Human-Animal Interaction Bulletin

2020, Vol. 8, No. 3, 54-70

“We Lost a Member of the Family”:

Predictors of the Grief Experience Surrounding the Loss
of a Pet
Anna Maria C. Behler, Ph.D.1 Jeffrey D. Green, Ph.D.2 Jennifer Joy-
Gaba, Ph.D.2
1
North Carolina State University
2
Virginia Commonwealth University

Pets play an important role in their owners’ lives and are often viewed as family
members. However, research on human-animal relationships suggests that pet
owners often receive relatively less emotional support when experiencing grief
after the death of a beloved pet, a phenomenon known as disenfranchised grief. In
this internet-based survey study, we explored how people experienced grief
surrounding the loss of their pets, and how this experience mirrors emotions that
result from the death of a human loved one. We examined how factors such as
anthropomorphism, attachment to a pet, and social support influence the grief
experience. We also explored how feelings of guilt and shame play a role when
grieving the loss of a pet. We found that grief over the loss of a pet is similar to
grieving a human loved one in large part due to the anthropomorphic qualities
attribute that owners attribute to their pets. Avenues for future exploration of the
psychological impact of pet ownership are discussed.

Keywords: disenfranchised grief, attachment, anthropomorphism

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Anna Maria C. Behler, Email:
[email protected]

In the most recent survey conducted psychological and emotional impact that pet
by the American Pet Products Association ownership may have on individuals.
(APPA, 2018), sixty-eight percent (or 85 Pet ownership is a unique experience,
million) of U.S. households report owning a in that pet owners not only care for the
pet. This statistic is twelve percent higher animal’s basic needs, but also often come to
than the initial survey conducted thirty years view pets as companions, confidants, and
earlier. The most common household pets part of the family (McConnell, Lloyd, &
include dogs and cats, with 60.2 million Buchanan, 2017). Indeed, research suggests
households reporting dog ownership and 47.1 that pets play an extremely meaningful role
million households reporting cat ownership. in their owners’ lives and that individuals
With such a large number of pet owners in the form deep emotional bonds with them (e.g.,
population, it is worth examining the Green et al., 2009; 2018). As such, the loss of
a pet can also invoke intense grief.
© CAB International 2020, published under the former journal title of Human-Animal Interaction Bulletin. This article is licensed under
a Creative Commons Attribution 4 0 International License

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 PREDICTORS OF GRIEF IN PET LOSS

Anthropomorphism: The Psychological Mathews, & Foster, 2009). Other recent work
and Biological Phenomena Underlying has showed that there are similar
Human-Animal Emotional Bonding neurobiologic bonding mechanisms between
Feelings of attachment to animal human-human and owner-dog pairs,
companions is associated with increased including evidence of increased levels of
anthropomorphism, which is the assignment oxytocin, beta-endorphin, prolactin, beta-
of a human identity or characteristics to a phenylethylamine, and dopamine in pet
non-human animal or object (Albert & owners and their dogs during and after
Bulcroft, 1988). For example, an owner may positive interactions (Handlin et al., 2011).
look over to their pet and believe that the Affiliative hormones like prolactin and
animal looks content or guilty, may ascribe oxytocin have been shown to promote
personality traits to their pet and use mother-child bonding (Numan & Young,
relationship names (e.g., daughter, brother), 2016), and oxytocin has also been found to
and may even incorporate their pet into promote more positive paternal behaviors in
family celebrations, such as birthday parties men, including greater positive affect and
for the pet. increased physical contact with their infants
Beyond simply attributing a unique (Weisman, Zagoory-Sharon, & Feldman,
identity to their pets, research has found that 2014). Thus, the hormone increases revealed
if faced with a hypothetical ethical dilemma, in human-animal interactions indicates that
people who view a pet as family would even people and their pets are forming attachment
choose to allocate resources (such as a rare bonds as parents and children do, bolstering
but life-saving medicine) to the pet over a our contention that people often bond with
human who is not kin (Cohen, 2002). their pets because they assign human
Similarly, a study in Australia found that characteristics to them and treat them like
considering a pet to be a part of the family humans in some respects. This
predicted an increased likelihood of anthropomorphizing, in turn, will increase
including the pet in considerations for the depth and extent of grief experienced on
emergency planning in the event of a natural the loss of the pet.
disaster (Trigg, Smith, & Thompson, 2015). Further, fMRI evidence suggests
Because individuals may assign their animal similarities in patterns of brain activation in
companions human-like characteristics and the affiliation and reward centers of the brain
thus elevate them to the status of family among women who were asked to view
members in many respects, we propose that photos of their own children and own dogs
anthropomorphism is one mechanism that (Stoeckel et al., 2014). Notably, these similar
explains why people grieve so strongly over patterns of activation did not appear when the
the loss of their pet. women were asked to view photos of children
In addition to psychological or dogs not belonging to them, suggesting
experiences, researchers have also pointed to that people are uniquely attached to their own
evolutionary mechanisms and biological animal companions. In addition to brain
changes that may also be the underlying activation, self-reports provide converging
causes of this attachment. Specifically, evidence showing that mothers rated pictures
research has shown that dogs and cats were of their own children and dogs with similar
some of the first animals to be domesticated, levels of arousal and pleasantness. Taken
and thus have co-evolved alongside humans together, these findings indicate that people
over several thousand years, increasing our may view their relationship with their pets
interdependence with them (Green, similarly to the way they view a relationship

