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Determining the Age of Earth

It is estimated that Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago. Scientists use three
major types of evidence when determining the age of Earth and of objects on Earth:
landforms, fossils, and radiometric dating.

Landforms
The processes that build up and wear down landforms today are the same processes
that have been at work throughout Earth’s history. Understanding these processes
allow scientists to learn about Earth’s history just by looking at the structure and
composition of landforms.

One process scientists study is the formation of sedimentary rock. Over time, as
sediment (weathered material) settles, it becomes compacted into layers of
sedimentary rock. New sediment is added to the top of sedimentary rock, so the
youngest layers are at the top and the oldest layers are at the bottom. This allows
scientists to determine the relative age of the layers in a landform.

The image above displays how the principle of superposition is applied in geology.
The diagram illustrates a layered rock formation with the "OLDEST LAYER" at the
bottom and the "YOUNGEST LAYER" at the top, showcasing how scientists
determine the relative age of rock layers.

Fossils

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Fossils are remains (shells or bones) or evidence (imprints) left behind by dead
organisms. Fossils are most often found in sedimentary rock. The age of a fossil can
be determined by looking at the layer it is found in, and finding a fossil whose age is
already known can provide information about the layer it is found in.

As shown above, fossils come in a variety of forms, shapes, and sizes! Comparing
rock layers and fossils provides information about the relative age of objects on
Earth.

Radiometric Dating
Radiometric (or radioactive) dating provides the exact, or absolute, age of objects
on Earth. An element has a specific number of protons in its nucleus. Some elements
have radioactive isotopes, or versions that turn into another element by losing a
proton. Carbon-14 and uranium-235 are radioactive isotopes used by scientists in
radiometric dating.

The amount of time it takes half of an isotope’s atoms to change into

another element is called the half-life.

For example, uranium-235 (U) has a half-life of 1 billion years. After 1 billion years,
half of the U-235 atoms in a rock will have turned into lead (Pb) atoms. After 2 billion
years, half of the remaining U-235 atoms in the rock will have turned into lead atoms,
so only one-quarter of the original total will remain.

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By looking at the number of U-235 atoms that remain, scientists can determine the
age of the rock.

The Solar System

Solar means sun. Our solar system is made up of the sun and all objects that orbit
the sun. The sun is a star located at the center of our solar system. All objects exert
gravitational force on each other. Since the sun is the largest object in the solar
system, its gravity keeps all other objects orbiting around it. After the sun, the largest
objects in the solar system are the round-shaped planets.

Planets, Dwarf Planets, and Moons

The planets are sometimes broken into two groups:

The four smaller planets located closest to the sun all have rocky surfaces and
are called the terrestrial planets.
The four larger planets farther from the sun all have gaseous surfaces and are
called the gas giants.

Recently, a new category of planet was created called dwarf planets or minor
planets. One example of these objects is Pluto.

Any natural object in space that orbits a planet is called a moon.

A planet may have no moons, like Mercury, or several moons, like Jupiter.

The relative locations of the eight planets in the solar system are shown above.

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Asteroids and Comets

An asteroid is a large, irregularly shaped chunk of rock. Although asteroids
exist throughout the solar system, most are found in a band called the asteroid
belt, which separates the gas giants from the terrestrial planets.
Comets are made up of frozen gases and dust particles and are usually smaller
than asteroids. Some comets orbit the sun continuously, while others orbit the
sun once and then travel off into space. Halley’s Comet is a famous comet that
continuously orbits the sun, and its orbit passes by Earth every 76 years.

Interactions Between Earth and the Solar

System
Earth orbits, or revolves, around the sun, and it completes one revolution around the
sun every 365¼ days. One revolution of Earth is called a year. Earth also spins, or
rotates, on an axis, and Earth completes one rotation every 24 hours. One rotation of
Earth is called a day.

Earth’s rotation and revolution are shown above.

Eclipses
An eclipse is caused by the positions of the sun and moon in relation to
Earth. It happens when one object in space blocks light from reaching
another object.

