TOPIC ONE-Hardware and Data

DEFINITIONS
 Hardware – the physical parts of the computer. e.g. keyboard, printer, memory boards
 Program – a set of instructions to achieve ONE main task. e.g. analyze the customer file
and display all customers who have not paid within a given time scale.
 Package – a set of programs designed to perform ALL aspects of a MAJOR business
application. e.g. to deal with customer orders, purchase orders, stock control etc. The
package probably would include features for automatic installation, user customization,
built-in help, manuals (on or offline) etc.
 Software – a general name for a program or package. The distinguish between:
Application Software – software to solve a business application.
System Software – software to assist the computer in organizing itself.
See notes in GENERAL PURPOSE SOFTWARE for more details and also below.
 Data – The raw facts input into a computer. It can also refer to data held on a computer fi
le for later processing. See Information.
 Information – strictly this refers to data that has been processed and therefore has an
associated meaning. Computer output should be information.
 Parameter – an item of data that shows HOW a process should be performed. e.g. an
indicator to show a sort program which is the key field for sorting.
DATA CAPTURE
Candidates should be aware of:
 A range of data capture methods
 The advantages and disadvantages of particular methods of data capture.
 Business needs in choosing a means of data capture.

Data capture should be as automatic as possible with as little user intervention as possible.
The reasons for this are:
 Humans make mistakes
 Humans cost money because they must be paid
 Data is captured at source and there is therefore less chance of it being lost in its passage
to the computer
COMPUTER HARDWARE

KEYBOARD
Possesses the standard typewriter layout of letters/digits and punctuation. In addition, it has
function keys that are used by particular software for pre-arranged purposes. e.g. F1 is often used
for HELP features. A separate numeric keypad is useful for pure numeric entry such as in retail
data entry. Additional keys are available for Internet access. Candidates should NOT quote
particular function keys in describing use of software because these keys may only apply to that
particular package.
Uses
 Text data entry where there is little structure such as names and addresses.
 Corrections to data.
 Entries to general-purpose software programs such as word processing.
Advantages – Ideal where data is unpredictable or of a variable shape.
Limitations
 Limited to the speed and accuracy of the keyboard operator.
 Expensive because it is user intensive.
TOUCH SCREEN
This must not be confused with VDU which is an output device The finger breaks vertical and
horizontal cross beams just in front of the screen to pinpoint the position on the screen. It is suitable
for data input where the data is limited in range and effectively represents a series of options. Some
areas of the screen can allow a move to a submenu of options.
Uses
 Tourist areas to pinpoint the locations of particular places of interest that could be buildings
or items within a building.
 Restaurants to select from a limited menu to transmit the order directly to the kitchen and
to generate customer
billing. Choices for a bank customer at an ATM.
Advantages
 Provides information with little user action (or skill).
 Cuts out the need for human information providers.
Limitations – only suitable where the data is a small FIXED range of items. The width of a human
finger limits the
number of items that can appear on the screen. If sub-menus are used, this further limits the number
of
options on the main screen.
MICR (Magnetic Character Recognition)
Banks originally developed this data capture method with a view to processing huge numbers of
cheques received AND to provide some security against possible fraud. If another business decided
it wanted to use MICR for data input, it would find it difficult to obtain a supplier of the hardware
because banks have a vested interest. The only hardware available would read cheque-format data.
This method is very effective for a quite specific purpose.
Uses – Cheque reading ONLY.
Advantages
 Fast
 Cheques can still be read even if they have minor damage
 Only human action is in feeding the reader.
Limitations
 Reads only one line of data and a small character set.
 Requires line-up characters for the hardware to location the position of data. Line of data
is always in the
 same position on ALL cheques.
 Stylised characters only can be read.
 Requires additional software to convert the input signals to meaningful information.
OCR (Optical Character Recognition)
Standard-shaped characters (typically output by printers) are read by optical scanning and
interpreting the returned
signals from patterns held on file. More sophisticated hardware will now read hand-written data
provided it is well-formed or in strict positions.
Uses – Utility bills (electricity, gas, water) sent to customers can be re-input to signal that the bill
has been paid in full
because it holds the customer number and amount due (turn around document).
Advantages – Eliminates the need for human keying of data
Limitations
 Only suitable for small quantities of data.
 Requires line-up characters for the hardware to location the position of data.
 Keyboard entry is still needed, in the case of utility bill, if the payment is for an amount
other than that
Stated on the form or if the paper is folded and the data cannot be read.
 Requires optical character recognition software to convert the input signals to meaningful
information.
 This is prone to errors if the input is hand-written.

