LIE DETECTION AND INTERROGATION TEST PROCEDURE AND DIAGOSTIC

TECHNIQUE
Harold O. Garao, RCrim

Definition of Terms
Admission- is a statement of facts, partial acknowledgement of guilt and usually
given with some justification or exemption in admitting.
Confession- direct acknowledgement of guilt or a statement of guilt.
Deception- is the act of deceiving or misleading usually accompanied by lying.
Diastolic blood pressure- refers to the downward blood pressure representing the
low pressure to the closing of the valves and heart relaxed.
Diacrotic notch- refers to the short horizontal notch in a cardio-tracing located at
the middle of the diastolic stem.
Electro dermal response- it refers to human body phenomenon in which the skin
changes resistance electrically upon the application of certain external stimuli. Also
referred to a Psycho galvanic skin reflex or galvanic skin response.
Emotion- it refers to an emotion response to specific danger that appears to be
beyond a person’s defensive power.
Environment- is the sum total of the dissimulation that a person acquired from the
time he was conceived and his exposure to his surroundings.
Heredity- is the transmission of physical and mental traits of the parents to their
offspring through the genes.
Interview- simple questioning of one who is willing and cooperative.
Interrogation- forceful questioning of one who is reluctant to divulge information.
Lying- is the act of uttering or conveying falsehood or creating a false or misleading
impression with the intention of affecting wrongfully
Normal response- refers to any activity or inhibition of a previous activity of an
organism or part of the organism resulting from stimulation.
Ordeal- refers to the oldest form of crime detection done by subjecting a subject to
an obstacle or trial and sometimes even involving third degree.
Polygraph machine- is a sensitive machine which is likened or compared to an X-
ray, which requires proper interpretation for validation and its accuracy is said to be
directly proportional to the knowledge, skills, education, desire, competency and
integrity of the operator. Hence, the attitude of “let’s put them on the lie box” should
be firmly discouraged.
Specific response- refers to the response given by the subject which considered a
deviation from the normal tracing or norms of the subject.
Stimulus- refers to any force or motion coming from the environment and which
reach an organism has the tendency to arouse.
Systolic Blood pressure- the upward blood pressure as the apex of the curve
caused by the contraction of the heart, valves are open and blood is rushing into the
arteries.

1. Nature of Polygraph
 - Polygraph is an instrument that is used for instrumental interrogation, it does not
and cannot detect lies, and it is incapable of drawing or reporting any conclusion.
It is constructed and designed to assist a qualified examiner in arriving a
diagnostic opinion.
- The term POLYGRAPH literally means, Multiple writings”, and is now often
connected to the term “lie detector”. It is an instrument for recording several
pulsations (as of physiological variables) simultaneously.
- What comes out of polygraph examiner’s mind is a supposition of diagnostic
opinion. The value of polygraph is directly proportionate to the training and skills
of the examiner. An examiner is a fallible human being subject to error. We must
concede that the examiner can be wrong.

2. Legal Status of Polygraph

- In U.S vs. Frye, which was known to be the first case in lie detection, the Supreme
Court in 1923 decided it was not admissible in evidence.
- The United States Court of Appeals, Eleventh Circuit (by vote of 8 Justices and 4
against) has reverse the 1923 ban on polygraph evidence and opened the door to
the administration of the result of the polygraph tests.
- The decision in U.S v.s Picciononna discards Frye as a rule, and sets procedure
and limits on polygraph test admissibility. The decision does not limit the Trail
Court’s discretion to exclude polygraph evidence. The Court outlined two
instances where polygraph evidence can be admitted. First, there must be
stipulation between two parties. Second, when it is used to impeached or
corroborate the testimony of a trial witness, the court further cited that the
administrator of the test must be trained ad have better equipment for accuracy.
- In the Philippines, our Court do not admit polygraph evidence as it will take place of
the judge. Besides, a party cannot cross-examine the polygraph machine.

