensive approach. Basit Bilal Koshul while
commenting on Sir Syed writes, “In his efforts of reconstructing theology, he tried
to show that there was nothing in the theology of' true' Islam which was hostile to
science and modernity in general. The result of Syed Aḥmad's religious endeavors
was therefore chiefly negative: he produced an Islam which was not against modern
scientific progress. Sir Syed defended Islam in a such a way that it came out as a
collection of negative attributes which does not allow the oppression of women,
does not allow slavery and most importantly does not oppose modern science.”40
Dr Fazlur Rahman writes: “By this method he tried to show that there was nothing
in the theology of' true' Islam which was inimical to science and modernity in
 NUQTAH Vol. 2, No. 2: (July to December 2022) 213

general. The result of Syed Aḥmad's religious endeavors was therefore chiefly
negative: he produced an Islam which was not against modern scientific
progress.”41

3. Projecting Prophet Muḥammad as Modern Progressive

Leader - Syed Ameer Ali (1849-1928)

Syed Ameer Ali was a political leader and prominent Muslim historian in British
India. He was disciple of Karamat Ali Jaunpuri, and carried on the tradition of Shia
‘modernism.42 Syed Ameer Ali rose to higher legal position in Calcutta after
receiving his education in Law from England. He was a passionate admirer of Sir
Syed’s thought and carried forward his apologia of Islam with intellectual zeal and
fervor. He wrote The Spirit of Islam43 which ran in six editions between 1922 and
1961 and represented the culmination of Indian Muslim apologetic approach.
Besides this, A Critical Examination of the Life and Teachings of Muḥammad, A
Short History of the Saracens, and The Ethics of Islam are his prominent intellectual
works.44

The Spirit of Islam and the A Short History of the Saracens have been quite
influential on the Western educated Muslim intelligentsia of India and Egypt.45
Syed Ameer Ali acknowledged all the moral, social, and political democratic values
of the modern West and identified them with Islam.46

He was concerned with reconstructing Islamic history and keen to present a

favorable picture of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) which commensurate with
modern Western ideas of progress. “He recognized all the individual virtues of a
modern leader of a progressive society and attributed them to Prophet Muhammad
(PBUH).”47 His work received favorable acceptance from traditional ulama as he
identified the abilities and virtues of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) with the concept
NUQTAH Vol. 2, No. 2: (July to December 2022) 214

of Insan-e-Kamil [the Perfect man] which is traditionally attributed to the life and
persona of Prophet Muḥammad (PBUH).48

While accepting Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)’s dual role as Prophet and

statesman, he categorizes a few of his decisions as falling within the domain of
statesmanship.49 The inherent dynamism of his keen intellect is certainly for
People: “The mind of this remarkable Teacher [Muhammad] was, in its
intellectualism and progressive ideals, essentially modern. Eternal ‘striving’ was in
his teachings a necessity of human existence: ‘Man cannot exist without constant
effort’; The effort is from me, the Fulfillment comes from God.’50 In his repeated
comparison between Prophet Muḥammad and Jesus he established the superiority
of Muhammad on Jesus.51

“… The influence of Jesus himself was least among his nearest relations. His
brother never believed in him, and they even went so far as once to endeavor to
obtain possession of his person, believing him to be out of his mind. Even his
immediate disciples were not firm in their convictions. Perhaps his unsteadiness
may have arisen from weakness of character, or it may have resulted, from the
varying tone of Jesus himself; but the fact is undeniable. The intense faith and
conviction on the part of the immediate followers of Mohammed is the noblest
testimony to his sincerity and his utter self-absorption in his appointed task.”52

In his comparison of early Islam with Christianity, he drew parallels between them
as they existed in different eras. “Early Islamic quasi-democracy is with Western
despotism, later Islamic scientific and cultural flowering then narrow-mindedness
of Christianity, and so on.”53 He established Islam as the continuation and
completion of previous religions through the use of examples. 54 Christianity
remained an incomplete religion due to the brief life of Jesus and Muḥammad
completed his mission and religion.
NUQTAH Vol. 2, No. 2: (July to December 2022) 215

“One thing is certain, that had a longer career been vouchsafed to him [Jesus],
he would have placed his teachings on a more systematic basis. This fundamental
defect in Christianity has been, in fact the real cause of the assembling of councils
and convocations for the establishment of articles and dogmas which snap asunder
at every slight tension of reason and free thought. The work of Jesus was left
unfinished. It was reserved for another Teacher [Muḥammad] to systematize the
laws of morality.”55

