Received 7 October 2024, accepted 20 October 2024, date of publication 23 October 2024, date of current version 4 November 2024.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3485180

Metamaterial Slabs for Electric Vehicle

Wireless Charging Application
PHARIDA JEEBKLUM 1 AND CHAIYUT SUMPAVAKUP 2
1 Collegeof Industrial Technology, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
2 Research Centre for Combustion Technology and Alternative Energy–CTAE and College of Industrial Technology, King Mongkut’s University of Technology

North Bangkok, Bangkok 10800, Thailand

Corresponding author: Chaiyut Sumpavakup ([email protected])
This work was supported by the National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT) and Pan Drives Company Ltd. under Grant N41A650434.

ABSTRACT Design and development of a wireless charging system with metamaterial slabs for electric
vehicles (EV) based on the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) standard is proposed in this paper. The
objective is to study the effect of the metamaterial slab on wireless charging efficiency. The wireless charging
system was set with a distance between the coils of 0.15 m and a resonant frequency of 81.64 kHz. The
symmetrical metamaterial slab (SM) and the edge metamaterial slab (EM) were designed. The experiment
varied the placement position of the metamaterial slab in four cases. The efficiency of the wireless power
transfer system without the metamaterial slab (WOM) was the highest at 75.78% with the coils aligned. The
position at which the coils are in alignment has the maximum efficiency. The efficiency tends to decrease
when the coil is more misalignment. The EM over the receiver coil (EMR) results in a maximum efficiency
of 75.87% at a 0.10 m misalignment. The EMR provides an efficiency that is 8.00% higher than the WOM
at a misalignment of 0.20 m. The metamaterial slab is important in increasing the efficiency when the
misalignment occurs. In addition, the metamaterial slab shields the magnetic fields over the receiver coil.
The magnetic field of the WOM had an average value of 0.0216 mT. Therefore, the magnetic fields of
the system are within safe exposure levels according to the International Commission for Non-Ionization
Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) guidelines which are 0.1 mT for occupational exposure and 0.027 mT for
general public exposure, respectively. The placement of metamaterial slabs can significantly impact the
efficiency and safety of wireless power transfer systems.

INDEX TERMS Electric vehicle, magnetic fields, metamaterial, wireless charging, wireless power transfer.

I. INTRODUCTION One method to improve efficiency is to use a metamaterial

In an era where EVs are becoming more popular, charging slab for wireless power transfer [2], [3], [4], [5]. The metama-
technology should be developed. Traditional wired charging terial slab is a material designed with unique electromagnetic
methods, whereas effective, pose limitations in terms of user properties. Electromagnetic waves can be manipulated in
convenience and infrastructure adaptability. Wireless charg- ways that natural materials cannot [6]. The efficiency was
ing is another option for increasing battery capacity, offering enhanced by a maximum of 44% compared to the efficiency
the potential for seamless and efficient charging experiences. without metamaterial [7], [8]. The forms of the metamaterial
As the demand for EVs continues to rise, optimizing the cell have many designs, such as squares [9], rods, and split
performance and efficiency of wireless power transfer (WPT) rings [3], [10]. The number of metamaterial slabs is tested,
systems becomes increasingly critical [1]. such as one slab, two slabs, and assembled into a 3D struc-
ture [11], [12]. The metamaterials improve the directionality
of magnetic fields toward the receiver coil. Consequently,
The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and the efficiency of wireless power transfer is enhanced [2],
approving it for publication was Guido Lombardi . [13]. The metamaterial slab can reduce electromagnetic field
2024 The Authors. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
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 P. Jeebklum, C. Sumpavakup: Metamaterial Slabs for EV Wireless Charging Application

leakage [2], [14], [15]. The magnetic field strength is reduced power (Pin ) is measured at the grid connection and can be
by a maximum of 62.09% [16]. In addition to increasing calculated from (1), for 3 phase electrical systems. Then, the
efficiency, the metamaterial slab can also extend the range of rectifier circuit converts the electricity to DC power. Next,
the coil distance. As misalignment occurs between coils, effi- the inverter circuit converts to AC power at a high frequency.
ciency decreases with increasing misalignment distance. The The power transmitter is a resonant circuit that consists of
metamaterial slab can improve misalignment tolerance [17]. an inductor and a capacitor in series. The resonant frequency
The metamaterial slab is used in WPT applications, mostly (f ) can be calculated from (2), [22]. After that, the inductor
at MHz frequencies [7], [10], [14], [16], [18]. A review of the coil is used to transfer power. As the power is supplied to the
literature found that the frequency range should be around inductor coil in the transmitter coil, a magnetic field is gener-
kHz [5], [19], which is close to the SAE standard. The SAE ated to induce the inductor coil in the receiver coil, which is
specifies power levels and frequencies for wireless power connected in series with a capacitor as a resonant circuit in the
transfer for light-duty plug-in/electric vehicles and alignment power receiver. Finally, the charger converts high-frequency
methodology. The application of metamaterials with WPT at AC power to DC power and charges the battery. The output
kHz frequencies is still relatively minor compared to MHz power (Pout ) is measured at the battery and can be calculated
frequencies. from (3),. The efficiency of wireless charging (η) is shown
The main contributions of this paper are mentioned below: in (4), [22].
1) This paper mainly focuses on effect of the metamaterial √
Pin = 3VIcosθ (1)
slab placement positions to the power transfer efficiency
when misalignment between the coils occurs for the EV 1
f = √ (2)
wireless charging application. 2π LC
2) The wireless charging is according to the requirements Pout = VI (3)
of SAE J2954 for light-duty plug-in/electric vehicles and Pout
alignment methodology [20]. Further, this paper investigates η= x100 (4)
Pin
the magnetic field when the patterns and positions of the
metamaterial slab are different, according to the requirements where V is voltage, I is current, cosθ is power factor, L is the
of ICNIRP [21]. inductance of the coil, and C is the capacitance.
In this paper, a total of six main sections are organized.
Section two explores the wireless charging application for
EVs. Designing metamaterial slabs for EV wireless charging
in section three. Section four gives the experimental setup.
Result and discussion in section five. The last section is the
conclusion.