BAR CODE READING

Bar codes are read by optical scanning and the returned signals are converted into binary. They
are used purely for identification.
Uses
 Supermarket checkouts to identify the product bought.
 Libraries (2 uses) – to read the book identifiers and also the borrower’s ticket code.
 Hotel – to identify guests and enable internal charging to an account for all services used.
 Ticket entry to events with pre-purchased tickets.
 Forms issued (and returned completed) to identify the recipient.
Advantages
 Eliminates the need for pricing every item in a supermarket because the manufacturer
prints the item code on the package in the form of the bar code.
 Less staff needed in a supermarket.
 Enables the price of a product to be changed by a single entry on the main fi le.
 Cuts down queues at supermarket checkout and less checkout errors.
 Now enabling self-service in supermarkets with one supervisor to oversee several
checkouts to resolve problems.
 Better customer receipts at supermarkets and automatic stock updating.
 Bar codes can be read at any angle.
 Bar codes are also printed with numeric code for human interpretation.
Limitations
 Some codes will not read properly and need to be keyed in.
 Requires line-up marks (center of bar code) for the hardware to location the position of
data.
NOTE: Bar codes do NOT contain item price on a product. The reasons for this are:
• Products may be made in other countries where the currency is different.
• Prices can be set by the seller and varied for “special offers”.
OMR (Optical Mark Recognition)
Pencil/ink marks are placed at specific positions on paper and detected by the machine by optical
scanning and testing the reflected signal. The position of the mark identifies its value and this is
then converted into a binary value.
Uses
 Multiple-choice examination input. The candidate places a mark to indicate his/her
chosen answer.
 Lottery tickets. The purchaser marks the chosen numbers.
 Stock auditing. A warehouse clerk marks the number of items actually on the shelves.
 Meter reading in private houses/businesses. The current value on each meter is recorded.
 Street surveys. To record the views of people outside of buildings.
Advantages – The data is recorded in computer-readable format at the place where the data
occurs.
Limitations
 Small Numeric data only.
 Requires line-up characters (side of page) for the hardware to location the position of
data.
 Difficult to correct errors at the point of capture resulting in the need for keyboard
correction/entry on faulty documents.
MOUSE / DIGITISER
A mouse CAN be used to enter data but the context needs to be explained. Where DATA appears
in a question, the use of a mouse to select options is unlikely to earn any marks unless the
options are clearly stated and refer to data and not just option selection.
Uses – Computer Aided Design/Drawing. The mouse can be used to select a standard object
(circle) but its main function is in positioning the object and adjusting its size by dragging
handles. Objects can then be turned, inverted, colored under mouse control (this is the DATA
element).
Advantages – Any other form of input device does not have the controls for drawing.
Limitations – Needs complex software to enable accurate drawings to be made.
VOICE RECOGNITION
Human voice signals are converted to waveforms and binary signals are then compared with
standard patterns held on fi le.
USES
 Control of machinery remotely or in “dirty”/busy situations such as a machine
room/warehouse.
 Direct input to a text editor.
 For handicapped people unable to use other means of input of data.
Advantages – Hands-free.
Limitations –
 Needs complex software to enable accurate identification of words.
 Small vocabulary and limited by regional accents.
 Needs to be calibrated for particular users.
 Subject to errors when voice changes (colds).
SCANNER
Paper documents are optically scanned and converted to electrical and then bit-map binary
signals. Some scanners give higher resolution than others (dpi).
Uses – Archiving of documents – legal requirements.
Advantages – Documents can be entered into computer-readable form without the need for any
user input. These can then be edited.
Limitations
 Resolution can be variable.
 The documents take up a large storage capacity.
CHOOSING THE RIGHT CAPTURE METHOD
Points needed to be considered when choosing a method of data capture for a given application
are:
 Human involvement in the input process – normally required to be minimum for cost
purposes.
 Cost of data capture.
 Accuracy of the received data.
 A means of correction or alternative means of input when the chosen method fails.
 Can the data be captured at the source – in the classroom, on the street etc?
 Volume of the data. Large data entry may need a different method from small data entry.
 Comparison of alternative methods of data capture.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing
operations. It stores data, intermediate results and instructions (program). It controls the operation
of all parts of computer.