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 PREDICTORS OF GRIEF IN PET LOSS

with a child, especially since the pet is interventions to ameliorate the grief.
entirely dependent upon them to receive care. In a survey of participants who had
Pet Ownership and Grief recently lost an animal companion, 30% of
Given the extensive research support individuals reported severe grief in the
for the depth and importance of bonds aftermath of their loss (Adams, Bonnett, &
between humans and their animals, it follows Meek, 1999). The authors proposed that the
that losing a pet may trigger similar feelings experience of grief varied by how attached
of grief to losing another human loved one. people were to their pets, and whether or not
However, these emotions following the death the pet had been euthanized. Interestingly,
of a pet are often not given the same the authors discussed that societal attitudes
validation or empathy by close others (e.g., towards pet death was a contributing factor
those who do not have pets) relative to the for experiencing severe grief. This suggests
support one might receive if the deceased that people may be forced to express grief
were a human loved one. This lack of support over a pet differently than grief over a human
is known as disenfranchised grief, and leaves (e.g., immediately went back to their
people feeling isolated and unsupported everyday routines) because social norms may
(Cordaro, 2012; Packman, Field, Carmack, & dictate that an extended mourning period for
Ronen, 2011). This sense of isolation can pets is not appropriate. They also reported
inhibit one’s willingness to disclose feelings that over half of participants reported feeling
to close others (Rémillard, Meehan, Kelton, as though society did not view the loss of a
& Coe, 2017). In fact, research suggests that pet as an appropriate reason to grieve.
people will even weigh the costs and benefits However, they assessed these feelings in the
of posting about the loss of a pet on social days and weeks immediately following the
media, as they fear they may be ignored, or loss.
worse, derided (Vitak, Wisniewski, In the current study, we did not limit
Ashktorab, & Badillo-Urquiola, 2017). Most our survey only to participants who had
importantly, this lack of support exacerbates experienced the recent death of a pet, with the
the already challenging grief process, leaving rationale that grief in the immediate
people feeling that their emotions are aftermath of a loss may be more pronounced
illegitimate, resulting in increased distress than it would be after some time has passed.
and reduced quality of life (Spain, O’Dwyer, By including a wider range of participants,
& Moston, 2019). we were able to avoid the element of time as
Though there has been some research a potential confounding factor. This also
examining the grief surrounding the loss of a allowed pet owners to provide a longer-term
pet, a majority of this work approaches grief picture of the amount of social support they
over a pet from a counseling or social work had received following the death of their pet;
perspective. Thus, most research focuses on they might have received support in the
the emotional impact and the types of immediate aftermath of the loss, but may
services that should be provided to an have felt that this tapered off rather quickly if
individual during these times (Hess-Holden, the people around them did not fully
Monaghan, & Justic, 2017). There is far less recognize or acknowledge the magnitude of
work that attempts to theoretically and grief associated with the death of a pet.
empirically describe the psychological Grief is a complicated emotion, with
experience and its aftermath. Greater multiple factors determining how strongly it
understanding of the psychological may influence an individual. For example,
experience, in turn, will better inform the circumstances surrounding the death, the

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 PREDICTORS OF GRIEF IN PET LOSS