II. WIRELESS CHARGING APPLICATION FOR ELECTRIC

VEHICLES
The SAE no. J2954 is the standard for wireless power trans-
fer for light-duty plug-in/electric vehicles and alignment
methodology. Power classes are classified into 5 classes. The
power classes of wireless power transfer are defined by the
maximum input volt-amps drawn from the grid connection.
The range of input Volt-Amps in power classes WPT 1 is
0 kVA to 3.7 kVA. The SAE no. J2954 frequency range of FIGURE 1. Wireless charging system for EV.
79 kHz to 90 kHz shall be used for wireless power transfer.
The power classes and frequency range will be determined for Most induction coils are made in a spiral, which can be
design. The frequency is controlled by the ground assembly
made into a circle or a square shape [27]. The number and size
(GA). The frequencies of 85 kHz are commonly used [22], of the induction coils depend on the design. The number of the
[23], [24], with a minimum efficiency of 85% or more coils indicates the ability to increase the amount of current,
expected [25], [26]. which may increase the efficiency of power transfer [28],
[29], [30], [31]. However, the efficiency will still decrease
A. WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER with misalignment of the coils. Designing a transmitter coil
Wireless charging for EVs uses the induction principle in that is larger than or equal to the receiver coil will cause
the power transmission and receiver sections. Fig. 1. shows the efficiency to decrease because the magnetic flux leaks
the wireless charging system. The wireless charging system significantly [32], [33], [34]. The designing the transmitter
contains two main sections: the power transmitter section and coil to be smaller than the receiver coil is one method for the
the power receiver section. The power transmitter section uses highest wireless power transfer efficiency. This is because the
an AC power supply from the grid connection. The input area of the receiver coil covers the area of the transmitter coil.

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As a result, magnetic flux leakage that affects the efficiency is full slab with the negative permeability cells. The hybrid
reduced [33], [35]. This paper uses circular coils for both the metamaterial slab has two types of permeability cells. The
transmitter and receiver. The inductance of the circular coil EM is placed the cells only in the edge slab with the negative
can be calculated from (5), [36]. The diameter of the coil can permeability cells.
be approximated by (6),. The cross-section of the circular coil The metamaterials have been applied to wireless power
is shown in Fig. 2. transfer to increase the efficiency of wireless power trans-
fer systems. The metamaterials can increase the distance
(0.0196N (di + (w + s)N ))2 of the wireless power transfer [2], [3], [4], [5], [13]. The
L= (5)
0.1574(di + (w + s)N ) + 0.4323(w + s)N insertion of metamaterials between transmitter and receiver
D = di + 2s(N − 1) + 2wN (6) coils is exploited to improve efficiency. Also, the metama-
terials cause the magnetic fields to have a better direction
where N is number of turns of the coil, di is internal width of toward the receiver coil even though the coils are misaligned.
the coil, w is conductor width of the coil, and s is conductor As a result, the efficiency of the wireless power transfer
spacing of the coil.

FIGURE 2. Cross-section of the circular coil.

B. METAMATERIAL
The metamaterial is an artificially engineered material with FIGURE 3. Dimension of metamaterial cell.
an effect on refractive characteristics. Electromagnetic waves
are refracted in different directions if the waves strike meta-
materials with different refractive indices. The metamaterial
with negative permeability causes the electromagnetic wave
to be focused which could be enhanced for the power trans-
fer efficiency [6]. The metamaterial with zero permeability
causes the electromagnetic wave to be straight in MHz [15],
[37]. The simple metamaterial slabs are made by using PCBs.
The magnetic permeability of the metamaterial cell can be
calculated from (7), [18].
FIGURE 4. Patterns of metamaterial slab. a) symmetrical metamaterial
πw2 R −1
 
1 slab b) hybrid metamaterial slab c) edge metamaterial slab.
µ = 1 − 2M 1 − 2 +j (7)
sM ω LM CM ωLM
increases. Rong et al. [39] investigate an overview of the
where wM is conductor width of the metamaterial cell, sM
current studies of the wireless power transfer system based
is conductor spacing of the metamaterial cell, R is resis-
on electromagnetic metamaterials and examine the techno-
tance, LM is inductance of the metamaterial cell that can
logical difficulties related to working frequency and design
be calculated from (8), [13], and CM is capacitance of the
miniaturization. A whole new strategy for improved trans-
metamaterial cell that can be calculated from (9), [18].
fer properties and electromagnetic shielding has been made
5
LM = 6.025x10−7 (DM + dM )(NM + 1) 3 possible by the electromagnetic metamaterials employed in
 
DM + dM
 the wireless power transfer system. The metamaterial for
× ln 4 (8) improving mid-range wireless power transmission efficiency
DM − dM when coils are misaligned. Zhang et al. [17] reviews previous
wM
CM = ε0 εr (9) studies on metamaterials and apply applications to wireless
sM power transfer technologies. The results of reviews were
where DM is outer width of the metamaterial cell, dM is found about the metamaterial wireless power transfer tech-
internal width of the metamaterial cell, NM is number of nologies, with emphasis on enhancing efficiency, increasing
turns of metamaterial cell, εr is vacuum permittivity, and ε0 distance, improving misalignment tolerance, and compacting
is dielectric constant of the material [38]. The metamaterial size. Fig. 4. a), shows the metamaterial slab that is arranged
cell as shown in Fig. 3. The metamaterial slab contains several in which metamaterial cells of the same size symmetrically.
metamaterial cells. The arrangement of metamaterial slab can The metamaterial with wireless power transfer at MHz
be arranged into 3 patterns as shown in Fig. 4: SM, hybrid frequencies has been researched as follows. Li et al. [40]
metamaterial slab, and EM [38]. The SM is arranged in the experimental the SM for the wireless power transfer at