CPU itself has following three components

 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

 Memory Unit
 Control Unit
Memory
This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to
the other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or main
memory or primary storage or Random access memory (RAM).

Its size affects speed, power and capability

Functions of memory unit are:

 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.

 It stores intermediate results of processing.

 It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.

 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.

Random Access Unit

• RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program and program result. It is read/write memory which stores data until the machine
is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
• Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in
the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
• RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is
a power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it
can hold.
RAM is of two types
 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM need not have to
be refreshed on a regular basis. Have a high manufacturing costs. So SRAM is used as cache
memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of the Static RAM
 It has long life
 There is no need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done
by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second.
DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up
of memory cells which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM
 It has short data lifetime
 Need to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Lesser in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption
Read Only Memory(ROM)
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write
on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories
during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This
operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other
electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
Types of ROM
MROM (Masked ROM)
 • The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data
or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are inexpensive.
PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)
• PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a
blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM
chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed
only once and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
• The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40
minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an
electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than
ten years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light
is passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light
dissipates the charge. During normal use the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
• The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed
about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 mms (mille
second). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs
can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of
re-programming is flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
 The advantages of ROM are as follows:
 Non-volatile in nature
 These cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 These are static and do not require refreshing
 Its contents are always known and can be verified
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a
buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program
which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk
to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.
Advantages
• The advantages of cache memory are as follows:
• Cache memory is faster than main memory.
• It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
• It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
• It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
• The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:
• Cache memory has limited capacity.
• It is very expensive.
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.

Functions of this unit are:

 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of
a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of
the computer.
 It communicates with Input/output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely
 Arithmetic section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
 • Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of above operations.
Logic Section
• Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,
matching and merging of data
DATA OUTPUT
Data can be output using a:
1. VDU – suitable where it is need only temporarily (perhaps for checking data from a fi le).
2. Printer – as a permanent visible record.
3. Plotter - for large complex diagrams/charts/drawings.
4. Film/Microfiche – photographic storage for large quantities of data..
5. Sound – for instructions to people in unusual situations. Voice simulation can sound artificial.
PRINTERS
The range of printers over the years has increased but must printers now used are from the
following list:
 Dot-Matrix printer – Although of 1980’s design, improved versions are still used. Print
heads contain a grid of 24 pins. One character at a time is printed by hammering a selection
of pins against a print ribbon onto the paper. The quality is poor but often adequate for
internal memoranda in a company or for transaction slips. Pre-carboned paper enables
multiple copies to be produced with one printing. Crude graphic characters are possible
with different combinations of the 24 pins. Different models allow continuous stationary
or single sheets to be used. The speed is measured in characters per second.
 Laser printer - Light is modulated by the computer and directed onto a drum by rotating
mirror. The chemical coating on the drum is electrostatically charged. Where light shines
on the drum, the charge is removed. Toner powder is attracted to the charged parts and this
is transferred to paper during the rotation. Heating the paper helps to fix the printing. The
quality is very high allowing graphics to be printed. The speed is measured in pages per
minute. The cost depends on the quality printout. It is commonly attached to a LAN to
service all work stations.
  Ink-jet printer – Ink is sprayed onto the paper through tiny nozzles by either heating for
a short time or by pressure. It is slower than the laser with typical speed of 4 pages per
minute. However, it is able to print graphics and in colour making it superior to the dot
matrix. It is one of the cheapest printers now around and is often attached to stand-alone
computers in the office or at home.
• Line printer – Two types are still available having been the printers of the mainframe as
far back as the 1960’s. The barrel/drum printer has a line of each character embossed on
the drum so that all occurrences of the same character in a line of print are produced at the
same time. The drum then rotates to print all occurrences of the next character. The
hammers hit the paper and carbon roll onto the drum. The speed of the drum is so fast that
one revolution of the drum produces one line of print. 2000 lines per minute are achievable.
The chain printer has a chain revolving horizontally and carries several copies of all the
characters. A line of print is achieved by hammering each character of the line onto a ribbon
as one of the appropriate characters on the chain is in position. These types of printers are
still used for large print runs such as printing many thousands of utility bills in one run.
They are now being replaced by large scale laser printers.
DISPLAY OR PRINT?
1. The screen gives a temporary output and is useful when a printed record is not needed. The
limited size of the screen means that is limited for viewing long or wide documents where
scrolling would need to be used continuously. The screen is inappropriate when it is
necessary to be checking back and forwards through a lengthy document.
2. Printed output gives a permanent record with the option of multiple copies. The output may
be needed elsewhere by people not producing this output. However, it does waste much
paper. Despite the move towards a “paper-less society”, printouts are frequently produced
which are unnecessary.