individual’s closeness to the deceased, and believe factor directly into the lingering
how much social support received (Lobb et feelings of doubt surrounding decisions to
al., 2010; Bellet, Jones, Neimeyer, & euthanize a pet, as they play a role in the
McNally, 2018) can affect the depth and mental well-being of those individuals
duration of an individual’s grief. Thus, we caregiving for their human loved ones
expect that these factors will also play a role (Losada, Márquez-González, Peñacoba, &
when losing an animal companion, especially Romero-Moreno, 2010; Roach, Laidlaw,
for pet owners who report a strong bond to Gillanders, & Quinn, 2013). More
their pets. The sudden or accidental death of specifically, guilt is typically viewed as
a loved one can result in greater depression involving emotional discomfort over a
during the grief process versus a prolonged specific offense committed, whereas shame
illness or death due to natural causes, is typically viewed as seeing oneself as bad
suggesting that these types of deaths are a or flawed (Griffin et al., 2016; Marschall,
distinct type of trauma (Kaplow, Howell, & Sanftner, & Tangney, 1994; Tangney, Miller,
Layne, 2014). However, there has been Flicker, & Barlow, 1996). In the case of our
mixed research regarding the most critical pets, owners struggle with making decisions
situational factors that might surround the about end of life care just as they would for a
death of a beloved pet (Davis, 2011). For human loved one (Testoni, De Cataldo,
example, whereas some research suggests Ronconi, & Zamperini, 2017). Thus, guilt
that the decision to euthanize a pet might may stem from feeling as though we did not
result in a less negative emotional experience do enough to care for them, and shame may
relative to circumstances in which pets die be triggered by the thought that we directly
suddenly or accidentally, other findings contributed to their deaths by deciding to
support the notion that being faced with this euthanize. Because human-animal
decision is actually more stressful for owners. relationships are more asymmetrical (e.g.,
This increased stress is attributed to the inability to communicate verbally, greater
anticipatory grief that pet owners face when responsibility for pets due to their reduced
trying to determine if euthanasia is an agency), experiences of shame and/or guilt
appropriate decision for their pet, and this may be qualitatively different and quite
negative experience can be exacerbated influential in the unfolding experience of
without the proper social and emotional guilt. Taken together, these emotional
support (Lagoni, 2011). experiences may exacerbate the grief
Adams et al. surveyed participants experience surrounding an already difficult
about how the decision to euthanize their pet loss, especially when we feel responsibility in
influenced their grief and found that doubts a caregiver-type role. Moreover, we argue
over this choice predicted a stronger grief that the need for social support surrounding
experience. The authors concluded that the death of a pet and doubt over how to
because of the different societal perspectives manage caring for a pet in their final stages
surrounding mourning the loss of a pet versus of life means that these processes are actually
a person, and the fact that euthanasia plays a more similar than previously suggested,
much more prominent role in the loss of a pet, especially when pets are treated and viewed
grief over the loss of an animal may differ as family members.
from grief experienced over the loss of a Research suggests that the more
human and should not be studied using the bonded a person is to their pet, the more
same models. However, they did not directly profoundly they experience grief (e.g., Ryan
examine feelings of guilt or shame, which we & Ziebland, 2015). In one such study,

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 PREDICTORS OF GRIEF IN PET LOSS

researchers surveyed a small sample of owners has been found to be comparable in

adolescents (N = 55) who had recently lost a strength to that between romantic partners,
pet and found that grief was amplified among and also more likely to be categorized as
those who viewed the pet as a companion secure (Beck & Madresh, 2008; Green et al.,
(Brown, Wilson, & Richards, 1996). Other 2018). Research also has found that we are
research has found that receiving more motivated to anthropomorphize our
understanding from others plays an important pets when we feel less socially connected to
role in buffering feelings of grief when a pet other people (Paul et al., 2014), suggesting
dies (Gosse & Barnes, 1994), just as social that the loss of a pet can simultaneously
support plays an integral role in helping us involve the loss of a significant source of
cope with the loss of a human loved one comfort and security for many individuals.
(Villacieros et al., 2014). Taken together, these findings underscore the
More recent research also lends importance of our current research, and why
further support to our argument. In secondary it is crucial to gain a better understanding of
analyses of video interviews of participants how to offer support to those experiencing
with chronic illnesses, Ryan & Ziebland the loss of a pet.
(2015) found that individuals discussed pets Overview of the Current Research
as being similarly important as human family We examined the role of
members, but did not receive the same type anthropomorphism as a mediational variable
of responses from the researchers performing in the relationship between how attached pet
the interviews. The authors concluded that owners are to their pets and the grief they feel
the influence of pets often was downplayed over their loss. In addition, we explored
or ignored in research examining people’s whether owners perceive adequate social
health. They further argued that because support surrounding the loss of a pet relative
animals offer a number of benefits to an to a human loved one. Not all people will
individual’s health and well-being, including experience the loss of a pet in their lifetimes.
being a source of unwavering emotional Thus, some people might underestimate or
support, they should be considered when even dismiss the emotional significance of
assessing individuals’ health. Other this type of loss. Consequently, many who
researchers have deemed grief surrounding have lost an animal companion may not
the loss of a pet as a “destabilizing emotion” receive the same quantity or quality of social
(Redmalm, 2015), because grieving owners support from others, though the grief may be
fluctuate between whether or not they feel as profound as the grief in the aftermath of
their emotions are acceptable. Participants losing a human companion. Third, we wanted
interviewed for this research indicated that to examine how shame and guilt played a role
this vacillation stems from the influence of in the grief experience, as people are
societal attitudes that contend that the lives of caregivers for their pets, and these emotions
pets are not as valuable as the lives of people. typically are associated with caregiving in the
Further research shows that pets can end of life.
serve as attachment figures and sources of Hypotheses
social support in the same way that human We predicted:
companions do (Meehan, Massavelli, & Hypothesis 1) That participants would report
Pachana, 2017; Green, Coy, & Mathews, feeling less support from others after
2018), even in the most traumatic experiencing the death of a pet compared to
circumstances (Flynn, 2000). In fact, the after experiencing the death of a human loved
attachment bond among pets and their one, consistent with the literature on