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6.78 MHz to a 15 W light bulb. The result was found that the efficiency can be increased up to 21.4% compared to the SM
WOM has the efficiency of 16%. The wireless power transfer at a distance of 20 cm [15]. In 2018, Cho et al. [37] studied
with a single metamaterial slab has the efficiency of 29.3%. the hybrid metamaterial slab at the 6.78 MHz frequency. The
The wireless power transfer with two metamaterial slabs has result was found that at a distance between the transmitter and
the efficiency of 36.7%. Corrêa et al. [11] studied a compact receiver coil of 15 cm, the efficiency increased from 34.5%
WPT system at 1.3 MHz with the metamaterial slab. The to 41.7%. At a distance of 20 cm, the efficiency increased
distance between the transmitter and the receiver coil ranged from 10.7% to 18.6%. The efficiency increased from 3.7%
from 4 cm to 15 cm. The result was found that able to increase to 7.7% at a distance of 25 cm. The efficiency at a distance
the distance further. Dong et al. [18] design the wireless of 30 cm increased from 1.6% to 3.3%. The electromagnetic
power transfer system with the metamaterial slab (WPTWM) field decreased from −19.21 dBm to −26.03 dBm, calcu-
at 4MHz, 5MHz, and 6.5MHz. The result was found to affect lated as 27% at a distance of 10 cm. Wang et al. [12] The
performance in the wireless power transfer system. The trans- two-layer arrangement of 3D metamaterials with wireless
fer coefficient could increase by 6 dB to 11 dB. Hussain et al. power transfer system of 40 W. The efficiency increased from
[13] investigated at 6.78 MHz of the WPTWM. The result 17% to 47%. Ranaweera et al. [41] propose an anisotropic
was found that the efficiency is improved by about 20.5% at metamaterial to enhance the wireless power transfer where
the distance of 30 cm. Li et al. [7] investigated the design misalignment. The distance between the transmitter coil
and optimization of 1 MHz frequency metamaterials. The and the receiver coil is 100 cm. The resonant frequency is
power transfer efficiency of wireless power transfer systems 6.6 MHz. The result was found that the metamaterial is an
depends on the position of a 2D metamaterials slab and effective means to mitigate the decreased efficiency caused
the compensation capacitance of metamaterials. The exper- by misalignment. The metamaterials can be used in com-
iment was found that the maximum efficiency is increased munications and low power is used. Also, the metamaterials
by 144% and 31% respectively compared with that without can be used at high power. In the previous research, the
the metamaterial for the two systems by adopting optimal metamaterial is studied to reduce the electromagnetic field
compensation capacitance. The efficiency of the wireless leakage. Rong et al. [14] analyzed the metamaterial in the
power transfer system will always be greater than that without wireless power transfer system. To validate this method, mu-
the metamaterial if the metamaterial slab with optimized negative-magnetic and mu-near-zero are constructed. The
compensation capacitance is inserted at any position between frequency is changed from 13.4 MHz to 13.9 MHz. The
the transmitter coil and the receiver coil. Split ring resonator result explained that the mu-near-zero metamaterial is used
metamaterials cell is designed in such a way that the copper to cancel out electromagnetic field leakage in wireless power
strands within the cell are separated from each other. Salim transfer systems. the wireless power transfer system with
and Lim [3] apply the split ring resonator metamaterials to the integrated metamaterial can improve the power transfer
wireless power transfer. The result was found that the meta- efficiency by 15.7% and can reduce electromagnetic field
material has improved efficiency with a maximum efficiency leakage by 15.17%. Lu et al. [16] proposed the 13.56 MHz
of 34% and the distance between the power transmitter coil wireless power transfer system integrating with near-field
and the metamaterial is 5 cm. Zheng et al. [10] studied mu-near-zero and mu-negative permeability metamaterials.
the split ring resonator metamaterial slab for multifrequency That method is used to control electromagnetic field leakage
dual-frequency, 6.78 MHz and 13.56 MHz. The result was below a certain level and to improve transfer efficiency. The
found that the metamaterial slab can improve the efficiency at near-field mu-near-zero metamaterials are placed on both
two different frequencies. Lee et al. [9] designed square split sides and the mu-negative permeability are placed in the mid-
ring metamaterials that can be used in a wider range. Also, the dle of the wireless power transfer system. The experimental
split ring resonator metamaterials can improve the efficiency results show that the efficiency of the wireless power transfer
when the frequency changes. The hybrid metamaterial slab system is increased by 12.06% and the magnetic field strength
is show in Fig. 4. b). The hybrid metamaterial slab combines is reduced by 62.09% at the transfer distance of 40 cm.
two types of metamaterial cells. The central area of the hybrid The increasing the transfer power at a low frequency range
metamaterial slab has the zero permeability metamaterial is very important to support commercial applications in the
cells to adjust the direction of the magnetic field straight. The fields of EVs. The higher power and lower frequency applica-
edge area of the hybrid metamaterial slab has the negative tions are not suitable for microwave technologies. The article
permeability metamaterial cells to change the direction of about the metamaterial with wireless power transfer at kHz
the magnetic field opposite. The hybrid metamaterial slab frequencies that the frequency meets the SAE standard was
with 6.32 MHz was designed. The hybrid metamaterial slab collected as follows. Lu et al. [42] proposed the model of
has a maximum 25.4% efficiency enhancement when the dis- 3 × 3 matrix metasurface shield with resonance frequencies
tance between the transmitter and receiver coils is 15 cm [9]. of 65 kHz and 190 kHz. The transmitter and receiver have
Cho et al. [8] designed ultra-thin and small metamaterial a 20 cm gap. The metasurface shield is located above the
structure with 6.78 MHz. The efficiency enhancement with a receiver coil. The gap between the receiver coil and metasur-
maximum of 44% compared to the efficiency without meta- face shield is 10 cm. The results show that the metasurface
material. The hybrid metamaterial slab with 6.78 MHz was shield can reduce the fundamental and harmonic magnetic
designed by the same author. The result was found that the flux density by 7.425 dB and 9.14 dB. The efficiency of the