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In a solar eclipse, the moon blocks sunlight from reaching Earth, and in a lunar
eclipse, Earth blocks sunlight from reaching the moon, as shown in the figure above.

Tides
The daily rises and falls of ocean levels are called tides.

A high tide occurs when the ocean reaches its highest point on the shore, and a low
tide occurs when the ocean reaches its lowest point on the shore. Shorelines
experience two high tides and two low tides every day. Tides are caused by the pull
of the moon’s gravity as Earth rotates on its axis.

As shown above, as the moon orbits Earth, its gravity pulls on the water in the ocean.
This causes the ocean to bulge on the sides closest to and opposite of the moon.
Shores within the bulge areas experience high tide, and shores not located in the
bulge areas experience low tide. As Earth rotates, the bulges stay in line with the
moon, causing different locations to experience high tide at different times
throughout a day.

The sun’s gravitational force also affects tides. When the sun is in line with the moon,
they both pull the ocean in the same direction. This causes extra high and extra low
tides called the spring tides. When the sun and moon are perpendicular to each
other, they pull the ocean in different directions. This causes only minor differences in
high and low tides, a condition referred to as the neap tides.

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The effects of the sun and moon on tides are displayed in the figure above.

The Universe
The total of all matter and energy that exists is called the universe.

The different objects that exist in our solar system are found throughout the universe,
and the universe contains many other solar systems, as well as other types of
objects.

Stars, Constellations, and Galaxies

A star is a ball of gas that produces its own light and heat.
A constellation is a recognized pattern of stars in the night sky. Well known
constellations include Ursa Major (the big dipper) and Orion. Due to Earth’s
orbit, different constellations are visible at different times of the year, so
scientists can identify the area of space that is visible by the constellations
present.
A galaxy is a massive group of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter held together
by gravity. Our solar system is part of the Milky Way Galaxy, along with about
200 billion other stars, and the universe is estimated to contain at least a billion
other galaxies.

The different shapes galaxies can have are shown above. The Milky Way is a spiral
galaxy.

Age and Development of the Universe

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Scientists believe that the universe formed 10 to 20 billion years ago. The most
widely accepted model of how the universe began is called the Big Bang theory.
According to this theory, all of the matter and energy in the universe was once
contained in an area the size of an atom. An enormous explosion (Big Bang) caused
the matter and energy to rapidly expand outward, creating the universe. Scientists
believe the universe has been expanding ever since.

Age and Development of Stars

Stars vary in composition, size, and age, but all stars follow the same basic life cycle:

1. A star forms in a cloud of gas and dust called a nebula.

2. Gravity causes some gas and dust to pull inward, forming a protostar.
3. A protostar then turns into a main sequence star. A star spends most of its life
as a main sequence star.

The fusion of hydrogen (H) atoms into helium (He) atoms causes main sequence stars
to release heat and light. A star dies when it runs out of hydrogen. A main sequence
star that has run out of fuel will eventually stop glowing and become a black dwarf.
White dwarfs are stars that are close to dying out. Sometimes a protostar is too
massive to become a main sequence star. These supergiant stars die in a sudden
explosion called a supernova. The death of a supergiant can result in a black hole.

The image above shows the life cycle of a star from nebula to either a black dwarf or
black hole.

The Milky Way Galaxy

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Our sun is a medium-sized yellow star, a globe of helium and hydrogen gas that
produces its own heat and light through nuclear reactions. Stars like our sun
generally have a 10-billion-year life cycle. They begin as protostars, which form from
clouds of condensing gases and dust called nebulae. As a protostar reaches a certain
density and temperature, nuclear reactions begin, releasing huge amounts of energy.
At this point, the star is known as a main-sequence star, the longest stage in the
stellar life cycle. After billions of years, the star begins to run out of hydrogen fuel. It
may become a red giant. In time, the red giant becomes unstable and collapses,
either exploding as a supernova and leaving behind a neutron star or losing mass
slowly to become a white dwarf.

A neutron star can be very dense, and gravity sometimes causes it to

collapse in on itself, producing a black hole. Black holes are so called
because their gravity is so great that light cannot escape from them.