3. Development of the Polygraph

3.1.Cardiosphygmograph
a. Cesare Lombroso (1895) – Credited to be the first to conceive the idea of
utilizing scientific lie detection.
b. Angelo Mosso (1895) – Utilized a scientific cradle and focus on the
importance of fear as a strong influence to deception.
c. William M. Marston (1915) – He made used of a sphygmomanometer and
focus on the importance of the Systolic Blood Pressure. He also devised the
discontinuous technique in questioning.
d. John A. Larson (1921) – Devised the so-called “Bread lie Detector”, a
scientific instrument capable of simultaneously recording changes in blood
pressure, pulse beat and respiration.
3.2. Galvanograph
a. Sticker- works on the galvanograph component and study the influence of the
sweet glands to skin resistance.
b. Veraguth- formulated the term Psycho-galvanic skin reflex following the study
of sticker.
 c. Richard O. Arthur- The person who developed a polygraph machine with two
galvanic skin resistance.
3.3.Pnemograph
a. Vittorio Bennussi- Focus in the formulation of the Inhalation and Exhalation
ratio.
b. Harold Burtt- Considered respiration as a week basis in determining
deception and incorporate the systolic blood pressure to respiration.

3.4.Kymograph
a. Leonarde Keeler- Developed the kymograph machine and the Keeler’s
Polygraph in the year 1926 as one of the great advancement to the
development of the polygraph machine.

4. Other Considerations
4.1.Thomas Jefferson- first man to use the word “polygraph”
4.2.John E. Reid- developed the Reid Polygraph with an incorporation of muscular
resistance compare to the Keelers and the Stoelting. Also developed the SAT
test and Control Question Test.
4.3.Francis Galton- formulated the Word Association Test.
4.4.Cleve Backster- formulated the Numerical Scoring on the Polygraph chart and
standardizing quantitative polygraph technique.
4.5.Sir James Mackenzie- a heart specialist who published in two British journal the
machine he used in his work and named it “Ink Polygraph”
4.6.Ayur Vida- a Hindu book of science and health around 500 B.C Considered as
an earliest known reference to a method of detecting deception.

5. Scientific Methods of Detecting Deception

5.1.Polygraph test
- Aid and not a substitute or replacement for investigation.
- Not admissible in court to prove the guilt of the subject.
- Cannot be conducted if insufficient amount of information were gathered.
- Minors, mentally-ill or retarded are exempted.
- Cannot be conducted to unfit subject.
- Polygraph machine is not a lie detector machine.
- The accuracy of the machine is directly proportion to the credibility of the
examiner.
- Cannot be used for diagnostic purposes.
5.2.Use of Alcoholic Beverages
- The subject is made to drink hard liquor in such a mount that would him lose
control or inhibitions.
- Information gathered through this method is not admissible in court.
5.3. Narco-Analysis Test/Administration of Truth Serum
- Use of narcotic or anaesthetic drug.
- Drugs injected hypodermically or intravenously
- Dangerous and not admissible.
 5.4. Word Assciation Test
- Group of words, objects or photographs will be presented
- Time pressure
- This was first devised by F. Galton in 1870 and later was modified and
improved by others such as Munsterberg, Orosland, Luria and Jung.
- In the Galton’s technique there are two main criteria for detecting indications
of deception and these are:
(1) Incriminating answer words, and
(2) Delayed answer
5.5.Use of Hypnotism
- Information gathered through this method is also not admissible in court.