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wireless power transfer system with the metasurface shield resonance frequency but also helps maintain a high quality
is 87.29%. The distance of the measured point from the factor. This enables strong field manipulations at lower fre-
center of the metasurface shield is 30 cm. The influence of quencies [47]. The author previously simulated the coupling
fundamental frequency is 85 kHz and the harmonic frequency coefficient using ANSYS Maxwell 3D. The wireless power
is 255 kHz leakage magnetic flux density on the human body. transfer system was designed following the SAE standards.
Simonazzi et al. [43] investigates the use of a metamaterial The gap between the transmitter and receiver coils is 0.15 m.
slab for magnetic field shielding in a low-frequency inductive The simulation was divided into two main cases: wireless
power transfer system at a resonance frequency of 85 kHz. power transfer without the metamaterial slab and wireless
The comparison between three different configurations. A 3× power transfer with the metamaterial slab. The results showed
3, 5 × 5, and 7 × 7 array made of wound spiral coils with that the wireless power transfer with the metamaterial slab
series-connected capacitors have been developed. The result provides a greater coupling coefficient than that without the
was found that the maximum values of the average shield- metamaterial slab [38].
ing efficiency are almost 20 dB at a resonance frequency One purpose of the SM is to influence the magnetic field
lower than the working one of the inductive power trans- that changes the direction of the wave [6]. The effect on the
fer systems. Suakaew [44] design the transmitter with zero magnetic field from the EM is similar to the SM that has
permeability magnetic metamaterial to overcome the current one permeability value. The EM is shown in Fig. 4. c). Thus,
magnetic metamaterial limitations for more space utilization. to reduce material waste and cost, this paper investigates the
The magnetic metamaterial is compared with the inductive EM further.
wireless power transfer for dynamically operating. The robot
moves dynamically along the transmission track having the C. ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS LEVEL
transmitter with magnetic metamaterial underneath the demo The reference values of EMF level on human exposure
road. The transmitter coil to receiver coil distance is assessed for occupational and general public exposure to time-
as 8 cm, 11 cm, and 16 cm at an operating frequency of varying electric and magnetic fields in unperturbed values
20 kHz. The power transfer efficiency shows an inductive are defined, as shown in Fig. 5., according to the Interna-
and the transmitter with magnetic metamaterial of 85%/87%, tional Commission for Non-Ionization Radiation Protection
65%/70%, and 45%/65% for the transmitter coil to receiver (ICNIRP). The main objective of ICNIRP Guidelines is to
coil distance of 8 cm, 11 cm, and 16 cm, respectively. The establish guidelines for limiting exposure to electric and mag-
power transfer efficiency of the transmitter with magnetic netic fields (EMF) that will provide protection against all
metamaterial is 64% higher than an inductive WPT at a established adverse health effects. In the frequency range of
distance of 16 cm. However, the operating frequency range 3 kHz to 10 MHz, the reference levels for magnetic fields
does not meet SAE J2954 standards. He et al. [45] presents according to the ICNIRP guidelines are 0.0001 T for occupa-
a dual-band coil array (DB-CA) with novel high-order cir- tional exposure and 0.000027 T for general public exposure,
cuit (HOC) compensation of 1 kW WPT system operating respectively [21].
at 85 kHz. The result satisfying the safety restrictions to
multiple frequency electromagnetic field. The leakage elec-
tromagnetic fields were reduced by 3.88 dB at 85 kHz and
1.84 dB at 255 kHz. Therefore, the researchers believe that
the proposal of dual-band coil array can enable efficient
design of shielding configurations of the WPT system in EV
applications. However, He et al. [45] do not study the use
of metamaterials to tolerate misalignment. Wang et al. [19]
analysis and design of the frequency in kHz for metamaterial
that is used to WPT for drones. The result was found that
the resonant frequency of the exemplified metamaterial slab
can be reduced from 10.282 MHz down to 821.486 kHz.
However, Adepoju et al. [5] and Wang et al. [19] have sug-
gested future studies could be reduced the frequency range FIGURE 5. Reference levels for exposure to time varying magnetic
to around 100 kHz or even 85 kHz that is according to the fields [21].
SAE standards. In addition, optimizing the position of the
metamaterial slab is recommended [19], [46]. Rong et al. [39] III. DESIGNING METAMATERIAL SLABS FOR ELECTRIC
advise investigating high power electromagnetic metamate- VEHICLE WIRELESS CHARGING
rials at a low frequency in future studies. The WPT system The WPTWM is shown in Fig. 6., divided into 3 sections:
contains two vertically aligned coils. The one-dimensional the transmitter section, the metamaterial slab, and the receiver
stacking metamaterial bulks are placed at the center of the section. This paper presents a stationary wireless power trans-
coils. The operational frequency of the metamaterials reaches fer system according to the power classes WPT 1 of the SAE
as low as several hundreds of kHz. The result was found no. J2954. The transmitter section consists of source from a
that compact stacking metamaterials not only has a lower grid connection, a rectifier circuit, an inverter circuit, and a