PLOTTERS
They are usually on a larger scale than printers for fi ne drawings. Lines can be drawn at any
angle. Text is actually drawn rather than printed. There are basically two type:
1. Flatbed – an arm holds a pen and different colors are possible using different pens. The
arm moves along the paper to give an X movement. The pen moves along the arm to give
 a Y movement. A combination of these enables inclined lines are shapes such as circles
to be drawn.
2. Drum – the paper is wrapped around two rollers that rotate to feed the paper in the X
direction. The pen moves across a bridge to produce the Y movement.
Uses – architectural drawings, circuit design, car design. Plotters can be very large – to
plot the lines of a car FULL SIZE.
MICROFORM (Microfiche, Microfilm)
The output is effectively photographed and transferred to a fi lm in the form of a sheet or roll. A
projection device is needed to view the microform. Microfiche typically stores hundreds of
“sheets” on one flat fi lm card with each sheet being a rectangular frame. The fi rst frames show
the index of the contents of the whole card. The microfiche reader is a back projection screen to
magnify the tiny images to a readable size. The user moves the card around physically to
select the required frame. It is particularly useful for viewing large data fi les where conditions do
not suit the use of a computer – dirty workshop.
Uses - archiving data, catalogs of parts in a garage where the data changes only infrequently.
DATA CHECKING
 Validation – the process of checking data AS IT IS INPUT without reference to a fi le, to
establish whether it is reasonable. Validation does not guarantee that the data entered is
correct.
 Verification – the process of double entry of data where the two versions are compared.
This is now rarely used although still common when entering a new password to ensure
the user has not made a typing error.
In both cases, if an error is detected, it is reported and the data rejected. If the data is entered
online, the user is requested to re-input.
VALIDATION
Examination questions about validation rarely earn many marks because answers given are usually
too general and do not relate to the specific data quoted in the question. Where data is given, the
answer MUST indicate how the data can be validated – “range” is not enough. Means of validation
(with examples):
1. Range – In a date, the day of the month must relate to the month in question so must be
in the range 1 to 30 for June. The month must be in the range 1 to 12 if numeric.
 2. Format – A code may consist of 2 letters followed by 4 digits. The answer must mention
this.
3. Data Type – Quantity of goods purchased must be numeric. In some cases, it must be an
integer.
4. Length – An identification code may have to be exactly 7 characters.
5. Presence – While some fields in data entry may be optional, some must be present. e.g.
product code when purchasing and item.
6. Connected fields – The value of one field may determine the range of values in another.
Clearly the order of two related fields is important.
7. Check digits – used only for REFERENCE numbers. e.g. customer code, product code,
student identifier, etc. It could not be used for other numeric data (e.g. number of items
purchased) because who or how would the check digit be derived?
CHECK DIGITS
A reference number is extended by one digit (normally at the right hand end) to include a check
digit.
A check digit system guarantees detection of:
1. transposed digits - e.g. 12345 input as 12435
2. the wrong repeated digit - e.g. 12234 input as 12334
3. any single digit error - e.g. 12345 input as 12845
There are two aspects of check-digit systems.
1. Determining the check digit to be added to the end of a reference number to make it
computer-checkable. e.g. a 5-digit customer number is converted to a 6-digit number with
its check digit. Each of the digits has a different WEIGHT. This normally runs from 1
upwards with the most significant digit using the highest weight and the check digit using
1. e.g. Convert 13478 to 13478c where c is the check digit to be calculated.
Method: Multiply each digit by its weight and total the result.

Make the check sum up to a multiple of 11 (the MODULO). So 74 + 3 = 77. Hence c = 3

The full reference number is 134783
 The modulo is often chosen as 11 because it is a prime number and in the multiplication
process, it will not be possible for one (and usually 2) errors to cancel each other.
2. Checking a reference number entered during validation to determine its validity.
Repeat the above process except now the check digit is known. Suppose above 135783 is
entered by mistake.