Milky Way galaxy

The sun is just one star in a huge group of stars called the Milky Way galaxy, which is
a spiral galaxy, as can be seen in the picture above. Galaxies consist of between one
million and one trillion stars, along with clouds of gas and dust, which are held
together by the force of gravity. Galaxies are classified according to their shape:
spiral, barred spiral, elliptical, and irregular. Our solar system is located in one of the
arms, called the Orion arm, of the Milky Way galaxy.

Space System Review (Exercises)

Answer keys

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1. C
2. B. The object’s composition
3. D. Main sequence
4. C. Uranus was not clearly visible with the telescopes generally in use at the
time.
5. B. An atom, with a dense nucleus and electrons orbiting the nucleus
6. D. Faith in human judgment and decision-making skills
7. (1) Sirius; (2) Canopus
8. C. The star’s apparent magnitude would be equal to its absolute magnitude.
9. D. Not all stars are located about 32.6 light-years from Earth.
10. A. The moon and the sun exert the greatest pull on Earth’s oceans when these
bodies are all in a line.
11. (1) Earth; (2) the moon
12. C. A lunar eclipse can be seen only at night, and a solar eclipse can be seen
only during the day.

Earth Systems
Earth is made up of a series of systems involving the planet’s atmosphere, land
masses, and oceans. The interdependence of these systems is one of the most
important principles involved in earth science and is the basis for how the planet
supports life.

Atmosphere: The air that surrounds Earth, providing for life and protecting the
planet from harmful radiation.
Lithosphere: The planet’s land areas such as mountains, valleys, and plains.
Hydrosphere: Contains the rivers, lakes, seas, and oceans that hold Earth’s
water resources.
Biosphere: All the areas on the planet that support life.

Earth’s systems work together just like the systems in the human body.

20.1 The Structure of Earth

There are three main layers that make up Earth’s interior. Each layer has its own
materials, properties, and conditions:

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Earth's internal structure is composed of the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core.

Crust:
The outermost non-gaseous layer of the planet, ranging from 4 to 25
miles thick.
Consists of sand and rock, including both dry land and the ocean floor.
Oceanic crust is mostly dense, dark, finely textured rock called basalt.
Continental crust forms the continents and mainly consists of granite, a
lighter, less dense rock.
Mantle:
Composed of silicon, oxygen, magnesium, iron, aluminum, and calcium;
about 1,750 miles thick.
Accounts for most of Earth’s mass.
The uppermost part of the mantle and the crust together form a rigid
layer called the lithosphere.
Below the lithosphere, increased heat and pressure result in a less rigid
rock layer, the asthenosphere, where material can flow freely.
Core:
Consists of a molten, liquid outer core and a solid, dense inner core, both
made up of metals like iron and nickel.
Together, they are just slightly smaller than the moon.
The molten iron in the outer core generates electrical currents that
produce Earth’s magnetic field.
The inner core is a solid mass of iron with a temperature of about
7,000°F, heated by residual heat, frictional heating, and the decay of
radioactive elements.

tectonics 20.2 Plate Tectonics

Studies of Earth’s history led to the theory of plate tectonics, which describes how
Earth’s crust moves and interacts with itself.

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Plate tectonics explains how mountains and ocean trenches are formed
through the physical activities of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Plate tectonics supports the theory of continental drift, proposed by Alfred Wegener
in the early 1900s. Wegener suggested that the continents were once connected in a
giant continent called Pangaea, which later split into several landmasses that drifted
apart.

Here is the original Pangaean continent.

Earth’s crust is made up of eight large tectonic plates and nine smaller plates that
float on the liquid mantle, shifting at a slow pace. The locations of the tectonic plates

are shown below.

These plates move by means of convection currents, illustrated below.

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Convection currents are hot currents of molten rock that cause the plates
above them to move 1 or 2 centimeters each year.

Here are the three types of plate boundaries, or margins, which are shown below.

Constructive margin: Two plates are moving apart, and new crust is forming.
Destructive margin: Two plates are colliding, and crust is being destroyed.
Transform (conservative) margin: Two plates are sliding by one another, and
no crust is created or destroyed.