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resonance circuit power transmitter. The metamaterial slab TABLE 1. Parameters of coils.
is changed into 2 patterns. The receiver section consists of
a resonance circuit power receiver, charger, and the battery
rated at 380 V 75 Ah for small EVs.
The wireless charging system is installed to work with
conversion EVs with a battery rating of 380 V, 75 Ah. The
EV width is 1.72 m, and the length is 3.84 m. The distance
between the left and right wheels is 1.24 m. Therefore, the
diameter of the receiver coil should not exceed the width
of the EV suspension. The inductors are made from copper
litz wire with a diameter of 3 mm. The litz wire can with-
stand a current of 21.6 A. The inductance of the coil can be
calculated from (5),. The inductance of the coil affects the
size of the coil that contributes to the overall performance of
the wireless charging system. The inductance of the coil is
optimized to minimize the magnetic flux losses and achieve TABLE 2. Parameters of metamaterial cell.
efficient power transfer. The diameter of the coil can be
approximated by (6),. This diameter is selected to maintain
compatibility with the EV suspension whereas providing
adequate surface area for effective power reception. The
transmitter coil has an internal diameter of 0.10 m, 73 turns,
and an outer diameter of 0.80 m. The receiver coil has an
internal diameter of 0.25 m, 60 turns, and an outer diameter
of 0.82 m.

A. TRANSMITTER SECTION C. RECEIVER SECTION

The wireless power transfer relies on the principle of induc- The resonance circuit power receiver has a capacitor that
tion between the transmitter coil and the receiver coil. The has a capacitance of 2 nF. The receiver coil is a circle with
transmitter section is responsible for generating and trans- a diameter of 0.81 m. The diameter of the receiver coil is
ferring power to the receiver section. The AC source from not equal to the transmitter coil. However, the inductance of
a grid connection is 3-phase 380 V 50 Hz. Then, the AC the receiver coil is equal to 1900 µH. The summary of the
source is converted to DC by the rectifier circuit. After, the parameters of the coils is shown in Table 1. The AC power
DC is converted to AC with high frequencies so that power that is transferred from the transmitter section is converted to
can be transferred. The resonance circuit power transmitter DC by the charger.
consists of the transmitter coil connected in series with a
capacitor. According to the SAE No. J2954, the frequency IV. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
of wireless power transfer for small EVs is in the range of The experiment was set up into two main parts: wireless
79 kHz to 90 kHz. The resonance circuit power transmitter charging without a metamaterial slab, and with a metama-
has a capacitor that has a capacitance of 2 nF. The transmitter terial slab. Fig. 8. shows the experimental setup. The part of
coil is a circle with a diameter of 0.72 m that can be calculated the WOM was set up to test misalignment in the horizontal of
from (6),. From Equation (5), the inductance of the transmit- the coil, that is the x-axis and y-axis of the coil. The distance
ter coil can be calculated to be equal to 1900 µH. Table 1 between the transmitter and receiver coils was 0.15 m. The
gives a summary of the parameters of the coils. The resonance input of the power transmitter section is connected to a grid.
frequency can be calculated to be 81.64 kHz. The output of the power transmitter section generates a reso-
nant frequency of 81.64 kHz and connects to the transmitter
coil. The resonant frequency is shown in Fig. 9, is measured
B. METAMATERIAL SLAB by the oscilloscope, which is near the calculated resonant
This paper investigates the two patterns of metamaterial. The frequency. In the part of the WPTWM, the experiment was
two patterns are the SM and the EM. The parameters of the designed to test two patterns of the metamaterial slab: the
metamaterial are shown in Table 2. Equation (7), gives the SM and the EM. For each pattern, the experiment varied the
permeability of the metamaterial cell -2.16. The SM uses placement position of the metamaterial slab in four cases:
16 metamaterial cells. The metamaterial cells are arranged over the transmitter coil (xT), 0.05 m above the transmitter
4×4 cells and the spacing between each cell of 0.01 m. There- coil (xTF), 0.10 m above the transmitter coil (xTT), and over
fore, the SM has a dimension of 0.95 × 0.95 m, as shown in the receiver coil (xR). The symbol ‘‘x’’ represents the pattern
Fig. 7. a). The EM same as the SM that 4 central metamaterial of the metamaterial slab. The distance between the coils and
cells have removed. The EM is shown in Fig. 7. b). the frequency was set up similarly to the part of the WOM.

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FIGURE 6. Wireless power transfer system with the metamaterial slab.

FIGURE 7. Experiment metamaterial slab. a) symmetrical metamaterial

slab b) edge metamaterial slab. FIGURE 8. Experimental setup.

The input of the power receiver section is connected to the

receiver coil. The output of the power receiver section is
connected to the battery of the EV. The wireless charging was
tested with a maximum misalignment between the coils of
0.35 m from the center of the coil. The power was measured
at the AC source and the battery to calculate the efficiency.
A Power Analyzer, brand HIOKI, model PW8001-13, was
used to measure the power. The magnetic field was measured FIGURE 9. Signal of resonant frequency.
at the center over the receiver coil using a magnetic field
sensor, brand Vernier Go Direct, model GDX-3MG.
WOM is shown in Fig. 10 c) and Fig. 10 d), respectively. The
V. RESULT AND DISCUSSION efficiency can be calculated from (4). The efficiency of the
This section shows the results and discussion. The results are WOM is shown in Fig. 11. The apparent efficiency and real
classified into two main parts. Part A presents the results of efficiency are shown in Fig. 11 a) and Fig. 11 b), respectively.
wireless charging without a metamaterial slab. The wireless Fig. 10 shows the power of the WOM that is measured
charging without a metamaterial slab can be compared to from the Power Analyzer. The experimental was found that
the general wireless charging used for light-duty EVs. The the alignment position, the input apparent power was a max-
wireless charging with a metamaterial slab is shown in Part imum of 3392 VA and 3398 VA for the x-axis and y-axis,
B. The experiment is set up according to the previous section. respectively. The input real power was a maximum of 3292 W
and 3299 W for the x-axis and y-axis, respectively. The output
A. WIRELESS CHARGING WITHOUT METAMATERIAL SLAB apparent power was a maximum of 2496 VA and 2494 VA
The wireless power transfer system is set up for experimental for the x-axis and y-axis, respectively. The effective output
misalignment in the horizontal plane of the coil, specifically power is a maximum of 2495 W and 2493 W for the x-axis
along the x-axis and y-axis, to verify the symmetry of the coil. and y-axis, respectively. The input apparent power is greater
The power is measured at the AC source and the battery than the input real power because the wireless power trans-
(See Fig. 6). The input apparent power and input real power of fer system has a power factor of 0.97. The output apparent
the WOM is shown in Fig. 10 a) and Fig. 10 b), respectively. power is the same as the output real power because the
The output apparent power and output real power of the wireless power transfer system has a power factor of 0.99.