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 PREDICTORS OF GRIEF IN PET LOSS

disenfranchised grief (Packman et al., 2011; interdependent behaviors and routines evolve
Cordaro, 2012). with cats and dogs, whereas relationships
Hypothesis 2) The circumstances with other types of animals such as fish are
surrounding the death of the pet would relatively parasocial (i.e., one-sided; Green,
influence grief, shame, and guilt, such that Mathews, & Foster, 2009; Brown, Shilling,
these emotions will be stronger for those Young, & Berrong, 2015). There were no
whose pets died due to an accident or due to additional exclusion criteria.
being euthanized versus those that died of Participants reported a wide variety in
natural causes. the length of time since the pet had passed
Hypothesis 3a) Anthropomorphism, guilt, away, ranging from less than one year
shame, and attachment to one’s pet would all (19.8%) to more than five years ago (37.5%).
positively predict the experience of grief. Additionally, approximately 43% of our
Thus, the more one attributes personality participants reported that they had owned this
characteristics and human-like qualities to pet for 10 or more years, underscoring the
their pet, and the greater one feels guilty or significant roles these companions play in the
ashamed regarding their pet’s death, the more lives of their owners.
profound the sense of loss would be. We included seven attention check
Hypothesis 3b) Receiving increased social items at various points throughout the
support after a pet dies from a variety of questionnaires, (e.g., “To show that you are
sources (significant other, family, friends) paying attention, select strongly agree and
would be associated with reduced grief, move to the next question.”), and any
consistent with findings surrounding the loss participant who answered more than 2
of a human loved one (Lobb et al., 2010; incorrectly was excluded. Of the 328
Bellet, Jones, Neimeyer, & McNally, 2018). individuals who completed the online survey,
Hypothesis 4) Anthropomorphism would 19 failed attention check measures, leaving a
mediate the relationship between attachment final sample of 309 participants (235
and grief, given the existing literature on the women).
similarities human-animal bonds and All participants were 18 years of age
attachment bonds between people. That is, or older (Mage = 29.08). Of the sample
we hypothesized that the attribution of reporting, 68.3% reported being White, 9.4%
personality characteristics and human-like reported being Hispanic/Latino, 6.5%
qualities to the deceased pet would explain reported Black/African-American, 2.9%
the relationship between attachment to a pet reported being Asian, 5.9% reported being
and the grief surrounding their loss. more than one race, and 7.0% reported Other.
Method Procedure
Participants All participants completed an online
Participants (N = 328)1 were recruited survey that contained items pertaining to
from Facebook pet groups (n=170) and from their experience dealing with the loss of a pet.
the undergraduate research pool at a large, Participants were asked to name a pet whose
urban research university (n=158). loss had a significant impact on them and to
Participants must have experienced the loss think of that pet when answering items in the
of a pet dog (n = 253) or cat (n = 56) in order survey. They then completed the following
to qualify for the study. Our rationale for self-report measures in this order:
including only dog or cat owners is that Measures
individuals typically form stronger bonds Pet Demographics. At the beginning
with these types of pets and more of the study, participants responded to a

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 PREDICTORS OF GRIEF IN PET LOSS

number of questions regarding the pet that Multi-Dimensional Social Support

had passed away. More specifically, they Scale. This 12-item measure (α = .94;
were asked to provide the pet’s name and to MDSSS; Zimet, Dahlem, Zimet, & Farley,
select the type of pet (i.e., dog or cat) so that 1988) was intended to assess one’s perceived
the pet’s name could be auto-populated in the level of social support from friends (α = .91),
to-be-completed questionnaires (i.e., the family (α = .91), or a significant other (α =
subsequent questions they answered .90) surrounding the loss of their pet at the
contained the name of their deceased pet). In time of the loss. The scale contained items
the event that participants had experienced such as “My family provides me the
the loss of more than one pet, they were asked emotional support that I need”, and all
to select the one that had the most significant responses ranged from 1 (Very Strongly
emotional impact. They were also be asked to Disagree) to 10 (Very Strongly Agree).
provide the length of time that they had had In addition to the MDSSS, we also
the animal, how long ago the pet died, and the included two single-item measures
circumstances surrounding the pet’s death (presented in counterbalanced order): one to
(i.e., accidental, natural causes, euthanasia, assess the overall level of social support that
etc.). participants felt surrounding the loss of their
Anthropomorphism Scale. The pet and one to assess how well supported they
widely-used, 10-item Anthropomorphism felt surrounding the loss of a human loved
Scale (α = .79; Albert & Bulcroft, 1988) one (e.g., “Overall, how supported did you
measured the extent to which pet owners feel when your pet/human loved one passed
anthropomorphize their dogs, ranging from 0 away?”). These items were rated on a 1
(doesn't describe me at all) to 10 (describes (Completely Unsupported) to 7 (Completely
me exactly). Sample items include "I Supported).
celebrate my dog's birthday” and “I assign The State Shame and Guilt Scale.
my dog a role, such as son or daughter.” This 10-item measure (SSGS; Marschall,
Higher levels of personification are likely to Sanftner, & Tangney, 1994) assessed one’s
result in greater feelings of loss and grief state feelings of shame (α = .79) and guilt α =
surrounding the death of the pet. This scale is .87) at the time of their pet’s death. This scale
frequently cited in the human-animal ranged from 1 (Not feeling this way at all) to
interaction literature as a strong measure of 5 (Feeling this way strongly).
the anthropomorphism construct (Trigg et al., Finally, we measured feelings of
2019); we slightly modified the scale to emotional closeness and attachment to a pet
feature the pet’s name rather than merely a in two ways:
specific type of pet in order to ensure that it Inclusion of Other in the Self Scale.
would be applicable to all of our participants. This scale is a single item measure that
Pet Bereavement Questionnaire. involves selecting a pictorial representation
This 16-item measure (α = .85; PBQ; Hunt & of how connected one feels to another, such
Padilla, 2006) assesses feelings of grief that more overlap signifies greater
following the loss of a pet, and all items were psychological connectedness (IOSS; Aron,
written such that they asked participants to Aron, & Smollan, 1992). In this study, the
reflect on their experience at the time their pet “other” was the pet listed by the participant at
passed away. Items are rated on a 4-point the beginning of the study. Greater
scale from 1 (Disagree Strongly) to 4 (Agree psychological connectedness will likely be
Strongly). An example item would be “My positively related to greater reported grief
life felt empty without my pet.” surrounding the loss of the pet. The IOSS is a