The check MUST be a multiple of 11 to be valid. 81 is not a multiple of 11 so this

number is INVALID.
There is one problem with stage 1. Suppose the check sum is 78 + c. This would require
the check digit to be 10 to make it up to 88. There are two possible courses of action:
a) Do not use this number and reallocate a new reference number for this
customer/product/student.
b) Use X to represent TEN as the check digit. This method is adopted for 10-digit ISBN
(International Standard Book Numbers) which gives each published book throughout the
world, a unique number. The advantage of this is that no new number had to be allocated.
However, it does mean the ISBN cannot be classified as numeric.

SPECIFYING VALIDATION FOR A PARTICULAR SITUATION

This will be required in the examination. An example is given below. “An employee can select
his /her holiday dates by fi lling in a holiday notifi cation form (up to 1 year in advance) and
giving the start and end dates of the holiday. No employee may take more than 2 weeks holiday
in succession.
The dates are recorded as day, month (1-12) and year (4 digits).”
Candidates often describe validation on OTHER possible fi elds that might be used in the
application even though they are not mentioned in the question. These points earn NO marks.
Possible validation of these dates:
1. All six data items must be numeric (integer).
2. End date must NOT be before start date. Can be the same if 1 day is requested.
3. The diff erence between the dates cannot exceed 14 days.(*)
 4. Day (start and end) must be consistent with the month. e.g. not more than 30 for June
(month 6).
5. Months must each be in the range 1 to 12.(*)
6. Dates must be in the immediate future.
7. Dates must not be later than 1 year from today’s date.(*)
The three items marked (*) are specific to this particular question. Candidates should note this.

SECONDARY STORAGE
Magnetic Storage mediums

Magnetic storage media and devices store data in the form of tiny magnetised dots. These dots
are created, read and erased using magnetic fields created by very tiny electromagnets.

In the case of magnetic tape the dots are arranged along the length of a long plastic strip which
has been coated with a magnetisable layer (audio and video tapes use a similar technology).

In the case of magnetic discs (e.g. floppy disc or hard-drive), the dots are arranged in circles on
the surface of a plastic, metal or glass disc that has a magnetisable coating.

Hard Drives

Hard-drives have a very large storage capacity (up to 1TB). They can be used to store vast
amounts of data. Hard-drives are random access devices and can be used to store all types of
films, including huge files such as movies. Data access speeds are very fast.
Data is stored inside a hard-drive on rotating metal or glass discs (called ‘platters’).

Fixed Hard Drive

A hard-drive built into the case of a computer is known as ‘fixed’. Almost every computer has a
fixed hard-drive.

Fixed hard-drives act as the main backing storage device for almost all computers since they
provide almost instant access to files (random access and high access speeds).

Portable Hard Drive

A portable hard-drive is one that is placed into a small case along with some electronics that
allow the hard-drive to be accessed using a USB or similar connection.
Portable hard-drives allow very large amounts of data to be transported from computer to
computer.

Many portable music players (such as the iPod classic) contain tiny hard-drives. These miniature
devices are just not much bigger than a stamp, but can still store over 100MB of data!

Advantages :

 Very good option for local backups of large amounts of data.

 The cheapest storage option in terms of dollars per GB. Very reliable when handled with
care

Disadvantages :

 Can be very delicate. May be damaged if dropped or through electrical surge

Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is a large capacity, serial access medium. Because it is a serial access medium,
accessing individual files on a tape is slow.

Tapes are used where large amounts of data need to be stored, but where quick access to
individual files is not required. A typical use is for data back-up (lots of data, but rarely only
accessed in an emergency)

Tapes are also used and in some batch-processing applications (e.g. to hold the list of data that
will be processed).

Removeable Media Magnetic Discs

Floppy Disc

A removable, portable, cheap, low-capacity (1.44MB) storage medium. Floppy discs are
random access devices used for transfer small amounts of data between computers, or to back-
up small files, etc. Access times are slow.

Almost every PC used to have a floppy disc drive. These are obsolete now, having been replaced
by higher capacity technology such as CD-ROMs, DVDs and USB memory sticks.
Zip Disc

A removable and portable storage medium, similar in appearance to a floppy disk, but with a
much higher capacity (100MB, 250MB or 750MB).

Zip discs are random access devices which were used for data back-up or moving large files
between computers.

Another obsolete storage device, zip discs were a popular replacement for floppy discs for a few
years, but they never caught on fully before being superseded by cheaper media like CD-ROMs
and CD-Rs
Jaz Disc

A removable and portable storage medium based on hard-drive technology, with a large
capacity (1GB or 2GB).