The motion of tectonic plates explains the formation of ocean basins, mountains, and
continental shelves.

Continental shelves are gently sloping, shallow sections of the ocean floor that
extend outward from the edge of a continent.
Ocean basins are vast geologic regions below sea level that contain features
such as deep-sea trenches and mountainlike ocean ridges.
Fold mountains are created when the collision of two plates squeezes the
plates together.
Trenches are created when one plate is forced down into the mantle beneath a
second plate.
Volcanoes are weak spots in the crust where molten rock (magma) reaches the
surface (lava).
Earthquakes are formed by the shifting and breaking of surface rocks, often
occurring along plate boundaries at breaks in the crust called faults.

Practice 1

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1. What does the theory of plate tectonics explain?

A. changes in Earth’s crust
2. Which of the following provides evidence that the present-day continents were
once one large continent that broke apart?
D. The west coast of Africa seems to fit into the east coast of the Americas
3. Which BEST describes an example of continental drift?
A. North America and Europe are moving away from each other.
4. Which of the following is a theory rather than a fact?
B. A single large landmass called Pangaea existed about 250 million
years ago.

20.3 Earth’s Atmosphere

Earth’s atmosphere formed from gases expelled from volcanoes and consists of a
series of layers, each with its own characteristics.

The structure of the Earth's atmospheric layers are shown below.

The air around us, part of the tropospheric layer, is a mixture of gases:

78 percent nitrogen
20 percent oxygen
Trace amounts of other gases, including hydrogen and carbon dioxide

Gases in Earth’s atmosphere trap solar energy through the greenhouse effect.

Greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane.

Carbon Cycle
Each of the Earth’s systems interacts with the others.

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Carbon dioxide is exhaled into the atmosphere by animals and dissolves into
the surface water of the hydrosphere.
Plants and algae use photosynthesis to convert sunlight, water, and carbon
dioxide into energy.
Animals break down nutrients in plants and exhale carbon dioxide back into the
atmosphere.
When plants and animals die, the carbon dioxide in their bodies is released into
the atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere.

Wind
Wind is the movement and flow of gases on Earth’s surface, caused by
the uneven heating of the surface by the sun.

Winds are generated by differences in atmospheric pressure. Equatorial air rises and
flows toward the poles (low pressure), while cooler air flows toward the equator
(high pressure).

An illustration of how winds are generated is shown below.

Front: The boundary between a high pressure area and a low pressure area.
Prevailing winds: Winds that regularly blow from a single direction over a
specific area.
Convergence zones: Areas where prevailing winds meet.
Coriolis effect: Causes winds to blow east-west rather than north-south.

All weather and climate ultimately arise from the uneven heating of the Earth. The
sun’s rays fall more directly at the equator than at the poles, causing global wind
circulation patterns.

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The diagram of global wind patterns is shown below.

Practice 2
1. The diagram of global wind patterns on above the page suggests that weather
systems between 30°N and 60°N generally move in which direction?
D. southwest to northeast
2. Based on the diagram on above the page, how do the prevailing winds in the
Northern Hemisphere compare to the prevailing winds in the Southern
Hemisphere?
B. The winds in the Northern Hemisphere are a mirror image of those in
the Southern Hemisphere.
3. What is the role of the ocean in the carbon cycle?
A. The ocean absorbs carbon from the atmosphere.
4. Warm equatorial air rising into the atmosphere and flowing toward the poles is
called a
C. low pressure system.

20.4 The Hydrosphere

Over 70 percent of Earth’s surface is covered by water, with ocean water being a
mixture of water and salts with an average salinity of about 3.5 percent. Seawater
also contains dissolved gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.
Seawater is also denser than both pure water and fresh water because the dissolved
salts add mass without contributing much to the overall volume of the water.

Ocean Currents

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Currents are streams of water running through a larger body of water that
are set in motion by a variety of factors. Ocean currents can be either
warm or cold.