6. The Tripod Foundation of Polygraph

6.1.Mechanical leg basis premise
- The polygraph machine is mechanically capable of making a graphic record
containing reliable information regarding physiological changes.
6.2.Physiological leg basis premise
- Among the physiological changes that may be recorded and identified are
those that automatically occur only following the stimulation of specific
nervous component system and from which the stimulation of those specific
nervous system component that can be reliably diagnosed.
6.3.Psychological leg basis premise
- Under this premise, the specific nervous system component whose
stimulation can thus be diagnosed are so stimulated by the involuntary and
emotional processes of the individual who is continuously attempting him to
believe that exposure to deception is quite possible although undesirable.
7. The Different Parts of Polygraph
It is divided into five sections:
7.1.KYMOGRAPH SECION or CHART DRIVING MECHANISM
7.1.1.Function: to move the chart paper at a uniform rate of speed under the
pens
- The chart roll arbor- this holds the chart roll and fits into V-shape along
with the spring to hold it in placed.
- Idler roller- it rolls with the paper to prevent the friction
- Pen table- flat portion where the pen write on the chart
- Sprocket roller- is a roller that fit into perforated edges of the chart paper
- Cutter bar- used to cut the paper at the end of the test
- Off or On power switch
- Synchronous motor- to run the chart paper at the uniform rate speed
regardless of the voltage change.
7.1.2. Chart Paper
There is approximately 100ft of paper to a roll and there is a narrow green
line on the chart paper about 6 ft. from the end of the roll to indicate the
end.
7.2.PEN AND INKING
7.2.1. Function: This is used to record the test permanently
 - The lowest pen is the cardiosphyograph pen
- The center is the galvanograph pen, which is also the longest pen and
- The top two pens are the pnemograph pens
7.3.PNEUMO SECTION
7.3.1. Function: To record the thoracic and abdominal of the subject
The convoluted rubber tubes, which are ten inches long, are place over
chest and abdomen of the subject.
7.4.CARDIO SECTION
7.4.1. Function: To record the galvanic skin response (electro dermal response)
or the degree of the subject’s sweatness.
Two small metal plates called as the “galvanometers”are connected to the
subject’s fingers (normally the middle section of the index and ring of the
left hand). These plates record the filling up of sweat glands (empty
during homeostatic condition) and nearly immediate reabsorption of the
moisture.

8. THE POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

8.1.The typical polygraph examination consists of three distinctive parts:
8.1.1. THE PRE-TEST INTERVIEW
- This includes all considerations bearing on examination up to the time of
actual activation of the examination. Most people do not really realize
that in fact, the most important and often the longest phase in a
polygraph examination is the pre-test interview. The pre-test interview
can absorb 45 minutes in general.
- During the pre-test interview the examiner will:
a. Talk to the subject ad do his best to put him/her at ease
b. Will give the subject a detailed explanation of what is going on to
happen during the actual testing phase and confirm his
understanding.
c. Will define subject’s legal rights.
i. The right to remain silent
ii.The right to have an independent counsel preferably of his own
choice
iii. The right against self-incrimination
d. Briefly explain to the subject what the polygraph is all about and how
it works.
e. Write down all the subject’s details in order to make the identification
sheet attached to the report.
f. Ask certain questions about the subject’s health, if he has eaten over
the last 5-6 hours, if he has a good night sleep and is not tired.
g. Talk about the incident or issue.
h. Discuss all the questions, which will be asked, and make sure the
subject answers them all confidently, and understandingly.
i. Ask the subject one last time if he is prepared to undergo the test and
then invite him to take a seat in the interviewing chair.
 j. The examiner will then connect the different components to the
subject while asking him to sit absolutely still during the whole time of
each chart recording (approximately 4 to 5 minutes)
k. Test execution or questioning phase (actual examination or chart
collection phase)
l. Post-test or diagnostic phase

8.1.2.TEST EXECUTION OR QUESTIONING PHASE (The Actual polygraph

examination)
- All considerations bearing on polygraph examination from the time the
instrument is placed on the subject until the instrument is deactivated.
- Before the pre-test interview, the examiner had a briefing with the
client, which will typically the investigator, but in certain cases, can be
the subject himself.
- During this briefing, the examiner has to make up his mind as to which
type of questionnaire he will be using Depending on the type of test he
will draw up a specific questionnaire, discuss the relevant questions
with the client, on his approval go to the interview room.
THE INTERVIEW ROOM
- The ideal interview room is not too big, not too small (3.5 x 3m) It
should be guaranteed have privacy with, no possibility of interference
(no telephone). The furniture has to be sober but adequate; desk and
chair of examiner, normal chair for the subject, and a chair for the test
itself, this last chair has to be really comfortable, has to have large
enough arm rests in order to give the subject the easiest means to sit
still during the chart recording. Psychological research has indicated
that the most relaxing color for the walls is with a very light hint of
purple mix. This color seems to subdue the subject and leads easier to
confessions.
8.1.3.POST TEST OR DIAGNOSTIC PHASE
- All consideration that bear polygraph examination from the time the
instrument is deactivated falling final polygram until examiner’s
diagnostic opinion is reported to proper authorities and the case is
concluded.