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The misalignment position of 0.05 m, the input apparent

power is 3276 VA and 3166 VA for the x-axis and y-axis,
respectively. The input real power is 3183 W and 3063 W
for the x-axis and y-axis, respectively. The output apparent
power is 2386 VA and 2302 VA for the x-axis and y-axis,
respectively. The output real power is 2386 W and 2301 W
for the x-axis and y-axis, respectively. The misalignment of
0.05 m is a short length compared to the diameter of the coil.
Therefore, the wireless power transfer system still has a high
power. The misalignment position that more than 0.25 m has
the lowest power. The results of the experiment show that
the power in the x-axis and y-axis are similar. Therefore, the
misalignment in the axis hardly affects on power. The power
will be highest in the position where the transmitter coil meets
the receiver coil. The power tends to decrease when there
is more misalignment between the coils. The misalignment
was greater than 0.25 m, the wireless power transfer system
produced the lowest power, which showed that the wireless
power transfer system could hardly transfer power.
The efficiency of the WOM is shown in Fig. 11. The
experimental was found that the alignment position, the
apparent efficiency was the highest at 73.58% and 73.41%
for the x-axis and y-axis, respectively. The real efficiency
was the highest at 75.78% and 75.59% for the x-axis and
y-axis, respectively. The misalignment position of 0.05 m, the
apparent efficiency was 72.84% and 72.71% for the x-axis
and y-axis, respectively. The real efficiency was 74.94% and
75.12% for the x-axis and y-axis, respectively. The misalign-
ment position that more than 0.25 m has the lowest efficiency.
The apparent efficiency was a minimum of 7.79% and 7.70%
for the x-axis and y-axis, respectively. The real efficiency
was lowest at 3.80% and 4.51% for the x-axis and y-axis,
respectively. The results of the experiment show that the
efficiency of the wireless power transfer system on the x-axis
and y-axis are similar because the coils are symmetrical on
the axis. The apparent efficiency was lower than the real
efficiency because the system has the power factor of about 1.
The efficiency is highest in the position where the transmitter
coil meets the receiver coil. The efficiency tends to decrease
when the coil is more misalignment, which is in accordance
with the power. The misalignment was greater than 0.25 m,
the wireless power transfer system gave the lowest efficiency,
indicating that the wireless power transfer system was hardly
able to transfer power.

B. WIRELESS CHARGING WITH METAMATERIAL SLAB

The WPTWM is set up as Fig. 8. The power is measured
as Fig. 6. The results of wireless power transfer with the FIGURE 10. Power of wireless charging without a metamaterial slab. a)
symmetrical metamaterial slab (WPTWSM) are shown in input apparent power b) input real power c) output apparent power d)
output real power.
Fig. 12. The input power and output power of the WPTWSM
are shown in Fig. 12 a) and Fig. 12 b). The efficiency can
be calculated from (2). The efficiency of the WPTWSM is
shown in Fig. 12 c). The results of the edge metamaterial The power and efficiency of the WPTWSM is shown
slab (WPTWEM) are shown in Fig. 13. The input power, in Fig. 12. The output power signal mirrors the pattern of
output power, and efficiency of the WPTWEM are shown in the input power, albeit with different magnitudes. The ini-
Fig. 13 a), Fig. 13 b), and Fig. 13 c), respectively. tial experimental setup is positioned at 0 meters with the

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P. Jeebklum, C. Sumpavakup: Metamaterial Slabs for EV Wireless Charging Application

FIGURE 11. Efficiency of wireless charging without a metamaterial slab.

a) apparent efficiency b) real efficiency.