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 PREDICTORS OF GRIEF IN PET LOSS

widely-used and validated measure of (M = 5.47, SD = 1.53), t(280) = 1.30, p = .19,

closeness and has been applied to individuals, 95% CI [-.08, .37], d = .11.
groups, the environment, and pets (e.g., Hypothesis 2. We used standard
Davis, Reed, & Green, 2009). multiple regression analyses to examine the
Pet Attachment and Life Impact relationship between circumstances
Scale. This 35-item measure was used to surrounding the pet’s death and feelings of
assess overall attachment to one’s pet, grief, shame, and guilt participants
because it purports to assess several facets of experienced. We expected stronger feelings
the emotional bond and interdependence that of grief, shame and guilt to be associated with
owners may feel toward their pets (α = .93; pets that died due to euthanasia (n = 85) or
PALS; Cromer & Barlow, 2013). More accidental death (n = 46) than those who died
specifically, the scale measures how close of natural causes (n = 152). The
people felt to their pets and how much they circumstances surrounding the pet’s death
viewed them as members of the family (α = were dummy coded and entered into the
.87; love subscale), how much the pet helped model as predictors, and grief, shame, and
them manage their emotions (α = .91; guilt were assessed as outcomes. This
regulation subscale), how much the pet hypothesis was partially supported: there was
influenced their personal growth (α = .85; a significant difference between the groups
growth subscale), and how negatively the pet on the outcome of grief, R2 = .05, F(2, 280) =
affected their life (α = .66; negative impact 8.04, p < .001, with participants feeling
subscale). significantly more grief if a pet’s death were
Results the result of the decision to euthanize (M =
Principal Dependent Measures 2.63, SD = .48), β = .14, t(280) = 2.05, p =
Hypothesis 1. We used a paired .042, and the highest levels of grief if the
samples t-test to determine whether death was unexpected (M = 2.85, SD = .50),
there were differences between the β = .27, t(280) = 4.01, p < .001, relative to if
amount of support felt over the loss of it were due to natural causes (M = 2.48, SD =
a pet versus a human loved one. Given .50). Pet owners also reported differences in
the nature of the questions, only participants their feelings of shame depending upon the
who had experienced both types of loss circumstances surrounding their pet’s death,
were able to answer items in this R2 = .02, F(2, 273) = 3.09, p = .047. They felt
section of the survey. However, most ashamed when a pet’s death was
approximately 91% of individuals fell accidental (M = 2.85, SD = .95), relative to
into this category (n = 281), and nearly when their pet had to be euthanized (M =
every eligible participant responded to all 2.47, SD = 1.01), β = .14, t(273) = 2.27, p =
items in this section (n = 266). Participants .024 or died due to natural causes (M = 2.42,
reported feeling more supported after SD = .95), β = .14, t(273) = 2.32, p = .021.
having experienced the loss of a human Interestingly, guilt did not vary as a function
(M = 6.02, SD = 1.25) compared to the of the circumstances surrounding the death of
support received after losing a companion a pet, R2 = .02, F(2, 271) = 2.56, p = .079.
animal (M = 5.41, SD = 1.56), t(265) = 7.01, This suggests that while people may not
p < .001, 95% CI [.47, .83], d = .43. consider blameworthy specific decisions and
Notably, using the IOS self-other overlap behaviors related to the death of their pets
measure, participants reported similar (thus the lack of a significant relationship
feelings of connectedness to their pet (M = with guilt), they may feel bad about not being
5.62, SD = 1.29) as to their human loved one able to do more to have prevented an