9. QUESTION TYPES
In different types of test questionnaires, three different types of questions will be
used.
9.1.Irrelevant Questions
- Is a question from information about the subject will not normally lie, which
does not pertain to the matter under investigation and to which the examiner
knows or can reasonably infer the answer.
- These are essentially questions, which all give the examiner a truthful
answer.
- It is generally a “Yes” answer.
9.1.1.Uses
 - To reduce subject’s excitement level.
- To assist in returning tracing to or toward proper baseline in preference to
mechanical adjustment.
- To serve as an interpretation to specific reaction by comparison.
- To conserve the subject’s ability to react
9.1.2.Examples of irrelevant questions
Is today _______? Have you ever been married_________?
Is your name_______? Did you ever smoke__________?
Are you sitting on a chair _______? Have you ever been called ________?
Are you a citizen of ___________?
Where you born in ______?
Are you ________years old?
Do you think_______?
Have you take anything to eat
NOTE: The irrelevant question gives the examiner a walls
today________?

10.1.13. Caution in the used irrelevant questions:

a.Some irrelevant questions may under certain circumstances become relevant
to your subject
b. Example-of irrelevant question which may cause subject responses.
a. Smoking- responses against doctor’s, parents. Objection, against situation,
against religion.
b. Married- Separated, bigamy, polygamy, cheating, common-law, pregnancy,
incompatibility, shotgun wedding, desertion, homosexuality, pre-marital
sexual relation.
c. Name- an alias, nickname, dislike, mispronunciation.
d. Age- Sensitivity, uncertainty etc.
c.Question that can develop reflective reaction- about religion, race
d. Question about condition subject to change- about weather.

9.2. Relevant questions

- Is a question formulated from information pertaining to the object of
examination and to determine the subject’s knowledge or complicity and/or
truthfulness or deception regarding the issue in question.
- The relevant questions are the questions of which the examiner wants a result.
These are the questions which the subjects know the truth about and is the
reason for undergoing the test. The question must be phrase to engage the
subject to say “no”. If for example we want to solve a dispute between X and Y,
where X says she gave Y a check and X says she never got it and we will ask X:
“Did you give Y the check we discussed?” He will obviously say, “yes” while we
want “no”.

- The examiner will retract a “no” answer by formulating the question as follows:
“Did you lie when you told me you gave Y the check we discussed?” Now we got
a “no” answer.

- The relevant questions are split up in four categories (e.g. Carnapping)

a. Primary involvement: Did you steal the car?
b. Secondary involvement: Did you help anybody to steal the car?
 c. Guilty Knowledge: Do you know who stole the car?
d. Evidence connecting: Did you get any reward coming from the stealing of the
car? Or Do you know where the car is at present?
- These four different questions are called “the four legs of the crime”. Did you
do it. Did you help, do you know who did it, and did you get anything out of it?

9.2.1. Formulation of relevant questions

a. Inquire from pertinent information’s related to the matter being
investigated.
b. Point if determining whether or not deception is attempted.
c. As a short and precise as possible.
d. Subject’s own language should be used whenever possible.
e. All questions must lead themselves to being answered “yes” or “no.
f. Selection of words:
- It is desirable to substitute word with a softer connotation.
- There is a possibility that subject’s interpretation of words used might
caused him to produce a misleading response.
g. Larceny- take , took, steal, forget to return
h. Homicide- kill, shoot, hurt, take life and the like
i. Rape- molest, attack, assault, finger, screw etc.

9.2.2. Questions to avoid:

a. Double meaning question
b. Did you steal the gun and fired it?
c.Did you steal the money and the jewelleries?
d. Did you rape and kill the victim?

9.2.3. Questions in the form of accusations

a. Did you use the knife when you killed Bert?
b. Were you alone when you broke in to the house?
c.You killed Nida, didn’t you?