coils aligned, and the power is defined to follow SAE stan-

dards (WPT 1). The SM is placed over the transmitter coil
(SMT), with the maximum input power reaching approxi-
mately 3369 W when there is no misalignment. This power is
higher than in other cases. However, the power remains close
to the part WOM. For misalignments less than 0.05 m, placing
the SM over the receiver coil (SMR) can maintain power
levels close to the aligned position. As the misalignment
increases, the power gradually decreases. As the misalign-
FIGURE 12. Results of wireless power transfer with symmetrical
ment exceeds 0.25 m, the output power is significantly low, metamaterial slab. a) input power b) output power c) efficiency.
indicating that the wireless power transfer system can hardly
transfer power. In the case of SMT, the highest efficiency is
71.90% at the alignment. The SM at a placement of 0.05 m
above the transmitter coil (SMTF), the maximum efficiency is the SMR significantly improves efficiency in misaligned con-
75.84% at a misalignment of 0.05 m. The SM is placed 0.10 m ditions compared to other placements.
above the transmitter coil (SMTT), the maximum efficiency Fig. 13. shown the power and efficiency of the WPTWEM
is 75.25% at a misalignment of 0.05 m. The SMR case results that the maximum input power is approximately 3276 W
in a maximum efficiency of 75.71% at a misalignment of when the EM is placed over the transmitter coil (EMT) in
0.10 m. In all cases involving the SM, the positions with a non-misaligned position. This power value is higher than in
misalignment exhibit the highest efficiency, indicating an other cases but close to the part WOM. Misalignment beyond
extended range of effective power transfer. The efficiency of 0.05 m significantly reduces the power. The EMR provides
the WPTWSM is relatively constant and similar for misalign- more power than other cases with the same misalignment.
ments less than 0.10 m. The misalignment is approximately The highest efficiency of 74.54% is achieved with the EMT at
12%, which is considered small compared to the coil diam- a 0.05 m misalignment. The EM is placed over the transmitter
eter. The experiment demonstrated that for misalignments coil at 0.05 m (EMTF), the highest efficiency is 75.38%
ranging from 0.10 m to 0.20 m, the SMR enhances efficiency at 0.05 m misalignment. At 0.10 m over the transmitter
by up to 6.15% compared to the SMTT, which is the higher coil (EMTT), the highest efficiency is 75.30% at 0.05 m
efficiency case than the other cases. Therefore, positioning misalignment. The EMR results in a maximum efficiency

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of 75.87% at a 0.10 m misalignment. The use of the EM TABLE 3. Summary of efficiency.

generally results in higher efficiency at misaligned positions,
indicating an extended range of high efficiency. The EMR
provides a broader range of high efficiency than in other
cases. The experiments show that for misalignment between
0.10 m to 0.20 m, the EMR increases efficiency by up to
8.71% compared to the EMT, which is more efficient than
the other two cases. Table 3 gives a summary of the efficiency.
The efficiency of the WOM is the real efficiency.

efficiency of the metamaterial slab placed over the receiver

coil, when misaligned, is higher than in other cases.

FIGURE 14. Efficiency comparison of WOM, SMR and EMR.

The efficiency comparison is shown in Fig. 14. In the

non-misaligned position, the efficiency values of all three
experiments are approximately equal, around 75%. In the
experiment WOM, the efficiency decreases with greater
misalignment. In the experiment WPTWM, the efficiency
remains almost constant with a misalignment of less than
0.10 m. For misalignments between 0.10 m to 0.20 m, the
EM shows higher efficiency than the other two experiments.
At a 0.20 m misalignment, the EM provides 8.00% and 2.20%
higher efficiency than the WOM and the SM, respectively.
The experiments found that using the metamaterial slab
improves the efficiency of the wireless power transfer system
when there is a misalignment between the transmitter and
receiver coils. The EM provides higher efficiency than the
FIGURE 13. Results of wireless power transfer with edge metamaterial SM and can also reduce the production costs of metamaterial
slab. a) input power b) output power c) efficiency. cells. Table 4 gives the comparison of the related works and
proposed system.
The misalignment between the coils results in a decrease in From Table 4, the comparison with other papers shows
the efficiency. The misalignment between the coils is less than that the input power of this work has the highest value. The
0.05 m, the system can still achieve high efficiency. The meta- frequency of this work, [43] and [45] are within the standard
material slab placement positions contribute to an increase in range, which the frequency in this work being chosen to be
efficiency when misalignment between the coils occurs. The close to the minimum frequency. In other papers, the position
efficiency of the WOM and WPTWM is compared in Fig. 14. of the metamaterial slab remains unchanged. However, in this
The SMR and EMR were used for comparison, since the work, the position of the metamaterial slab is altered to study

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TABLE 4. Comparison of the related works and proposed system.

the most efficient placement. Although the efficiency of this SM acts like the core of the transformer because the SM
work is lower than that of [45], which is also used for EV consists of the metamaterial cells that occupy the entire space
applications, the air gap distance between the coils is greater. of the slab. Therefore, placing the metamaterial slab in the
The magnetic field was measured at the center over the middle between the transmitter and receiver coils reduces the
receiver coil with a magnetic field sensor. The magnetic field magnetic field transferred to the receiver coil. However, the
of the SM compared to the WOM is shown in Fig. 15. The magnetic field measurements with the SMR indicate mag-
magnetic field of the EM compared to WOM is shown in netic field leakage, which affects the efficiency. Therefore,
Fig. 16. placing the metamaterial slab slightly over the transmitter
coil may increase the magnetic field, which means higher
leakage and results in lower efficiency. The case of the SMR
may indicate that the SM may attenuate the magnetic field
leaking over the receiver coil. This results in preventing the
magnetic field from leaving the area of the metamaterial
slab similar to the transformer core. From the experimental
result may be concluded that the magnetic field values of
the SM are inversely related to the efficiency. According to
the ICNIRP guidelines, the system frequency range is 3 kHz
to 10 MHz. Reference levels for occupational and general
public exposure are 0.1 mT and 0.027 mT, respectively. The
FIGURE 15. Magnetic field of symmetrical metamaterial slab. magnetic field of the SMTF is greater than the general public
The magnetic field of the SM is shown in Fig. 15. The exposure level. However, the magnetic field is lower than the
result was found that the magnetic field of the WOM had an occupational exposure level. The measurement location may
average value of 0.0216 mT, which showed almost no change affect the magnetic field, which is measured in experiments
when the misalignment occurred. The average magnetic field close to the receiver coil.
value in the case of placing the SMT was 0.0243 mT. In the
case of the SMTF, the average magnetic field value was
0.0270 mT, which was the highest value and exceeded general
public exposure. However, the magnetic fields are still much
less than occupational exposure. The increase in the average
magnetic field value demonstrates the effect of the meta-
material slab placement position on enhancing the magnetic
field intensity. In the case of placing the SMTT resulted in
an average magnetic field value of 0.0199 mT. That mag-
netic field value was slightly lower than the WOM. The
average magnetic field value for the SMR was −0.0230 mT.
Negative values indicate that the magnetic field direction FIGURE 16. Magnetic field of edge metamaterial slab.
was opposite to the measurement. All measurements were
taken with the same orientation, pointing upwards on the The magnetic field of the EM is shown in Fig. 16. The
receiver coil. The principle of wireless power transfer is average magnetic field value in the case of the EMT was
similar to that of a transformer. The wireless power transfer 0.0230 mT. In the case of placing the EMTF, the average
consists of the transmitter coil and the receiver coil. These magnetic field value was 0.0174 mT, which was the low-
can be compared to the primary and secondary windings est value. In the case of placing the EMTT resulted in an
of a transformer, respectively. Whereas the magnetic field average magnetic field value of 0.0192 mT. In the case of
in a transformer is confined within the core, the magnetic the EMR, the average value was 0.0240 mT, which was the
field in wireless power transfer is distributed in the air. The highest value. According to the principle of wireless power

