Module I - Introduction

Introduction

Composite materials have changed the world of materials revealing materials

which are different from common heterogeneous materials. A composite material is a
structural material that consists of two or more combined constituents which are
combined at macroscopic level and are not soluble in each other. It should be understood
that the aforesaid composite material is not the by-product of any chemical reaction
between two or more of its constituents. One of its constituents is called the reinforcing
phase and the other one, in which the reinforcing phase material is embedded, is called
the matrix. The reinforcing phase material may be in the form of fibers, particles, or
flakes (e.g. Glass fibers). The matrix phase materials are generally continuous (e.g.
Epoxy resin). The matrix phase is light but weak. The reinforcing phase is strong and
hard and may not be light in weight.
For example, in concrete reinforced with steel the matrix phase is concrete and
the reinforcing phase is steel. In graphite/epoxy composites the graphite fibers are the
reinforcing phase and the epoxy resin is the matrix phase.
A material shall be considered as a composite material if it satisfies the following
conditions:

1. It is manufactured i.e., excluding naturally available composites.

2. It consists of two or more physically and/or chemically distinct, suitably

arranged or distributed phases with an interface separating them.
3. It has characteristics that are not the replica of any of the components taken
individually.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

The following properties can be improved by forming a composite material:
• Strength (Stress at which a material
fails)
• Stiffness (Resistance of a material to deformation
• Wear & Corrosion resistance
•
• Fatigue life ( long life due to repeated load)
• Thermal conductivity & Acoustical insulation
• Attractiveness and Weight reduction

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE
Composites are classified by the geometry of the reinforcement — particulate, flake, and
fibers or by the type of matrix — polymer, metal, ceramic, and carbon.
 What are the roles of the constituents of composite
material:

(i) Role of Reinforcements: Reinforcements give high strength, stiffness and

other improved mechanical properties to the composites. Also their
contribution to other properties such as the co-efficient of thermal expansion ,
conductivity etc is remarkable.

(ii) Role of Matrices: Even though having inferior properties than that of
reinforcements, its physical presence is must;

• to give shape to the composite part

• to keep the fibers in place

• to transfer stresses to the fibers

• to protect the reinforcement from the environment, such as chemicals &

moisture

• to protect the surface of the fibers from mechanical degradation

• to act as shielding from damage due to handling

I-TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT

PARTICULATE
Particulate composites consist of particles immersed in matrices such as alloys and ceramics.
They are usually isotropic because the particles are added randomly. Particulate composites
have advantages such as improved strength, increased operating temperature, oxidation
resistance, etc. Typical examples include use of aluminium particles in rubber; silicon carbide
particles in aluminumand gravel, sand, and cement to make concrete.

FLAKE
Flake composites consist of flat reinforcements of matrices. Typical flake materials are glass,
mica, aluminum, and silver. Flake composites provide advantages such as high out-of-plane
flexural modulus, higher strength, and low cost. However, flakes cannot be oriented easily
and only a limited number of materials are available for use.

FIBER
Fiber composites consist of matrices reinforced by short (discontinuous) or long (continuous)
fibers. Fibers are generally anisotropicand examples include carbon and aramids. Examples
of matrices are resins such as epoxy, metals such as aluminum, and ceramics such as
calcium–alumino silicate. The fundamental units of continuous fiber matrix composite are
unidirectional or woven fiber laminas. Laminas are stacked on top of each other at various
 angles to form a multidirectional laminate.

II- TYPES OF MATRICES

MATRIX
The matrix binds the fiber reinforcement, gives the composite component its shape and
determines its surface quality. A composite matrix may be a polymer, ceramic, metal or
carbon. Polymer matrices are the most widely used for composites in commercial and high-
performance aerospace applications. Ceramic and metal matrices are typically used in high
temperature environments, like engines. Carbon as a matrix is used in very high temperature
applications like carbon-carbon brakes and rocket nozzles.
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)
The most common advanced composites are polymer matrix composites (PMCs) consisting
of a polymer (e.g., epoxy, polyester, urethane) reinforced by thin diameter fibers (e.g.,
graphite, aramids, boron). For example, graphite/epoxy composites are approximately five
times stronger than steel on a weight for- weight basis. The reasons why they are the most
common composites include their low cost, high strength, and simple manufacturing
principles.
The main drawbacks of PMCs include low operating temperatures, high coefficients
of thermal and moisture expansion, and low elastic properties in certain directions.
Thermoset polymers are insoluble and infusible after cure because the chains are rigidly
joined with strong covalent bonds; thermoplastics are formable at high temperatures and
pressure because the bonds are weak and of the van der Waals type. Typical examples of
thermoset include epoxies, polyesters, phenolics, and polyamide; typical examples of
thermoplastics include polyethylene, polystyrene, polyether–ether–ketone (PEEK.

