Topic 4: Proofs

By the end of the topic learners should be able to:

a) Prove claims using direct proof.

b) Prove claims by contradiction or contrapositive.
c) Prove theorems by induction.
d) Prove by example or counter example.
There are many forms of mathematical proofs. In this chapter we introduce several basic types of
proofs, with special emphasis on a technique called induction that is invaluable to the study of
discrete math.
1 Basic Proof Techniques

In this section we consider the following general task: given a premise,𝑥, how do we show that a
conclusion 𝑦 holds? One way is to give a direct proof. Start with premise, 𝑥 and directly deduce
𝑦 through a series of logical steps.
2. Direct proof
a) Claim 1.1; Let 𝑛 be an integer. If 𝑛 is even, then 𝑛2 is even. If 𝑛 is odd, then 𝑛2 is odd.
i) If 𝑛 is even, then 𝑛 = 2𝑘 for an integer𝑘, and 𝑛2 = (2𝑘)2 = 4𝑘 2 = 2(2𝑘 2 ), which is even.
ii) If 𝑛is odd, then 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1 for an integer𝑘, and 𝑛2 = (2𝑘 + 1)2 = 4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1 =
2(2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘) + 1 which is odd.
3. Indirect proof
A proof by contrapositive
It starts by assuming that the conclusion 𝑦 is false and deduce that the premise𝑥must also be
false through a series of logical steps.
a) Claim; Let 𝑛be an integer. If 𝑛2 is even, then 𝑛 is even.
Suppose that 𝑛2 is even, but 𝑛 is odd. Applying Claim 2.ai, we see that 𝑛2 must be odd. But 𝑛2
cannot be both odd and even!
Or
Let 𝑛 be an arbitrary integer. Suppose that 𝑛 is not even, and thus odd. Then 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1 for
some integer 𝑘. Now 𝑛2 = (2𝑘 + 1)2 = 4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1 = 2(2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘) + 1. Since 2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 is
an integer, we see that 𝑛2 is odd and therefore not even.
Proof by contradiction
A proof by contradiction, on the other hand, assumes both that the premise 𝑥 is true and the
conclusion 𝑦is false, and reach a logical fallacy.
b) Theorem 1.3.√2 is irrational.
Proof by contradiction.
Assume for contradiction that √2 is rational. Then there exists integers 𝑝 and 𝑞 with no common
𝑝
divisors, such that √2 = 𝑞 (i.e., the reduced fraction). Squaring both sides, we have:
𝑝2
2 = 𝑞2 ⇒ 2𝑞 2 = 𝑝2

This means 𝑝2 is even, and by Claim 2.ai 𝑝 is even as well.

Let us replace 𝑝 by 2𝑘. The expression becomes:

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 2𝑞 2 = (2𝑘)2 = 4𝑘 2 ⇒ 𝑞 2 = 2𝑘 2
This time, we conclude that 𝑞 2 is even, and so 𝑞 is even as well. But this leads to a
contradiction, since 𝑝 and 𝑞 now shares a common factor of 2.
c) Prove by contradiction that there are no integers 𝑥 and 𝑦 such that 𝑥 2 = 4𝑦 + 2

Proof:
Suppose there are integers 𝑥 and 𝑦 such that 𝑥 2 = 4𝑦 + 2 = 2(2𝑦 + 1).
Thus 𝑥 2 is even and 𝑥 is even too.
So 𝑥 = 2𝑘 for some integer 𝑘
Then 𝑥 2 = 4𝑘 2 = 2𝑘 2 = (2𝑦 + 1) .
But 2𝑘 2 is even, and 2𝑦 + 1 is odd, so these cannot be equal. Thus, we have a contradiction, so
there must not be any integers 𝑥 and 𝑦 such that 𝑥 2 = 4𝑦 + 2

d) Use contradiction to prove that √6 + √2 < √15

Proof.
Assume for a contradiction that √6 + √2 ≥ √15
2
⇒ (√2 + √6) ≥ 15
⇒ 8 + 2√12 ≥ 15
⇒ 2√12 ≥ 7
⇒ 48 ≥ 49

The last statement is clearly not true, hence we reached a contradiction. Therefore, we prove that
√6 + √2 < √15

e) Theorem 1.4; Let 𝑥 and y be non-negative reals.