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 P. Jeebklum, C. Sumpavakup: Metamaterial Slabs for EV Wireless Charging Application

transfer, the EM is similar to the coils. That can induce that proper placement of metamaterial slabs can significantly
an increase in the magnetic field because the EM consists impact the efficiency and safety of wireless power transfer
of the metamaterial cells that are placed only at the edges systems.
and leave free space in the middle. The magnetic field of From the experiment, the metamaterial slab is important
wireless power transfer continues to be distributed in the for increasing the efficiency and shielding the magnetic
air. Therefore, placing the EMT or EMR coil may increase fields. The simple metamaterial slabs are made by using
the magnetic field at the receiver coil and result in higher PCBs which are lightweight and cheap. However, other mate-
efficiency. However, in the case of placing the EM away rials with better performance should be further studied. The
from the transmitter coil, the magnetic field transferred to the misalignment between the coils affects to the efficiency.
receiver coil is reduced because the magnetic field is absorbed Therefore, the misalignment tolerant methods should be fur-
by the EM. The EMR magnetic field measurement indicates ther investigated such as compensation topology, machine
differences in the magnetic field that may have an effect on learning, phase difference algorithms, and an automatic align-
efficiency. The magnetic field of the EM varies directly with ment coil system. The automatic alignment coil system is
the efficiency. The magnetic field of the EM is lower than another option for maintaining maximum efficiency. In future
the general public exposure level, which means the EM can work, the author will propose an automatic alignment coil
shield the magnetic field over the receiver coil. The EM is system, which offers adjustment of the transmitter coil posi-
magnetically safer than the SM. tion. The system will be installed without adding a location
detection system to the EV. Additionally, further studies
VI. CONCLUSION should be conducted on the impact of magnetic fields on the
The metamaterial slabs for EV wireless charging applications environment. The WPT for heavy-duty EVs is challenging.
are based on the SAE standard No. J2954, which is the
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[29] S. Huh, S. Choi, D. Park, H. Kim, Y. Shin, J. Kim, G. Jung, K. A. Hosani, PHARIDA JEEBKLUM received the B.S. degree
and S. Ahn, ‘‘Design to minimize coupling coefficient between transmitter in electrical engineering from the Rajaman-
coils based on deep learning for wireless power transfer with multi- gala University of Technology Lanna, Thailand,
transmitter,’’ in Proc. Wireless Power Week (WPW), Bordeaux, France, in 2019, and the M.S. degree in automotive
Jul. 2022, pp. 443–447. and energy engineering technology from the
[30] S. Afoakwa and Y.-B. Jung, ‘‘Frequency splitting elimination in a multi- King Mongkut’s University of Technology North
coil power transfer system,’’ in Proc. Int. Conf. Mechatronics, Remote Bangkok, Thailand, in 2021, where she is cur-
Sens., Inf. Syst. Ind. Inf. Technol. (ICMRSISIIT), vol. 1, Accra, Ghana, rently pursuing the Ph.D. degree in automotive and
Dec. 2019, pp. 1–6.
energy engineering technology with the College
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Proc. IWS, Chengdu, China, 2018, pp. 1–3. include wireless power transfer and electric vehicles.
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wireless charging technology based on multi-parallel primary coils,’’ in
Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Electron. Commun. Eng. (ICECE), Xi’an, China, CHAIYUT SUMPAVAKUP received the B.E.,
Dec. 2018, pp. 120–124. M.E., and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineer-
[33] X. Zhang, Z. Yuan, Q. Yang, Y. Li, J. Zhu, and Y. Li, ‘‘Coil design ing from the Suranaree University of Tech-
and efficiency analysis for dynamic wireless charging system for electric nology, Thailand, in 2005, 2008, and 2017,
vehicles,’’ IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 52, no. 7, pp. 1–4, Jul. 2016.
[34] C. Anyapo, N. Teerakawanich, and C. Mitsantisuk, ‘‘Development of
respectively. He is currently an Assistant Profes-
multi-coils full-bridge resonant inverter for dynamic wireless power sor with the Department of Power Engineering
transfer,’’ in Proc. 14th Int. Conf. Electr. Eng./Electron., Comput., Technology, College of Industrial Technology,
Telecommun. Inf. Technol. (ECTI-CON), Phuket, Thailand, Jun. 2017, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North
pp. 588–591. Bangkok, Thailand. His research interests include
[35] S. Zhou, C. Zhu, S. Cui, Z. Wang, S. Zhou, and C. C. Chan, ‘‘Dynamic energy management in electric railway systems,
wireless power transfer system for electric vehicles employing multiplex- electric vehicle, vehicle electrification and application of artificial intelli-
ing LCC modules with individual transmitters,’’ IEEE Access, vol. 6, gence techniques to power system operation, management, and control.
pp. 62514–62527, 2018.

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