The temperature of a current affects the temperature of the coastal areas toward
which it flows. Cold, deep currents transport oxygen and nutrients to organisms
living in the ocean’s depths.

The process of upwelling is shown below.

El Niño is a band of very warm ocean water that develops off the western
coast of South America and can cause climatic changes.

Typically, El Niño happens every two to seven years and lasts nine months to two
years.

Coral Reefs
Coral reefs are created by colonies of tiny coral animals that produce a
hard structure around their soft bodies.

Microscopic, symbiotic algae called zooxanthellae live in the bodies of coral animals
and provide them with food produced by photosynthesis. Coral reefs provide diverse
habitats for many organisms.

Practice 3
1. El Niño is
D. a band of warm ocean temperatures that develops off the west coast of
South America.

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20.5 The Lithosphere

The lithosphere contains Earth’s landmasses and is made up of three types of rocks:
igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.

Igneous rocks are formed when underground molten rock (magma) cools and
hardens, or when lava cools on Earth’s surface.
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that change from one form to another within
Earth’s crust due to high pressure and temperature.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from pieces of other rocks that have been
pressed together.

Weathering and Erosion

Weathering is the process of breaking down or dissolving minerals and
rocks on Earth’s surface. Once rock is broken down, wind, water, and
gravity can transport the bits of rocks and minerals away, which is called
erosion.

Chemical weathering occurs when the materials that make up rocks and soil
are changed by chemical means.
Mechanical (or physical) weathering causes rocks to crumble.

Practice 4
1. Which of the following is an example of chemical

Natural Hazards
While Earth's systems create a life-sustaining environment, they can also lead to
natural hazards. These hazards place stresses on the environment.

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Floods:
Erode topsoil.
Destroy trees, grass, and crops.
Damage homes.
Spread diseases by compromising sewage and waste disposal systems.
Earthquakes:
Tear up the land and produce rockslides.
Cause flooding by redirecting rivers.
Have devastating effects in big cities.
Hurricanes (Tropical Cyclones):
Rotating storm systems with a low-pressure center, strong winds, and
thunderstorms producing heavy rain.
Form over warm water.
Wreak havoc along coasts, destroying plants, trees, buildings, and
highways.
Tornadoes:
Funnel-shaped columns of circulating wind, primarily on land.
Originate from a mesocyclone, which develops from spinning air within a
thunderstorm updraft.
Can generate wind speeds of almost 300 mph.
Spin counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere due to Earth’s rotation.
Tsunamis:
Large, destructive water waves caused by earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, or landslides, not wind.
Not related to tides.
Droughts:
Occur when an area receives substantially less precipitation than normal.
Can lead to food shortages, malnutrition, and famine.

Weather and Climate

Understanding the distinction between weather and climate is crucial in
environmental studies.

Weather is the day-to-day change in atmospheric conditions at a

particular place on Earth, including precipitation, temperature, humidity,
and storms.

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Climate refers to the average weather conditions of a large region over a

long period.

Meteorologists can predict climate conditions accurately due to the availability of

historical data.

Climate change refers to long-term alterations in climate patterns spanning decades

and centuries.

Ecosystem Changes
Violent wind storms, tornadoes, and hurricanes can inflict heavy damage on
ecosystems.

Tornadoes destroy homes, buildings, farmland, and plant life.

Hurricanes cause tidal waves that flood river basins and marshes, displacing
wildlife and destroying property.
They can wipe out natural ecosystems and cause economic damage.
The loss of plant life can adversely affect the carbon cycle.
Coastal populations lead to government efforts to build storm shelters, levees,
and dikes.

Climatologists and meteorologists believe that destructive weather events are

increasing due to climate change. Rising global temperatures from trapped
greenhouse gases and melting ice contribute to warmer oceans and odd weather
patterns.

Climate Change
Earth's climate has changed throughout history due to various factors.

Past Causes:
Asteroid impacts and planet-wide volcanic activity.
40,000-year cycle of Earth's axis rotation change ("wobble"), causing
seasonal fluctuations and ice ages.
Natural Phenomena:
Volcanic eruptions emitting carbon dioxide, trapping heat.
Volcanic ash clouds reflecting solar heat, causing cooling.
Changes in ocean currents.
Fluctuations in the sun's heat output.

