1

Dept. of Mechatronics Engg.

Module 5 and 6

Principles and Operation of Basic

Transducers and Sensors

See Webster chapter 2

BIOMEDICAL
INSTRUMENTATION,
MEASUREMENT AND DESIGN
ELEC4623
Dr. Mohsin Tiwana
[email protected]
Contents
 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
 TRANSDUCER PARAMETERS
 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS
 Potentiometers
 Strain Gauges
 DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS (LVDT)
 INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
 CAPACITANCE TRANSDUCERS
 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
 BRIDGE CIRCUITS
 D.C. Bridges
 Typical Bridge Configuration
 A.C. Bridges
Contents
 PHOTOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
 photoemissive tube
 photovoltaic cell
 junction cell
 photoconductive cell
 phototransistor
 TEMPERATURE SENSORS
 Resistance based
 Thermoelectric – Thermocouples
 Radiation Thermometry
 Fiber Optic Sensor
 OPTICAL BIOSENSORS
 Pulse oximetry
Transducers
A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy to another.
A sensor is a type of transducer (with an electrical output).
As electrical/computing/biomedical engineers we are mainly interested
in electrical transducers (sensors) for physiological monitoring

e.g. Piezoelectric:
Sensors Actuators
Deformation -> Voltage
Physical Electrical
Input Voltage -> Deformation
parameter

Electrical Physical
Output Output
Sensors VS Transducers

 Sensor
 A sensor is the
complete assembly
required to detect and
communicate a
particular event.

 Transducer
 While a transducer is
the element within that
assembly which
accomplishes only the
detection of the event.
Types Of Sensors

 Active
 send signal into environment and
measure interaction of signal w/
environment
 e.g. radar, sonar

 Passive
 record signals already present in
environment
 e.g. video cameras
Types of Sensor - Example
 Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance (NMR)
 heavy duty magnetic
field line up atoms in a
body
 now expose body to
radio signals
 different nuclei
resonate at different
frequencies which can
be measured leading to
an image
Types of Sensor - Example

EM Spectrum
Detectable Phenomenon
Stimulus Quantity
Acoustic Wave (amplitude, phase, polarization), Spectrum, Wave
Velocity
Biological & Chemical Fluid Concentrations (Gas or Liquid)

Electric Charge, Voltage, Current, Electric Field (amplitude,

phase,
polarization), Conductivity, Permittivity

Magnetic Magnetic Field (amplitude, phase, polarization), Flux,

Permeability

Optical Refractive Index, Reflectivity, Absorption

Thermal Temperature, Flux, Specific Heat, Thermal Conductivity

Mechanical Position, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Strain, Stress,

Pressure, Torque
Choosing a Sensor
 Physics 101

R (1000 Ohms)
Ohm’s Law I
(0.009 Amps)
V=IxR
voltage current resistance

9 = 0.009 x 1000 V
(9 Volts)
 Electrical analogy

Voltage
Current

Res
ista
nce

a larger pipe is a smaller pipe is

less resistance more resistance
so more water so less water
Electrical analogy
Sensor Performance Characteristics

 Transfer Function
 Relationship between physical input signal and electrical output
signal.
 Usually, this relationship is represented as a graph showing the
relationship between the input and output signal as a function of
frequency (frequency response).
 Alternatively the transfer function could be represented by a rational
equation in s or jw (or even z for digital sensors)
 Y is usually the output and X the input.
 For practical sensors, often n = 0,1 or 2 and m = 0.
Y ( s) bm s m  bm1s m1  ...  b1s  b0

X ( s) am s m  am1s m1  ...  a1s  a0
Sensor Performance Characteristics

 Sensitivity
 defined in terms of the relationship between input physical signal
and output electrical signal.
 generally the ratio of a small change in electrical output signal to a
small change in physical input signal.
 Thus it may be expressed as the derivative or slope (dy/dx) of the
transfer function with respect to physical signal.
 Example: A Thermometer would have "high sensitivity" if a small
temperature change resulted in a large voltage change. typical units
: Volts/Kelvin
 Sensor Performance Characteristics
 Span or Dynamic Range
 The range of input physical signals which may be converted to electrical
signals by the sensor.
 Signals outside of this range are expected to cause unacceptably large
inaccuracy.
 This span or dynamic range is usually specified by the sensor supplier
as the range over which other performance characteristics described in
the data sheets are expected to apply.
 Accuracy
 Generally defined as the largest expected error between actual and ideal
output signals.
 Sometimes quoted as a fraction of the full scale output.
 Example: a thermometer might be guaranteed accurate to within 5% of
FSO (Full Scale Output)
 Typical Units : Kelvin (for thermometer)
Sensor Performance Characteristics