He asserted that Islam essentially balances the escapism and asceticism of

Christianity and brings peace. His defense of Islam essentially lies in mounting a
fierce attack on Christian polemicists and the Church. “The Followers of the ‘Prince
of Peace’ [Jesus] burnt and ravished, pillaged and murdered promiscuously, old and
young, male and female, without compunction, up to recent times. And his
vicegerents on earth, popes and patriarchs, bishops, priests, presbyters, approved of
their crimes and frequently granted plenary absolution for the most heinous
offences.”56

This strong criticism of Christianity made the defense of Islam easier for Syed
Ameer Ali. He, like other modernists of his time, also believed that certain
injunctions of the Qur’ān are limited to the Prophet’s (PBUH) time and area.57
Islam’s main contribution to the world is ethical humanism and Islamic ethical life
if analyzed, essentially directs to live in present an ethical life fulfilling one’s
duties.58 He considered Pan-Islamism as brotherly love in ethical terms and it
includes all humanity. His formulation of Islamic ethics is more focused on charity
than justice and else.59

On the question of slavery, Ameer Ali again credits Islam for treating slaves better
than they were treated in Christian society. “In Islam the slave of today is the grand
vizier of tomorrow. He may marry, without discredit, his master’s daughter, and
become the head of the family… Can Christianity point to such records as these?”60
NUQTAH Vol. 2, No. 2: (July to December 2022) 216

Touching upon the status of women in society, he attributed the lesser status of
women in Christian societies to Christianity’s asceticism. However, on polygamy
he took a defensive position and argued that the Qur’ān’s injunction is clearly aimed
at gradual eradication of this vice which was inherited from historical tradition.61
But the “stark fact remained that all this was achieved through adopting in toto
modern Western standards.”62 He employed the original apologetic arguments that
became a major part of the Muslim discourses in the 20th century as it contained all
arguments in favor of Islam.63

David Samuel Margoliouth in the preface of his book Mohammed and the Rise of
Islam wrote: “The charming and eloquent treatise of Syed Ameer Ali [The Spirit
of Islam] is probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for
Mohammed that is ever likely to be composed in a European language.”64

Gibbs, appraises apologetic method and credits them for restoring the “faith in
Islam among doubting Muslims by demonstrating the supreme excellence of their
religion. Its second function was to persuade the “old fashioned” Muslims who in
their social conservatism are sinning against the light according to these
apologetics.”65

Syed Hossein Nasr has criticized the apologetic attitude in the following words,
“Endless arguments have been presented for the hygienic nature of Islamic rites
or the egalitarian character of the message of Islam, not because such things are true
if seen in the larger context of the total Islamic message. But because hygiene and
egalitarianism are currently accepted ideas and norms in the West- or at least they
were before the Hippie movement. By affirming such obvious and too easily
defensible characteristics, the apologetics have evaded the whole challenge of the
West, which threatens the heart of Islam and which no attempts to placate the enemy
can avert. When surgery is needed there must be a knife, they with which to remove
the infected part. Also, when error threatens religious truth, nothing can replace the
 NUQTAH Vol. 2, No. 2: (July to December 2022) 217

sword of criticism and discernment. One cannot remove the negative effect of error
by making peace with it and pretending to be its friend.”66

In the words of Wilfred Cantwell, “These kinds of writings hardly recognized that
need in all its profundity, nor began to grasp how vast a transformation was
required in the forms and paraphernalia of religion if it is to cross effectively the
appalling chasm that separated modern man from it today.”67

4. Conclusion

It is easy to vilify or disagree with the approach of the early apologetics but one
must understand the spirit of the times in which these men operated. They were
witnessing what seemed to be unstoppable rise of the Western world and the fall of
Islamic countries politically, intellectually and socially. How had this come about?
Of course, through the loss of power of the church, the rise of European democracy,
scientific advancement, and so forth? And what were the Muslims doing? Craving
for a return to their lost glory but not taking any steps to reclaim their high pedestal!
Can we really blame these men for trying to give Muslims a reality check – that
nostalgia alone won’t uplift Muslims. They needed to wake up and adapt to the
changing times and that meant, in their view, to learn and adopt whatever needed
to be adopted from the very civilization that had crushed them.

In retrospect, Sir Syed’s contribution in the field of education and in creating

awareness in relation to modernity is certainly laudable. He wanted Muslims not to
reject science and progress in the name of faith but to make way to accommodate
this with their faith. In similar vein, Syed Ameer’s Ali’s influential work on the life
of Prophet Muḥammad (PBUH) impacted the whole lot of western oriented
Muslims who ultimately took pride in Prophet Muḥammad (PBUH). However, the
fact cannot be denied that this apologetic approach made the defense of Islam easier
 NUQTAH Vol. 2, No. 2: (July to December 2022) 218

but it was done in the light of modern science and every possible argument was
used to prove the compatibility of Islam with progress and modern rationalism. The
incidents from the Prophet’s (PBUH) life were interpreted to fit into the modern
scheme of things. It seemed that Islam was trying to catch up rather than lead and
that was never really acceptable to the majority of ordinary Muslims who were, and
still are, fiercely holding on to the tenets of their faith. The apologetic tradition did
give a push in the right direction and restored a semblance of pride but that does
not vindicate its proponents from the potent criticism levelled against it, namely,
that its defense of Islam was through Western lens only.