9.3. Control questions

- These are questions on which all subjects will be potentially untruthful. They
are used to absorb any anxiety of a truthful subject and draw attention away from
the relevant questions. The control questions are so designed that they will draw
a possible lie from the subject to items broadly similar to the issue on hand.
- The reaction to the control questions will be compared to the relevant
questions to give a result.

9.3.1. Examples:
- Before this year, did you ever steal anything in your life?
- Before this year, did you ever lie to someone who trusted you?
- Do you remember if you ever stole anything from a place where you
work?
- Do you remember seriously lying to any of your colleagues?
 - (The question is typically a “no” question)

10. TYPES OF TESTS

10.1. General Question Test
- Consist of series of relevant and irrelevant questions in a planned order.

10.2. Peak of Tension Test

- Consist of only one relevant and a series or irrelevant questions.
- Resemble, in every general way, the card test, for it consist essentially of
the asking of a series of question in which only one has any bearing upon
the matter under investigation
- Padding questions before the after the relevant questions.

10.3. Card Test

- The subject is presented with seven (7) previously numbered cards face
down.
- He will be instructed to take one, look at it and return it with the rest of
the cards.
- The examiner will shuffle the cards, each card will be shown to him, with
the instruction that he will answer “NO” to all cards, even if the one being
shown to him is the one he has seen earlier.

10.4. Guilt complex test

- Used primarily for overly responsive subjects
- A totally fictitious incident but a similar nature to the matter being
investigated and make him believe it is real
- The purpose is to compare the response with those response made
concerning the actual under investigation

10.5. Silent Answer Test

- Subject in instructed not to give any verbal answer, the subject will only
answer in his mind
10.6. Yes Test
10.7. No Test
10.8. Guilt Complex Test
10.9. Mixed Test
- Consist essentially of an arrangement of the first and third test
questioned.
- Administered response on earlier test or to compare the degree of
reaction between relevant and control questions.

11. QUESTION FORMULATION

11.1. Case Sample: Qualified Theft

Irrelevant question 1. Have you ever been called _______?

2. Do you know that today is _______?
 Relevant 3. Regarding the missing P5000.00 cash inside your
office at the
(Weak Relevant) FEBTC Palanca branch last Oct. 15, 2004, do you
have anything to do with?

Irrelevant question 4. Are you sitting down now?

Relevant (Strong) 5. Were you the one who stole the missing
P5000.00 cash inside your office at FEBTC Palanca
branch last Oct. 15, 2004?

Control (Primary Control) 6. Before reaching the age of_______, have

you ever stolen anything?

Irrelevant question 7. Are you a bank employee?

Guilt Complex Question 8. Were you benefited in any manner with the loss
of P5000.00
(Evidence Control Question) cash inside your office last Oct. 15, 2004?

Relevant 9. Do you know for sure who stole the missing

P5000.00 cash
(Knowledge question) inside your office last Oct. 15, 2004?

Irrelevant 10. Have you ever stolen anything from your past
employment?
(Secondary Control Question)

12. THE FOUR (4) GENERAL TYPES OF TRACING SEGMENTS

12.1.Average tracing segment
A segment that shows no physiological evidence in the emotional level
within the stress area on the polygraph chart or polygrams.

12.2. Reaction tracing segment

A segment within tracing that shows physiological evidence that the
sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system has become active
indicating a physiological change in the subject’s emotional level.

12.3. Relief tracing segment

A segment within tracing that shows physiological evidence that the
parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system has become
active following the stress area on the polygraph chart indicating a
physiological return to the subject’s exhibited average emotional level.

12.4. Distortion tracing segment

 A segment within tracing that departs from the average emotional level but
lacks physiological evidence of either sympathetic or parasympathetic
activation within the stress area on the polygraph chart indicating a lack in
physiological origin.