 Hysteresis
 Some sensors do not return to the
same output value when the
input stimulus is cycled up or
down.
 states depend on their immediate
history (i.e. memory)
 The width of the expected error
in terms of the measured quantity
is defined as the hysteresis.
 Typical units : Kelvin (for
thermometer) or % of FSO
Hysteresis is the dependence of the output of a system not only on its current input, but also on its history of past inputs. The dependence arises
because the history affects the value of an internal state. To predict its future outputs, either its internal state or its history must be known.[1] If a
given input alternately increases and decreases, a typical mark of hysteresis is that the output forms a loop as in the figure.
Sensor Performance Characteristics

 Nonlinearity (often called linearity):

 The maximum deviation from a linear response over the specified
dynamic range.

 Noise
 All sensors produce some output noise in addition to the output
signal.
 The noise of the sensor limits the performance of the system based on
the sensor.
 Noise is generally distributed across the frequency spectrum.
 Many common noise sources produce a white noise distribution
 spectral noise density is the same at all frequencies.
 Since there is an inverse relationship between the bandwidth and
measurement time, it can be said that the noise decreases with the
square root of the measurement time.
 Sensor Performance Characteristics

 Resolution
 The minimum detectable signal fluctuation.
 Bandwidth
 All sensors have finite response times to an instantaneous change in physical
signal -> Lowpass characteristic
 Decay times represent the time after a step change in the input signal for the
sensor output to return to its original value (only with AC coupled sensors) ->
Highpass characteristic
 The reciprocal of these times correspond to the upper and lower cutoff
frequencies, respectively. The bandwidth of a sensor is the frequency range
between these two frequencies.
 Transducer parameters

 The two most significant parameters defining the operation of

a transducer
 the output signal produced in response to a given input (sensitivity)
 Sensitivity (responsivity r) does not distinguish between the gain of
the transducer for a given input, its ability to detect very small signals
or its responsiveness to external disturbances (see transfer function)
output signal in response to input
r
input signal
 the output noise level
 The noise produced by a transducer, which limits its ability to detect a
given signal, governs its detectivity d, defined as
signal to noise ratio at output
d
input signal
sensitivity

output noise
 The smallest detectable signal is defined as that input signal which
produces an output rms SNR of unity at the chosen bandwidth
Importance of Transducer parameters - Example

Very low equivalent input noise (EIN) at 27

dBA SPL (sound pressure level),
 Resistive sensors - Potentiometers

 Potentiometers measure displacement either linear or rotational

 Can excite with AC or DC voltages
 Output is linear (± 0.01% of FSO) provided not electrically loaded
 Frictional and inertial components of such potentiometers should be low
in comparison with activation force to minimise dynamic distortion
 Potentiometric Sensors
23

 Example: A potentiometric displacement sensor is to be used to

measure work piece motion from 0 to 10cm. The resistance changes
linearly over this range from 0 to 1kΩ. Develop signal conditioning to
provide a linear, 0 to 10v output.
 Solution :
 We use potentiometric sensor as a feedback resistor of op-amp,
because
𝑅𝑓
 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑖

 We use –ve input voltages to get rid of the –ve sign at output voltage.
lets assume fixed -5.1v as input voltages
 For Ri, 10v at 1k Ω (10cm)
1000
 10 = − −5.1
𝑅𝑖
 Ri = 510 Ω
 Metal Strain Gauge
24

 Construction: The strain gauge is designed in a way to make it very

long in order to give large enough nominal resistance.
 The gauge sensitivity is often made unidirectional; that is, it responds
to strain in only one direction.
 by folding the material back and forth we achieve a long length to
provide high resistance.
 If a strain is applied transversely to the strain gauge length, the pattern
will tend to unfold rather than stretch, with no change in resistance.
 These gauges are usually mounted on paper backing that is bonded to
the element whose strain is to be measured.
 The nominal values for strain gauges are 60, 120, 240, 350, 500, and
1000Ω.
Strain Gauges
 Strain sensors
26

 Strain sensors are used as a secondary step in sensors to

measure many other process variables, including flow,
pressure, weight , and, acceleration.
 Strain is the result of the application of forces to solid
objects.
 If a force is applied to a solid object and the solid object
deforms, this effect of applied force is referred to as a
stress, and the resulting deformation as a strain.
 The three most common type of stress-stain
relationships are
 Tensile Stress-Strain:
 Compressional Stress-Strain:
 Shear Stress-Strain:
 Strain sensors
27