Reference

1 Humaira Ahmad, Hammad Lakhvi, “Making Peace with Modernity: A Study of the
Schism within the Muslim Intelligentsia,” Pakistan Journal of Islamic Research 17, No. 2
(2016): 59.

2 Ibid.

3 Mansoor Moaddal, and Kamran Talattof, “Introduction, Contemporary Debates in Islam:

Modernism Versus Fundamentalism,” in Contemporary Debates in Islam: An Anthology
of Modernist and Fundamentalist Thought, eds. Mansoor Moaddal and Kamran Talattof,
(New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000), 5.

4 The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 55.

5 I. H. Qureshi, “The Future Constitution of Pakistan” in Islamic Review, (London: 1950),

33 cited in Shaukat Ali, Islam and the Challenges of Modernity: An Agenda for the
Twenty First Century (Islamabad: National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research
(Centre of Excellence, Quaid-i-Azam University), 2004), 41-42.

6 Jamal ud din Afghani’s The Refutation of Materialists was a criticism on the adoption of
“naturalist” ideology by Sir Syed Ahmed. Nikkie R. Keddie, “The Truth about the Nechri
 NUQTAH Vol. 2, No. 2: (July to December 2022) 219

Sect,” in An Islamic Response to Islamic Imperialism Political and Religious Writings of

Sayyid Jamal ad Din “Al-Afghani.” (London: University of California Press, 1968), 130-
174.

7 Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age 1789-1939 (London: Oxford University
Press, 1962), 109; Mazharuddin Siddiqui quotes the wordings of Sir Syed, “the fact is
that India needs not merely a Steel or an Addison, but also, and primarily a Luther.”;
Mazharuddin Siddiqui, Modern Reformist Thought in The Muslim World (Islamabad:
The Islamic research Institute, 1982), 4; Asaf A. A. Fyzee, A Modern Approach to Islam
(London: Asia Publishing House, 1963),180-183.

8 Richard C. Martin, Defenders of Reason in Islam: Mu‘tazilism from Medieval School to

Modern Symbol (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 1997), 120.

9 Humaira Ahmad, Hammad Lakhvi, “Making Peace with Modernity: A Study of the Schism
within the Muslim Intelligentsia,” Pakistan Journal of Islamic Research 17, No. 2 (2016):
60-61.

10 Basit Bilal Koshul, “Recounting the Milestones: An Appraisal of Islam’s encounter with
Modernity,” Part II, The Qur’ānic Horizons 4, no. 2 (April-June, 1999): 64.

11 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islam and the Plight of Modern Man (New York, Longman, 1975),
133.

12 Humaira Ahmad, Hammad Lakhvi, “Making Peace with Modernity: A Study of the
Schism within the Muslim Intelligentsia,” 60-61.

13 Wilfred Cantwell Smith, Islam in Modern History (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1957), 118,119.

14 H. A. R. Gibbs, Modern Trends in Islam (New York: Octagon Press, 1978), 74.

15 Shaukat Ali, Islam and the Challenges of Modernity: An Agenda for the Twenty First
Century (Islamabad: National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research (Centre of
Excellence, Quaid-i-Azam University), 2004), 57-58.

16Ibid., 58-59.
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17 Aziz Ahmed, Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857-1964 (London: Oxford
University Press, 1967), 41-44.

18 B. A. Dar, Religious Thought of Sayyid Ahmad Khan, Lahore: Institute of Islamic

Culture, 1957), 139.

19 Basit Bilal Koshul, “Recounting the Milestones: An Appraisal of Islam’s Encounter with
Modernity,” Part II, 73; B. A. Dar, Religious Thought of Sayyid Ahmad Khan, 221-226.

20 Aziz Ahmed, Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857-1964, 42-43.

21 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, Tafseer-ul-Qur’ān m’aa Tahrir fi usul al Tafseer (Lahore: Dost
Associates, 1994).