Metal Matrix Composites

Metal matrix composites (MMCs), as the name implies, have a metal matrix.
Examples of matrices in such composites include aluminium, magnesium, and titanium.
Typical fibers include carbon and silicon carbide. Metals are mainly reinforced to increase or
decrease their properties to suit the needs of design. For example, the elastic stiffness and
strength of metals can be increased, and large coefficients of thermal expansion and thermal
and electric conductivities of metals can be reduced, by the addition of fibers such as silicon
carbide.
Metal matrix composites are mainly used to provide advantages over monolithic metals such
as steel and aluminum. These advantages include higher specific strength and modulus by
reinforcing low-density metals,such as aluminum and titanium; lower coefficients of thermal
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 expansion byreinforcing with fibers with low coefficients of thermal expansion, such
asgraphite; and maintaining properties such as strength at high temperatures.MMCs have
several advantages over polymer matrix composites. Theseinclude higher elastic properties;
higher service temperature; insensitivity tomoisture; higher electric and thermal
conductivities; and better wear, fatigue,and flaw resistances. The drawbacks of MMCs over
PMCs include higherprocessing temperatures and higher densities.

Ceramic Matrix Composites

Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) have a ceramic matrix such as alumina calcium
alumina silicate reinforced by fibers such as carbon or silicon carbide. Advantages of CMCs
include high strength, hardness, high service temperature limits for ceramics, chemical
inertness, and low density. However, ceramics by themselves have low fracture toughness.
Under tensile or impact loading, they fail catastrophically. Reinforcing ceramics with fibers,
such as silicon carbide or carbon, increases their fracture toughness because it causes gradual
failure of the composite. This combination of a fiber and ceramic matrix makes CMCs more
attractive for applications in which high mechanical properties and extreme service
temperatures are desired.

Carbon–Carbon Composites
Carbon–carbon composites use carbon fibers in a carbon matrix. These composites
are used in very high-temperature environments of up to 6000°F (3315°C), and are 20 times
stronger and 30% lighter than graphite fibers. Carbon is brittle and flaw sensitive like
ceramics. Reinforcement of a carbon matrix allows the composite to fail gradually and also
gives advantages such as ability to withstand high temperatures, low creep at high
temperatures, low density, good tensile and compressive strengths, high fatigue resistance,
high thermal conductivity, and high coefficient of friction. Drawbacks include high cost, low
shear strength, and susceptibility to oxidations at high temperatures.

MICROMECHANICS
Micromechanics is the analysis of composite or heterogeneous materials on the level
of the individual constituents that constitute these materials. The key point of
micromechanics of materials is the localization, which aims at evaluating the local
(stress and strain) fields in the phases for given macroscopic load states, phase properties, and
phase geometries. Such knowledge is especially important in understanding and describing
material damage and failure.Micromechanics allows to predict multi-axial properties that are
often difficult to measure experimentally. A typical example is the out-of-plane properties for
unidirectional composites.
The main advantage of micromechanics is to perform virtual testing in order to reduce
the cost of an experimental campaign. Indeed, an experimental campaign of heterogeneous
material is often expensive and involve a larger number of permutations : constituent material
combinations; fiber and particle volume fractions; fiber and particle arrangements; and
processing histories. Once the constituents properties are known, all these permutations can
be simulated through virtual testing using micromechanics.
The main advantage of micromechanics is to perform virtual testing in order to reduce
the cost of an experimental campaign. Indeed, an experimental campaign of heterogeneous
material is often expensive and involve a larger number of permutations : constituent material
combinations; fiber and particle volume fractions; fiber and particle arrangements; and
processing histories). Once the constituents properties are known, all these permutations can
be simulated through virtual testing using micromechanics.

Micro-mechanics of Lamina
Micromechanics deals with the study of composite material
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 behaviour in terms of the interaction of its constituents. From
the procedures of micromechanics lamina properties can be
predicted. There are two basic approaches of the
micromechanics of composite materials, namely
(i) Mechanics of materials and
(ii) Elasticity

Volume Fractions:
Consider a composite material that consists of fibers and matrix material. The volume of the
composite material is equal to the sum of the volume of the fibers and the volume of the matrix.
Therefore,

-----(1)

---------(2)

----------(3)

such that the sum of volume fractions is

-------(4)

Weight Fractions:
:
 Assuming that the composite material consists of fibers and matrix material, the weight of the
composite material is equal to the sum of the weight of the fibers and the weight of the matrix.
Therefore,

--------(1)

The weight fractions (mass fractions) of the fiber and the matrix are defined as

----------(2)

And

----------(3)

such that the sum of weight fractions is

-------------(4)

Density:

The density of composite material can be defined as the ratio of weight of the composite material to
the volume of the composite material and is expressed as

-------(1)
:
 -----------(2)

-------------(3)

By writing in terms of weight fractions

----------(4)

The density of the composite material in terms of weight fractions can be written as

------------------------(5)

--------------------(6)
:
 ----------------------------(7)

writing in terms of volume fractions, the density of the composite material is written as

-----------(8)

In general,

---------(9)
Void Content:

During the incorporation of fibers into the matrix or during the manufacturing of laminates, air or
other volatiles may be trapped in the material. The trapped air or volatiles exist in the laminate as
micro voids, which may significantly affect some of its mechanical properties. A high void content
(over 5% by volume) usually leads to lower fatigue resistance, greater susceptibility to water
diffusion, and increased variation (scatter) in mechanical properties. The void content in a composite
laminate can be estimated by comparing the theoretical density with its actual density

------------(10)
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