 Tensile Stress-Strain:
 The tensile stress is produced in a material when a force
is applied to the material to elongate or pull apart that
material.
𝐹
 Tensile stress = : its unit is N/m2.
𝐴
 The strain in this case is defined as the fractional change
in length of the sample.
∆𝑙
 Tensile strain = : it is unit less quantity.
𝑙
 Resistive Sensors - Strain Gauges
Resistance R is related to length l and area of cross-section of the resistor A and
resistivity  of the material as:
l
R
A
 dl d
 dR    A2ldA  l
A A
dR dl dA d 
   
R l A 

Dimensional effect Piezoresistive effect

Poisson’s ratio µ, relates the change in diameter D to the change in length l as
dR dl d 
 1  2  
dD dl
  so
D l R l 
  D2 2 DdD dA 2dD 
 A   dA    
 4 4 A D 
 Metal Strain Guage
29

 Gauge Factor: The relation between strain and resistance

change is an approximation.
 G is a measure of sensitivity.
 G primarily due to dimensional effects for metals,
whilst for semiconductors, the piezoresistive effect
dominates
 A strain gauge specification always indicates the correct
relation through Gauge Factor,
∆𝑅/𝑅
 𝐺𝐹 =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
 For metal gauges, this number is always close to 2.
 For some special alloys and carbon gauges, it may be as large
as 10.
 High GF is desirable because it indicates a larger change in
resistance for a given strain.
Properties of strain gauge materials
Material Composition Gage Factor Temp coefficient of
resistivity ( C-1*10-5)
Constantan Ni45, Cu55 2.1 ±2
(advance)
Isoelastic Ni36, Cr8, (Mn, Si, 3.52 to 3.6 +17
Mo)4 Fe32
Karma Ni74, Cr20, Fe3 Cu3 2.1 +2
Manganin Cu84, Mn12, Ni4 0.3 to 0.47 ±2
Alloy 479 Pt92, W8 3.6 to 4.4 ±24
Nickel Pure -12 to -20 670
Nichrome V Ni80, Cr20 2.1 to 2.63 10
Silicon (p type) 100 to 170 70 to 700
Silicon (n type) -100 to -140 70 to 700
Germanium (p type) 102
Germanium (n type) -150
 Resistive Sensors - Strain Gauges
 Instruments that use strain gages of semiconductor materials often
incorporate temperature compensation.
 Strain gauges may be bonded or un-bonded.
 Bonded - to surrounding material

 Unbonded – free to stretch

 Unbonded strain gauge can be made of 4 sets of strain-sensitive wires

connected to form a Wheatstone bridge
 Resistive Sensors - Strain Gages

 A bonded strain-gauge element, consisting of a metallic wire, etched foil,

vacuum deposited film, or semiconductor bar as shown below, is cemented
to the strained surface.
 Deviation from linearity of these bonded gauges is typically 1% and
compensation for temperature variations is made by using a second
identical strain-gauge, which is not under strain.
 Metal Strain Gauge
33

 Signal Conditioning: Two effects are critical

in the signal conditioning techniques used
for strain gauges.
 First, the resistance measurement circuit
should be carefully design because of small,
fractional change in the gauge resistance.
 Second, it requires compensation for
temperature effects.
 We can use strain gauge in bridge
configuration.
 By adding a dummy gauge we can provide
temperature compensation.
 both the gauges will change the resistance
due to temperature change.
 only the active gauge change resistance due
to strain in the material.
 This is called one-arm bridge.
 Metal Strain Gauge
34

 Another configuration that is often

employed uses active strain gauges
in two arms of the bridge, and thus
called a two-arm bridge.

 In this all four arms are strain

gauges, two are dummy
/temperature compensators only.
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏

 The sensitivity of the bridge will

also doubles.
𝑉𝑆 ∆𝑙
∆𝑉 = − 𝐺𝐹
2 𝑙
 Metal Strain Gauge
35

 Example: A strain gauge with GF=2.03 and R= 350Ω is used in the one-arm
bridge configuration. The bridge resistors are R1= R2= 350Ω and dummy
gauge has R= 350Ω. If a tensile strain of 1450μm/m is applied, find the bridge
offset voltage if Vs=10v. Find the relation between bridge off-null voltage and
strain. How much voltage results from a strain of 1 micron?
 Solution :
 Bridge is balanced with no strain.
 if strain is applied the gauge resistance will change by
 ∆𝑅 = (GF)(𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛)(R)
 ∆𝑅 = 1.03 Ω
𝑉𝑆 ∆𝑙
 The sensitivity is found from ∆𝑉 = − 𝐺𝐹
2 𝑙
10 ∆𝑙 ∆𝑙
 ∆𝑉 = − (2.03) = -10.15
2 𝑙 𝑙
 Every micro of strain will supply only 10.15 μV
 Semi Conductor Strain Gauge
36