Then,
𝑥+𝑦
≥ √𝑥𝑦
2
Proof by contradiction; Assume for contradiction that
𝑥+𝑦
< √𝑥𝑦
2

1
⇒ 4 (𝑥 + 𝑦)2 < 𝑥𝑦 squaring non-negative values
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 < 4𝑥𝑦
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 < 0
⇒ (𝑥 − 𝑦)2 < 0
But this is a contradiction since squares are always non-negative
Note that the proof Theorem 1.4 can be easily turned into a direct proof; the proof of Theorem
1.3, on the other hand, cannot.
4. Proof by Induction
Steps to follow to write an inductive proof:
1. Start by formulating the inductive hypothesis (i.e., what you want to prove). It should be
𝑛(𝑛+1)
parameterized by a natural number. E.g., 𝑃(𝑛): 1 + 2+. . . +𝑛 = 2
2. Show that 𝑃(base) is true for some appropriate base case. Usually, base is 0 or 1

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3. Show that the inductive step is true, i.e., assume 𝑃(𝑛) holds and prove that 𝑃(𝑛 + 1) holds as
well.

𝑛(𝑛+1)
a) For all positive integers𝑛, 𝑃(𝑛): 1 + 2+. . . +𝑛 = 2
Proof: Define out induction hypothesis 𝑃(𝑛) to be true if
1
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑖 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
2

Base case: 𝑃(𝑛) is clearly true by inspection.

Inductive Step: Assume is𝑃(𝑛) true; we wish to show that 𝑃(𝑛 + 1)is true as well:

∑𝑛+1 𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑖 = (∑𝑖=1 𝑖 ) + (𝑛 + 1)
1
= 2 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) + 𝑛 + 1 using 𝑃(𝑛)
1 1
= 2 (𝑛(𝑛 + 1) + 2(𝑛 + 1)) = 2 ((𝑛 + 1) + (𝑛 + 2))

This is exactly𝑃(𝑛 + 1)
b) Prove by induction that 3𝑛 − 1 is a multiple of 2.

For 𝑛 = 1, 31 − 1 = 3 − 1 = 2 which is a multiple of 2

Let us assume that 3𝑛 − 1 is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘, hence 3𝑘 − 1 is true.

We prove that 3𝑘+1 − 1 is also a multiple of 2.

3𝑘+1 − 1 = 3 × 3𝑘 − 1 = (2 × 3𝑘 ) + (3𝑘 − 1)

The first part (2 × 3𝑘 ) is certain to be a multiple of 2 and the second part (3𝑘 − 1) is also true as
our previous assumption.
Hence 3𝑛−1 is a multiple of 2.
𝑛(𝑛+1)(𝑛+2)
c) Prove using mathematical induction that 1.2 + 2.3 + 3.4 … + (𝑛)(𝑛 + 1) = 3
Prove it is true for 1

1(1 + 1)(1 + 2)
(1)(1 + 1) =
3
1(2)(3)
(1)(2) =
3

(2) = (2) hence it is true for 1

Assume that it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘

𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
1.2 + 2.3 + 3.4 … + (𝑘)(𝑘 + 1) =
3

Prove that it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

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 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
1.2 + 2.3 + 3.4 … + (𝑘)(𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) = + (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
3

𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) + 3(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)

=
3

(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3)
=
3
i.e., factorize out the common factors.

(𝑘 + 1)[{(𝑘 + 1) + 1}{(𝑘 + 1) + 2}]

=
3
Hence true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
1 1 1 1 𝑛
d) Prove using mathematical induction that + 2.3 + 3.4 … + (𝑛)(𝑛+1) =
1.2 (𝑛+1)
Prove it is true for 1

1 1
=
(1)(1 + 1) (1 + 1)
1 1
=
2 2
Assume that it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘
1 1 1 1 𝑘
+ 2.3 + 3.4 … + (𝑘)(𝑘+1) =
1.2 (𝑘+1)
Prove that it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

1 1 1 1 1 𝑘 1
+ + …+ + = +
1.2 2.3 3.4 (𝑘)(𝑘 + 1) (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 1 + 1) (𝑘 + 1) (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 1 + 1)
𝑘 1 𝑘(𝑘 + 2) + 1
+ =
(𝑘 + 1) (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 1 + 1) (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1 𝑘 2 + 𝑘 + 𝑘 + 1 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) + 1(𝑘 + 1)
= =
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 1) (𝑘 + 1) (𝑘 + 1)
= = =
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) (𝑘 + 2) (𝑘 + 1 + 1)
Hence true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

e) Show using mathematical induction that 2(4𝑛 ) + 1 is divisible by 3 for 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁

Prove it is true for 1
2(41 ) + 1 = 9 and 9 is divisible by 3.
Assume that it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘