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 PREDICTORS OF GRIEF IN PET LOSS

accidental or unexpected death from shame, and attachment) and grief, while
occurring. Future research should investigate controlling for length of pet ownership and
this possibility and examine the potentially how much time had elapsed since the pet’s
unique aspects of shame versus guilt in these passing. In this model, attachment was
experiences. assessed via the overall mean scores of the
As a more stringent test of the PALS scale (See Table 1 for full descriptive
hypothesis, we also used a hierarchical linear statistics).
regression to assess the differences in grief Overall, the duration of pet ownership
and shame after controlling for the length of and the length of time since the pet’s death
ownership and the length of time since the significantly predicted how much grief pet
pet’s death. Both of these covariates were owners reported feeling, R2 = .06, F(2, 288)
assessed as continuous variables and entered = 9.30, p < .001. Their grief was stronger
into the first step of the model. The when the death of the pet was more recent, β
relationship with grief remained significant = .20, t(288) = 3.55, p < .001. Interestingly,
even when controlling for these variables, however, length of ownership negatively
∆R2 = .04, F∆(2, 278) = 5.94, p < .001. Grief predicted grief, β = -.16, t(283) = 2.80, p =
was stronger when a pet died unexpectedly or .005, suggesting that owners who had their
accidentally, even when accounting for how pets for shorter periods of time may not have
long the person had owned their pet and how been as prepared for the emotional
much time had passed since the pet had died, ramifications of the loss. To examine this
R2 = .08, F(4, 278) = 6.16, p < .001. finding further, we used a chi-square analysis
However, the relationship between shame to determine whether there was a difference
and circumstances surrounding a pet’s death between the manner in which a pet died and
was no longer significant when the covariates the amount of time they had with their
were entered into the model, R2 = .03, F(4, owners. Data on length of ownership was
271) = 2.15, p = .08. collected on an ordinal scale ranging from 1
Hypotheses 3a and 3b. We used a (Less than one year) to 7 (More than 10
hierarchical multiple regression analysis to years). Thus, a chi-square analysis was
assess the relationship between our predictors appropriate to further examine the
(anthropomorphism, social support, guilt, differences between groups. We found that
Table 1. Correlations and Descriptive Statistics
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Anthropomorphism −
2. Pet Bereavement .42** −
3. Multi-Dimensional Social Support .31** -.04 −
4. Guilt .14* .41** -.03 −
5. Shame .29** .51** -.04 .65** −
6. Self-Other Overlap .61** .33** .21** .06 .24** −
7. Pet Attachment Life Impact Scale .70** .44** .24** .25** .38** .58** −
M 7.86 2.62 5.56 2.50 2.56 5.60 4.08
SD 1.46 0.51 1.29 1.11 1.01 1.28 0.57
Note: * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (1-tailed), ** Correlation is significant at the
0.01 level (1-tailed); N = 309.
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 PREDICTORS OF GRIEF IN PET LOSS

there was a significant difference in grief. In addition, receiving greater social

ownership length when participants were support when a pet died negatively predicted
grouped based on the manner in which their experiencing grief, β = -.12, t(283) = -2.56, p
pet had died, X2 (12) = 91.37, p < .001. =.011.
Further, among those who reported that the Hypothesis 4: the explanatory role
death had been unexpected, approximately of anthropomorphism. Why does greater
80.4% had owned their pet for less than 6 attachment to a pet lead to feeling more grief?
years. However, most pet owners whose pets We wanted to further explore the role of
were euthanized or died of natural causes anthropomorphism in the relationship
reported owning their pets for 10 years or between attachment to a pet and grief
more, at rates of 60.0% and 49.3%, surrounding the pet’s death. We conducted a
respectively. bootstrapping analysis to examine the
When anthropomorphism, social indirect effect of attachment to one’s pet on
support, guilt, shame, and attachment were grief via anthropomorphism using PROCESS
added to the model, they significantly (Hayes, 2012). We used a mediation model,
improved the prediction of grief, ∆R2 = .35, whereby attachment was modeled to affect
F∆ (5, 283) = 33.92, p < .001. All variables grief through anthropomorphism. The overall
together significantly predicted grief R2 = model was significant, R2 = .22, F(2, 297) =
.41, F(7, 283) = 28.40, p < .001, accounting 41.83, p < .001, accounting for 22% of the
for 41% of the variance in how severely one variance in grief (see Figure 1). Feelings of
experienced grief surrounding the loss of attachment to one’s pet shared a strong
one’s pet. Both parts of Hypothesis 3 were positive relationship with levels of
fully supported, as each of our predictors was anthropomorphism (β = .71) and with grief (β
significantly related to grief in the expected = .40, both p’s < .001). Anthropomorphism
directions. More specifically, higher levels of was also positively related to how strongly
anthropomorphism (β = .21, t(283) = 3.24, p pet owners experienced grief following the
= .001), guilt (β = .15, t(283) = 2.38, p = loss of their pets (β = .21, p = .004). This
.018), shame (β = .27, t(283) = 4.19, p < model, conducted with 5,000 bootstraps,
.001), and attachment (β = .16, t(283) = 2.42, yielded a mean bootstrap estimate of the
p =.016) all predicted greater feelings of indirect effect of 0.13 (SE = 0.05). Because