 The basic principle is a change of resistance with

strain.
 Semiconductor Strain Gauge resistivity also with the
physical dimension.
 The Gauge Factor is often negative, which means
resistance decreases when tensile stress is applied.
 Gauge Factor can be larger than metal Gauge Factor.
(-200)
 The GF is nonlinear, For example, GF may be -150
with no strain, but drop to -50 at 5000μm/m.
 Thus the resistance change will be nonlinear w.r.t.
strain.
 Semiconductor Strain Gauge
37

 The semiconductor strain gauge physically

appears as a band or strip of material with
electrical connections.
 The signal conditioning is a typical bridge
circuit with temperature compensation.
 Example: Contrast the resistance change
produced by a 150μm/m strain in a metal
gauge with GF=2.13 with
 A semiconductor SG with GF = -151.
Nominal resistance are both 120Ω.
 Solution :
∆𝑅/𝑅
 𝐺𝐹 =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
 For metal ΔR=0.038 Ω
 For semiconductor ΔR=-2.72 Ω
Strain Gages - Applications

Strain gages are generally mounted on cantilevers and diaphragms and

measure the deflection of these.
Strain Gages - Applications
 Elastic-resistance strain gauges are also used
extensively in biomedical applications, especially
in cardiovascular and respiratory dimensional or
plethysmographic (volume change detection:
functional residual capacity (FRC) of the lungs)
measurement.
 These simple systems normally consist of silicone
rubber tubing filled with mercury or with an
electrolyte or conducting paste. (NOTE: Mercury
is being phased out!)
 The ends are sealed with metal electrodes and as
the tube stretches, the diameter decreases and
the length increases thus causing an increase in
resistance.
 The resistance/unit length of typical gauges is
0.02-2 ohm/cm. The elastic strain gauge is linear
within 1% for maximum extensions of 10% of
their length but for larger extensions the linearity
rapidly falls.
Inductive displacement transducers

(a) Self inductance (b) Mutual inductance (c) Differential transformer

 Any inductor L can be used to measure displacement by varying any
of the coil parameters:
 n = Number of turns of coil L  n G2
 G = geometric form factor

 µ = effective permeability of magnetic coupling.

 Can be affected by external magnetic fields

 Differential transformer: Output Vcd = Vce - Vde
 Variable-Reluctance Sensors
41

 LVDT: Linear Variable Differential Transformer

 it consist of three coils of wire wound on a hollow
form. A core of permeable material can slide
freely through the center of the form.
 the inner coil is the primary, which excited by
some ac source.
 Flux formed by the primary is linked to the two
secondary coils, inducing an ac voltage
in each coil.
 Variable-Reluctance Sensors
42

 If two secondary coils are wired in series opposition,

then the two voltages will subtract; that is, the
differential voltage is formed.
 When the core is centrally located, the net voltage is
zero.
 When the core is moved to one side, the net voltage
amplitude will increase.
 There is change in phase with respect to the source
when the core is moved to one side to the other.
 Variable-Reluctance Sensors
43

 The signal conditioning for LVDTs consists primarily of circuits that

perform a phase sensitive detection of the differential secondary
voltage.
 Practically an IC for LVDT is available that contains a signal generator
for the primary, a phase-sensitive detector and amplifier/filter.

 A variety of LVDTs are available with linear ranges at least from ± 25

cm down to ±1 mm.
 The Time response is dependent on the equipment to which the core is
connected.
 The static transfer function is typically given in millivolts per
millimeter (mV/mm) for a given primary amplitude.
 Variable-Reluctance Sensors
44

 Example: An LVDT has a maximum core motion of ±1.5 cm

with a linearity of ±0.3% over that range. The transfer
function is 23.8mV/mm. If used to track work piece
motion from -1.2 to +1.4cm, what is the expected output
voltage? what is the uncertainty in position determination
due to nonlinearity?
 Solution :
 The voltage range from -1.2cm to +1.4 cm
 V(-1.2cm)= -285.6mV
 V(+1.4cm)= 333mV
 The transfer function has an uncertainty of
 ±0.3% x 23.8 = ±0.0714 mV/mm
 If the sensor output was 333mV, which is nominally 1.4cm,
the actual core position could range from 1.40329 to
1.39506 cm.
 Variable-Reluctance Sensors
45

 RVDT: Rotary Variable

Differential Transformer
 The core is designed in such
a way that when it rotates
the mutual inductance
between the primary and
each of the secondary coils
changes linearly with the
angular displacement
 LVDT Applications
46