13. RULES IN INTERPRETTING REACTIONS:

a. If the control question responses (6 & 10) are greater than the responses to the
questions (3, 5, 9) about the principal offense being investigated, the subject is
telling the truth.
b. If the responses on the principal test questions (3, 5, & 9) are greater than the
control questions (6 & 0), subject is telling a lie.
c. Where there is no appreciable difference between the control questions (6 &
10) and the principal offense question responses (3, 5 and 9 ) there is specific
response in (8), subject is telling the truth.
d. Where the is no specific response on principal offense questions (3,5 & 9) and
no response on (8) subject is lying.

14. CHART MARKINGS, SYMBOLS AND SIGNS

Beginning -------------------------X Laugh------------------------------L

Yes-------------------------------- (+) Paper Jump-----------------------PJ
No--------------------------------- (-) Ending------------------------------XX
Coughing--------------------------C
Movement-------------------------M
Clear throat-----------------------CT
Sigh---------------------------------S
Sniff--------------------------------SN
Burp--------------------------------B
Yawn-------------------------------Y
15. THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM AND THE MODERN POLYGRAPH
INSTRUMENT
- Man in his earliest development was endowed with a sophisticated survival
mechanism or an emergency system of nerves that automatically prepares his
body to meet situations that threated his well being
- His health and survival depend on the maintenance of stable fluids and
chemical balance in all vital organs of his body despite the drastic changes in
the environment about him, and this balance was termed as homeostasis
(refers to the action taken by an individual to protect or to restore certain
favourable states of equilibrium).
- In the center of the brain is a gland called Hypothalamus; our internal
regulator.
- All our unconscious activities such as sleep, digestion, pulse, blood volume
and respiration are being controlled by the Autonomic Nervous System,
manipulated by the hypothalamus.
- When our well-being is threatened, either physically or psychologically, one
of our sensors such as hearing, seeing, feeling, or even instinct, will send
 alarm signals to the autonomic nervous system which will activate the
sympathetic department and take action.
- In polygraph test, the receptor is the ear of the subject, which receives the
threatening question or stimulus from the polygraphist.
- The stimulus is transmitted from the ear via sensory neurons into the brain
where the hypothalamus will analyse, evaluates, and resolves that particular
question.
- It makes a decision for the subject as to whether it is threatening or not
threatening situation.
- If the question perceived as threatening, the hypothalamus immediately
activates the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.
- When the sympathetic is activated, it immediately prepares the body for “fight
or flight” by causing the adrenal glands to secrete hormones known as
epinephrine and norepinephrine so that the blood will be distributed to those
areas of the body where it is most needed to meet the emergency, such as
brain and larger group of muscles.
- The norepinephrine causes the arterioles in certain parts of the body to
constrict; thereby preventing blood from entering to those areas where it is
not immediately needed.
- While the sympathetic system organized this whole defense system in next to
no time, the parasympathetic system, functionally antagonistic towards
his partner, follows in order to re-establish the chemical balance of the body.
- Without these two antagonistic partners, the defense system of the body will
go into a high build up and cause damage to the body (e.g. burst artery in the
brain).
- The two items are essential to maintain a perfect homeostasis.

15.1. Other very obvious effects will take place known by all of us:
- The mouth gets dry, due to salivary glands producing much thicker saliva
- The heart pumps faster, thereby increasing blood volume and pulse
- Stimulation f the respiratory muscles leads to breathing changes
- The sweat glands are stimulated and forced to release perspiration
- The iris of the eye dilates, permitting more light into the eye.
- Involuntary muscles contract.