Figure 1. Mediation analysis depicting the relationships between attachment to one’s pet, and self-
reported levels of grief via anthropomorphism.
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 PREDICTORS OF GRIEF IN PET LOSS

the 95% confidence interval did not include 0 pet’s death (see Table 2). However, it was
(0.04 – 0.22), we concluded that the indirect interesting to note that both women (M =
effect of anthropomorphism on the 5.44, SD = 1.55) and men (M = 5.60, SD =
association between attachment and grief was 1.47) reported feeling equally close to their
significant. That is, greater attachment human loved ones, t(268) = 0.66, p = 0.51.
predicted higher levels of Discussion
anthropomorphism, which, in turn, led Participants recalled and assessed, via
people to experience more severe grief when online questionnaire, the grief they had
their pet died. experienced after losing an animal
As an alternative explanation for the companion. Participants selected a specific
experience of grief, we examined whether pet at the start of the survey, so that every
assessing attachment as a mediator would item was autopopulated to be specifically
provide a better fitting model than our about the identified pet. This was a key
original mediation. Thus, we assessed strength of our study, as it was intended to
whether anthropomorphism affected grief facilitate recall, increase the vividness of the
through attachment. When considered this experience, ensure that participants identified
way, the indirect effect was smaller, at just a pet whose death had a significant impact on
.07 (SE = .02, 95% CI [0.02, .12]), suggesting them, and confirm that they were thinking
that our original model provided a stronger about the same pet for each response.
explanation for the relationship among these Most of our hypotheses were
variables and the experience of grief. supported, providing empirical evidence that
Exploratory Analyses pet loss has a profound emotional and
We conducted several exploratory psychological impact on pet owners and
analyses regarding gender differences on our helping to further our understanding of the
measures related to closeness (self-other role pets play in people’s lives. To be
overlap, anthropomorphism, and attachment specific, we provided quantitative evidence
to a pet), bereavement, and social support, as that grief over the loss of a pet is comparable
woman are more relationally interdependent to grief that is experienced surrounding the
than men (Gabriel & Gardner, 1999; Cross, loss of a human, in large part due to the
Gore, & Morris, 2003) and thus may exhibit human-like qualities that owners attribute to
differences in how they are bonded with their their pets. As expected, anthropomorphism
pets and their resulting grief when the pet played a major role in the severity of a pet
dies. We found that women reported greater owner’s grief following the loss of their pet.
scores on all measures of closeness to a pet, Specifically, anthropomorphism not only
felt more severe grief after the pet’s death, predicted stronger feelings of grief, but
and perceived greater social support after the actually mediated the relationship between

Table 2. Sample Descriptives Using t-test for Equality of Means

Women Men
M SD M SD t p
Self-Other Overlap (Pet) 5.69 1.26 5.15 1.36 2.96 .003
Self-Other Overlap (Human) 5.44 1.55 5.60 1.47 0.66 .51
Anthropomorphism 7.96 1.39 7.31 1.55 3.18 .002
Pet Bereavement 2.66 0.51 2.42 0.47 3.35 .001
Social Support 5.65 1.28 5.17 1.26 2.57 .011
Pet Attachment Life Impact Scale 4.14 0.54 3.86 0.48 3.48 .001

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 PREDICTORS OF GRIEF IN PET LOSS