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Effects of Gases on Earth

Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, have increased greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere, leading to a slight increase in global average temperatures,
known as the greenhouse effect.

Global warming is a gradual increase in Earth’s atmospheric temperature

that can lead to climate change.

Another global atmospheric change involves the ozone layer (O ), which filters
3

harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have thinned the ozone
layer by breaking down ozone molecules.

Earth System Review (Exercises)

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1. Fold Mountains
When two tectonic plates collide and layers of rock are slowly pushed
toward each other, fold mountains can form.
2. Mass Wasting
Mass wasting that causes rocks to slide down a mountainside may
transform igneous rock into sedimentary rock.
3. Mantle
The mantle accounts for the largest share of the planet’s mass.
4. Destructive Margin
At the Japan Trench, the pacific plate is forced beneath the Eurasian plate,
causing earthquakes in Japan. The Japan Trench is an example of a
destructive margin.
5. Satellites
Satellites are used for accurate hurricane tracking.
6. Thermosphere Temperatures
The highest temperatures in the atmosphere are in the thermosphere.
7. Ocean Salinity
The average salinity of ocean water is 3.5%.
8. Heat Transport
Currents flowing near the ocean’s surface transport heat from the equator
to the poles and then move cool water back to equatorial regions.
9. Aphelion
The point at which the Earth and Sun are farthest apart is called the
aphelion.
10. Melting Ice Caps
Increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere increase the melting of
ice caps in the arctic zones.
11. Earthquakes
Earthquakes caused by shifts in tectonic plates does not contribute to
climate change
12. Weather Duration
Weather does not stay the same over years and decades.

Climate Map Analysis

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This world climate map

depicts various climate zones. The map displays distinct regions, each representing a
specific climate zone, including polar, temperate-snow, desert-steppe, tropical-
subtropical, and highland. The following questions reference this map.

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13. Equatorial Climate

The climate characteristic of areas along the equator is tropical-
subtropical.
14. Desert-Steppe Climate
The continent with the least area of desert-steppe climate is Europe.
15. Economic Discrepancy
Temperate-snow climate zones produce a large amount of the world's
wealth due to farm output.
16. Sedimentary Rock
Finding a fossilized imprint of a fish in sedimentary rock.
17. Magma
Magma is melted rock.
18. Open-Pit Mining Restrictions
Some countries restrict open-pit mining because it destroys valuable land.
19. Earth's Structure
The inner core is a solid mass of iron.
The outer core is a mass of molten iron that surrounds the solid inner core.
The rocky mantle is composed of silicon, oxygen, magnesium, iron,
aluminum, and calcium.
The crust is a layer from 4 to 25 miles thick, consisting of sand and rock.
20. Water Cycle
Sunlight evaporates water from bodies of water.
Evaporated water condenses to form clouds.
Clouds produce precipitation.
21. Tectonic Plates
Converging tectonic plates create mountains.
When tectonic plates diverge, oceans are created.
22. Greenhouse Effect
The sun’s rays bounce off the earth’s surface and are trapped in the
atmosphere. This is referred to as the greenhouse effect.
23. Tsunamis
Tsunamis can be caused by earthquakes.
24. Subduction
When one plate slides under another when the two plates meet, it is
called subduction.
25. Ocean Currents
Precipitation is not a cause of ocean currents.
26. Evaporation

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The process that moves water directly from bodies of water into the
atmosphere is evaporation.
27. Floods
Floods can erode topsoil, destroy trees, grass, and crops, and even wash
away homes.
28. Hurricanes
Hurricanes are also known as tropical cyclones.
29. Glaciers
Glaciers begin melting when the temperature of the earth rises above
freezing.
30. Glaciers and Freshwater
Glaciers are composed of fresh water.
31. Coral Reefs
Human behavior has contributed to the destruction of coral reefs due to
changing conditions that harm algae. Increasing water temperatures can
negatively affect coral reefs.

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