16. COMPARISON OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS EVALUATION TO POLYGRAPH

IN EVALUATING TRUTH OR DECEPTION VOICE STRESS ANALYSIS

16.1. Underlying principles

- In 1964, Charles R. Mc Quiston made a new step in the truth verification
research
- The US army desired to obtain an alternative instrument to the polygraph
with no need for direct connection to the subject’s body, one of the main
disadvantages of polygraph.
 - The instrument was to be a “remote” lie detector with a concept based on
recognition that emotional stress induces measurable change into the
human voice.
- All VSA’s rely on measuring stress-induced changes to the muscle micro
tenor as displayed in involuntary changes in voice.
- These changes can be found in a tremor associated with contraction of
muscles, affecting minute oscillation at a frequency of about ten to twelve
hertz cycles per second.
- The amplitude of this oscillation is a fiftieth or less of that total contraction.
- Although all muscles do exhibit this tremor, the voice stress analyser will
oy take into regard those associated with the human voice.
- Since our voice transmits these tremors at the same time as the
occurrence of stress, the PSE can be used to analyze a narrative
conversation, a serious advantage over the traditional polygraph, where
only carefully timed (25 sec. interval) question, with only strict yes or no
answers, can be used.
- The basic of the PSE comes down to Mc Quistons discovery that, under
stress, these tremors disappear, when a person speaks, air as pushed from
the lungs upward to the vocal cord. As a result, the vocal cords vibrate in
the frequency mentioned above (the speaker’s main leading frequency).
- The air keeps flowing upward to the mouth and goes through the tongue,
teeth and lips, thereby creating the speech flow.
- When a person lies, the amount of blood in the vocal cords drops as a
stress, so, no tremor. In short, the VSA searches for the disappearance of
the normal tremor in a voice due to stress.
- This lack of tremor indicates lie.
16.2.The development of the VSA

- Charles R. Mc Quiston coined the name “Voice Stress Analysis” and

together with two retired friends, Wilson Ford and Allan Bell, he developed
the first prototype of his psychological stress evaluator (PSE)
- In 1970 the three of them founded “Dektor counterintelligence and
Security, Inc. This company brought the first PSE on the market and is still
one of the biggest manufacturers and suppliers of the instrument.
- This instrument, applying voice stress analysis, represented the first major
advance since the introduction of the Kymograph in 1920 by Keeler ( a
device that physically records motion or pressure)
- For over 20 years the PSE was dominant in stress analysis, until the
Verimetrics system, another invention of Mc Quiston, appeared.
- The verimetrics allowed the analytical process to take advantage of the
newly developed personal computers to more conveniently and effectively
produce charts
- Shortly afterwards Charles Humble brought the Computer Voice Stress
Analysis (CVSA) system on the market the major advantage of this system
brought was of “real time” analysis.
 - The interview could now be committed directly to the instrument, without
the need of an intermediate recording on magnetic tape.

16.3. Advantages of VSA over the Polygraph

- The VSA can be used as a remote truth verification tool.
- No direct connection to the subject’s body.
- Possibility to interview the subject over the telephone
- Previously recorded conversation can be analysed later
- Nor mail conversation using full phrases can be used
- The subject can be held ignorant of the fact that he is interviewed that his
answers will be analysed (in this case the recording nor the analysis can be
used against him)

16.4. Disadvantages
- The VSA is a relatively young instrument using a techniques, which has not
been as thoroughly evaluated as the psycho physiological data recorded
by the polygraph.
- The polygraph has been used for many decades and has been a study
object of many universities and agencies all over the world.
- There is no doubt that the future will still bring dramatic improvements and
the faults will be documented.
- The VSA analyses only one single item, namely the tremor in the voice
while the polygraph as its name says, reads multiple items, thoracic and
abdominal breathing, blood pulse, blood volume, galvanic skin response
and movement
- However, the frequency and amplitude modulations in the voice cover a
broad spectrum.

16.5. Reliability / Accuracy

- No truth verification technique can claim to be 100% accurate
- In the past, it was commonly agreed that the polygraph had a higher
reliability in correctly indicating deception or truthfulness
- According to Clifton Coetzee, a well-known polygraphist and voice stress
analyst, states in his work (Truth extraction; 200:74) that a skilled and
well-trained operator will obtain the same results with polygraph as well
as the CVSA
- Several sources indicate reliability of the CVSA a higher that 91.1%
- The effectiveness of a VSA test is based on the total system consisting of
the hardware, the software, and most importantly, the analyst.

16.6. Conclusion
- It is the investigator’s duty to analyse his needs and weigh the advantages
and disadvantages of the two system.
- The VSA is quicker, more versatile, can be easily hidden and can perform
an interview as well as an interrogation
- The polygraph is considered in general more researched and filed-tested.