attachment and grief. This was a particularly in which they look to their pets as a source of
significant finding, as it suggests that comfort, support, and connectedness. Taken
ascribing human-like qualities to our pets together, our results speak to the fact that
results in our considering them to be just as grief is a complicated emotion, especially
important as human companions, and that the when it is not fully recognized or validated by
death of a pet may be felt similarly as the loss those around us.
of a human friend or family member to the Limitations and Future Directions
bereaved. The proposed study is limited in that
Despite the importance of the human- is it non-experimental, using self-report data.
animal bond, our sample of pet owners felt Given the variables being assessed (i.e., grief
less supported by others when grieving over over loss of a pet), experimental research may
the death of a pet relative to a human, be neither feasible nor ethical, though other
providing converging evidence with previous methodologies (e.g., longitudinal) should be
research on disenfranchised grief (Packman employed. Future work might continue to
et al., 2011; Cordaro, 2012). We also examine the parallels between the grief
provided evidence that social support plays a experienced by pet owners who are faced
significant role in reducing feelings of grief with the decision to euthanize, and
surrounding the loss of a pet, underscoring individuals having to make end of life
the importance of validating a person’s decisions for their human loved ones. It may
emotions when their pet has died, just as be that the guilt and shame surrounding the
when a human loved one has passed. This loss of a pet may be exacerbated depending
converges with research regarding the grief on a person’s view of their pets’ agency, and
process following the death of a human loved the fact that pets cannot communicate their
one, which suggests that adequate social wishes ahead of time nor provide
support is crucial in one’s ability to move reassurances (or be verbally reassured) at the
forward and strive for growth following the end in the way that a human loved one might.
trauma of a loss (Bellet, Jones, Neimeyer, & Another limitation of the study was
McNally, 2018). that we chose to include only cat and dog
Interestingly, individuals reported owners. This is not because other types of pet
less guilt and more shame over the loss of a owners do not experience attachment to their
pet, suggesting that while they may not feel pets or grief over a pet’s loss. Rather, we
responsible for their animal’s death, they may expected and found that dog and cat owners
question whether they did enough to prevent would anthropomorphize their pets to a
it. Future research should attempt to replicate relatively high degree, especially given that
and investigate more closely the experience pet owners are able to engage with these
of these two self-conscious emotions in the animals more often and more directly.
context of grief. In addition, women reported However, broadening the types of pets
higher feelings of bondedness than men, included in research could be a potential
providing evidence that converges with avenue for future work.
previous research (Cohen, 2002). However, Future research also might explore
women also reported greater feelings of grief how children experience the death of a pet,
over the loss of their pets than men, and more and how these events may be seen as
severe grief overall. It may be interesting to significant teaching periods in a child’s
further examine the differences in how men development. Specifically, how does a child
and women perceive their relationships with experience grief, and what may be the role of
their pets, and to explore the different ways anthropomorphism? In addition, research

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 PREDICTORS OF GRIEF IN PET LOSS

might examine whether the presence of not equally invested in caring for the pet. The
children in a household predicts a decreased death of a pet in these situations may
grief response for pet owning parents, as exacerbate existing tensions, especially if one
attentional resources may be reallocated partner does not provide adequate support for
towards childcare responsibilities, thus the other after the pet has died.
reducing the time spent ruminating over the Conclusion
death of a pet. Our participants reported similar
Affective forecasting, or how feelings of bondedness and bereavement to
individuals predict their future emotional their animal companions as to their human
experiences, may also influence the loved ones. Importantly, our results are the
experience of grief (e.g., Green et al., 2013). first to provide quantitative data suggesting
While affective forecasting typically that anthropomorphism actually accounts for
involves overestimating our anticipated the relationship between attachment and
feelings in a particular situation, it is possible grief: greater attachment to animal
that pet owners may be more susceptible to companions is associated with ascribing
inaccurate forecasting in the opposite more human qualities to them, and this, in
direction (i.e., underestimate the forecasted turn, is associated with more grief in the
grief, particularly compared to anticipated aftermath of their loss. Put another way,
grief over the loss of a human companion). individuals may experience the same levels
They may be under the impression that “it’s of grief regarding departed pets as they do
just a pet,” a refrain commonly heard by pet human companions because they see those
owners experiencing loss (Cowles, 2016), pets as having human qualities. Despite these
and therefore be less aware of how connected feelings, however, individuals may not
they have become to their pet or how experience the same levels of social support,
significant the changes will be after the pet’s underscoring the importance of seeking out
loss. Thus, this forecasting inaccuracy may connection with others who value human-
result in a lack of emotional preparedness animal bonds in the same manner.
when the pet dies, and a decreased ability to Ultimately, we contend that high
properly cope with the feelings of loss, anthropomorphism coupled with a lack of
especially if the owner is faced with the appropriate social support interact, leading to
decision of having to euthanize their pet a more difficult experience of grief over a pet.
without preparation, or if the pet dies
unexpectedly. Indeed, our results show that
pet ownership was inversely related to Footnotes
feelings of grief, suggesting that the less time
1
an individual owned a pet, the more they An a priori power analysis was conducted using
reported feelings of grief. In such instances, G*Power software (Faul, Erdfelder, Buchner, &
social support would likely be even more Land, 2009). Assuming a small effect size for
invaluable for the bereaved pet owner. even our most complex regression model (r2 =
.04), we found that 265 participants would be
Another avenue for continued
sufficient to detect an effect (power > 0.90, alpha
exploration is how pets, like children, < 0.05). A separate post-hoc power analysis was
influence relationship satisfaction among conducted for Hypothesis 4 (Kenny, 2017), as we
romantic partners. Pets may increase or wanted to ensure that the mediation analysis was
inhibit relationship satisfaction, either sufficiently powered based on our sample size
strengthening the bond between partners or and obtained effect sizes. We found that power
inhibiting it if both members of the dyad are ranged from .81-.99 for all paths in the model.

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 PREDICTORS OF GRIEF IN PET LOSS

2
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