22 B. A. Dar, Religious Thought of Sayyid Ahmad Khan, 140.

23 Aziz Ahamd, Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857-1964, 46.

24 “He explained the miracles of Prophet Musa (AS) splitting the Red Sea that a ford was
developed when Musa (AS) reached the shore of the sea and eventually closed to engulf
Pharaoh and his army. Regarding the miraculous birth of Prophet Isa (AS), Sir Syed
argued that he was born of natural parents. He explained the “chasteness” of Maryam (SA)
that is emphasized in the Qur’ān as being the absolute fidelity to her husband. He also
denied the existence of jins and angels. He explained the Qur’ānic assertion regarding the
existence of jinns as being a reference to “uncivilized” people or to man’s propensity for
evil.” In Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, Tafseer-ul-Qur’ān m’aa Tahrir fi usul al Tafseer, 39-51,
52.

25 Aziz Ahamd, Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857-1964, 45-49.

26Nasr Abu Zayd, Reformation of Islamic Thought – A Critical Historical Analysis, 30.

27 Ibid., 30.

28 Aziz Ahmed, Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857-1964, 39.

29 Tahdhib al-Akhlaq, vol. II, 118-124 cited in B. A. Dar, Religious Thought of Sayyid
Ahmad Khan, 176.
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30 Jonathan A C Brown, Hadith – Muḥammad’s Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World
(Oxford: One world Publications, 2009), 205.

31 Ibid., 40.

32 B. A. Dar, Religious Thought of Sayyid Ahmad Khan, 117.

33 Daniel Brown, Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1999), 33.

34 Nasr Abu Zayd, Reformation of Islamic Thought – A Critical Historical Analysis, 28.

35 Ibid., 28.

36 Aziz Ahmed, Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857-1964, 51

37 Mujeeb, The Indian Muslims (Montreal: McGill University Press, 1967), 449, cited in
Shaukat Ali, Islam and the Challenges of Modernity: An Agenda for the Twenty First
Century, 61.

38 Some historian however have downplayed the role of ulama in the War of Independence.
See for example Iqtidar Alam Khan ‘The Wahhabis in the 1857 Revolt; A Brief
Reappraisal of Their Role’, Social Scientist 41, nos 5/6 (2013); 15-23.

39 B. A. Dar, Religious Thought of Sayyid Ahmad Khan, 139.

40 Basit Bilal Koshul, “Recounting the Milestones: An Appraisal of Islam’s encounter with
Modernity,” Part II, 73; B. A. Dar, Religious Thought of Sayyid Ahmad Khan, 221-226.

41 Fazlur Rahman, “Muslim Modernism in the Indo-Pakistan Sub-Continent,” Bulletin of

the School of Oriental and African Studies 21, No. 1/3 (1958): 83.

42Aziz Ahmed, Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857-1964, 86-87.

43Syed Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam (Karachi: Pakistan Publishing House, 1981)

44 https://www.findpk.com/pof/syed_ameer_ali.html

45 Ahmad Amin, Zu’ama al-Islah fil asr – al Hadis (Cairo, 1948), 139-145 cited in Aziz
Ahmed, Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857-1964, 87.
 NUQTAH Vol. 2, No. 2: (July to December 2022) 222

46 Humaira Ahmad, Hammad Lakhvi, “Making Peace with Modernity: A Study of the
Schism within the Muslim Intelligentsia,” 61.

47 Fazlur Rahman, “Muslim Modernism in the Indo-Pakistan Sub-Continent,” Bulletin of

the School of Oriental and African Studies, vol. 21, No. 1/3 (1958):86.

48 Ibid.

49 Aziz Ahmed, Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857-1964, 90-91.

50Syed Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam, 81-82.

51 Aziz Ahmed, Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857-1964, 90-91.

52 Syed Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam, 32.

53 Fazlur Rahman, “Muslim Modernism in the Indo-Pakistan Sub-Continent,” 87.

54 Aziz Ahmed, Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857-1964, 91.

55 Syed Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam, 173.

56 The Spirit of Islam, 87.

57 Aziz Ahmed, Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857-1964, 87-88.

58 Ibid.

59 Syed Ameer Ali, The Ethics of Islam (1893), 4-26, cited in Aziz Ahmed, Islamic
Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857-1964, 88.

60 Sayed Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam, 264.

61 Aziz Ahmed, Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857-1964, 94-95.

62 Fazlur Rahman, “Muslim Modernism in the Indo-Pak Sub-Continent,” Bulletin of School

of Oriental and African Studies 21, no.1/3 (1958): 86-87.

63 Basit Bilal Koshul, “Recounting the Milestones: An Appraisal of Islam’s encounter with
Modernity,” II: 74.
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64David S. Margoliouth, Mohammed and the Rise of Islam (London: Gorgias Press, 2003),
vii.

65 H. A. R. Gibbs Modern Trends in Islam (New York: Octagon Press, 1978), 95.

66Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islam and the Plight of the Modern Man, (New York: Longman,
1975), 133.

67Wilfred Cantwell Smith, Islam in Modern History (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1957), 153.