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 Then 2(4𝑘 ) + 1
Prove that it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
2(4𝑘+1 ) + 1 = 2(4𝑘 × 4) + 1 = 2(4𝑘 )(3 + 1) + 1
= 2(4𝑘 )(3) + 2(4𝑘 )1 + 1 = 2(4𝑘 )(3) + 2(4𝑘 ) + 1
Since 2(4𝑘 )(3) is divisible by 3 since it is a multiple of 3 and 2(4𝑘 ) + 1 is divisible by 3
From above then 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 is divisible by 3.
f) For any finite set 𝑆, |𝑃(𝑆) = 2𝑛 |
Proof: Define our induction hypothesis 𝑃(𝑛) to be true if for every finite set 𝑆of cardinality|𝑆| =
𝑛, |𝑃(𝑆)| = 2𝑛
The cardinality of a set is a measure of a set's size, meaning the number of elements in the set.
For instance, the set A ={1,2,4} has a cardinality of 3 for the three elements that are in it. The
cardinality of a set is denoted by vertical bars, like absolute value signs; for instance, for a
set A its cardinality is denoted |A|. When A is finite, |A| is simply the number of elements in A.
When A is infinite, |A| is represented by a cardinal number.

Base case: 𝑃(0) is true since the only finite set of size 0 is the empty set 𝜙 and the power set of
the empty set, 𝑃(𝜙) = {𝜙}, has cardinality 1.
Inductive Step: Assume 𝑃(𝑛) is true; we wish to show that 𝑃(𝑛 + 1)is true as well. Consider a
finite set S of cardinality (𝑛 + 1). Pick an element 𝑒 ∈ 𝑆, and consider 𝑆' = 𝑆 − {𝑒}. By the
induction hypothesis,|𝑃(𝑆')| = 2𝑛 .
Now consider𝑃(𝑆). Observe that a set in 𝑃(𝑆) either contains 𝑒 or not; furthermore, there is a
one-to-one correspondence between the sets containing 𝑒 and the sets not containing 𝑒 (can you
think of the bijection?). We have just partitioned 𝑃(𝑆) into two equal cardinality subsets, one of
which is 𝑃(𝑆𝑜)
Therefore |𝑃(𝑆)| = 2|𝑃(𝑆)| = 2𝑛+1
4. Prove by example or counter example
a) Prove that 𝑛2 + 1 ≥ 2𝑛 when 𝑛 is a positive with 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 4

𝑛 = 1, 12 + 1 ≥ 2 × 1 = 2 ≥ 2

𝑛 = 2, 22 + 1 ≥ 2 × 2 = 5 ≥ 4
𝑛 = 3, 32 + 1 ≥ 2 × 3 = 10 ≥ 6
𝑛 = 4, 42 + 1 ≥ 2 × 4 = 16 ≥ 8

Shown by the 4 cases when

𝑛 = 1,2, 3, & 4
𝑛2 ≥ 2𝑛

b) Disapprove by a counter example that “for all prime numbers 𝑝, 2𝑝2 − 1 is prime.”
For 𝑝 = 7, 2𝑝 − 1 = 2 × 7 + 1 = 15
15 is not a prime number since its factors are also 3 and 5 other than 1and 15
5. Other examples of Proofs
Claim 2.7: The following two properties of graphs are equivalent (recall that these are the
definitions of transitivity on the graph of a relation):
1. For any three nodes 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 such that there is an edge from 𝑥 to 𝑦 and from 𝑦 to 𝑧 , there
exist an edge from 𝑥 to𝑧.

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2. Whenever there is a path from node 𝑥to node𝑦, there is also a direct edge from 𝑥 to𝑦.

Proof:
Clearly property 2 implies property1. We use induction to show that property 1 implies property
2 as well.
Let 𝐺 be a graph on which property 1 holds. Define our induction hypothesis𝑃(𝑛) to be true if
for every path of length 𝑛 in 𝐺 from node 𝑥 to node𝑦, there exists a direct edge from 𝑥 to𝑦.
Base case: 𝑃(1) is simply true (path of length 1 is already a direct edge).
Inductive Step: Assume𝑃(𝑛) is true; we wish to show that𝑃(𝑛 + 1) is true as well. Consider a
path of length 𝑛 + 1 from node 𝑥 to node𝑦, and let z be the first node after 𝑥 on the path. We
now have a path of length n from node 𝑧 to𝑦, and by the induction hypothesis, a direct edge from
z to𝑦. Now that we have a directly edge from𝑥 to𝑧 and from 𝑧 to𝑦, property 1 implies that there
is a direct edge from𝑥 to𝑦.