Jaz discs are random access devices which were used for data back-up or moving large files
between computers.

Discs were expensive to buy and not very reliable.

Like the Zip disc, this system never really caught on and was superseded by far cheaper and
more reliable and cheaper technology.

Local Storage Options

1. External Hard Drive

These are hard drives similar to the type that is installed within a desktop computer or laptop
computer. The difference being that they can be plugged in to the computer or removed and kept
separate from the main computer. They typically come in two sizes :

Desktop External Hard drive : Uses a 3.5 inch hard drive similar to that used in desktop
computers.

Portable External Hard drive : Uses a 2.5 inch hard drive similar to that used in laptops.
Desktop External Hard Drives are generally cheaper than Portable External Hard Drives for the
same storage space. Desktop External Hard Drives and usually faster and more robust.

Capacity : 160GB to 3TB (approx 3000GB)

Connection : Most common connections to the computer are through a USB 2.0 or USB3.0
connection. May also be available in a SATA or eSATA connector

2. Solid State Drive (SSD)

Solid State Drives look and function similar to traditional mechanical/ magnetic hard drives but
the similarities stop there. Internally, they are completely different. They have no moving parts
or rotating platers. They rely solely on semiconductors and electronics for data storage making it
a more reliable and robust than traditional magnetic. No moving parts also means that they use
less power than traditional hard drives and are much faster too.

With the prices of Solid State Drives coming down and is lower power usage, SSD’s are used
extensively on laptops and mobile devices. External SSD’s are also a viable option for data
backups.

Capacity: 64GB to 256GB

Connections: USB 2.0/3.0 and SATA

Advantages:

 Faster read and write performance

 More robust and reliable than traditional magnetic hard drives
 Highly portable. Can be easily taken offsite

Disadvantages:

 Still relatively expensive when compared to traditional hard drives

 Storage space is typically less than that of traditional magnetic hard drives.

3. Network Attached Storage (NAS)

NAS are simply one or more regular IDE or SATA hard drives plugged in an array storage
enclosure and connected to a network Router or Hub through a Ethernet port. Some of these
NAS enclosures have ventilating fans to protect the hard drives from overheating.

Advantages:

 Very good option for local backups especially for networks and small businesses.
 As several hard drives can be plugged in, NAS can hold very large amounts of data
 Can be setup with Redundancy (RAID) increasing the reliability and/ or read and write
performance. Depending on the type of RAID level used, the NAS can still function even
if one hard drive in the RAID set fails. Or two hard drives can be setup to double the read
and write speed of single hard drive.
 The drive is always connected and available to the network making the NAS a good
option for implementing automated scheduled backups.

Disadvantages:

 Significantly more expensive than using single External Hard Drives

 Difficult to bring offsite making it very much a local backup hence still susceptible to
some events like theft and floods, fire etc

4. USB Thumb Drive Or Flash Drive

These are similar to Solid State Drives except that it is much smaller in size and capacity. They
have no moving parts making them quite robust. They are extremely portable and can fit on a
keychain. They are Ideal for backing up a small amount of data that need to be brought with you
on the go.

Capacity: 4GB to 64GB

Advantages:

 The most portable storage option. Can fit on a keychain making it an offsite backup when
you bring it with you.
 Much more robust then traditional magnetic hard drives
Disadvantages:

 Relatively expensive per GB so can only be used for backing up a small amount of data

5. Optical Drive (CD/ DVD)

CD’s and DVD’s are ideal for storing a list of songs, movies, media or software for distribution
or for giving to a friend due to the very low cost per disk. They do not make good storage
options for backups due to their shorter lifespan, small storage space and slower read and write
speeds.

Capacity CD : 650MB to 900MB

Capacity DVD : 4.7GB to 17.08GB

Advantages:

 Low cost per disk

Disadvantages :

 Relatively shorter life span than other storage options

 Not as reliable as other storage options like external hard disk and SSD. One damaged
disk in a backup set can make the whole backup unusable.

Remote Storage Options

6. Cloud Storage

Cloud storage is storage space on commercial data center accessible from any computer with
Internet access. It is usually provided by a service provider. A limited storage space may be
provided free with more space available for a subscription fee. Examples of service providers
are Amazon S3, Google Drive, Sky Drive etc.

Advantages:
  A very good offsite backup. Not affected by events and disasters such as theft, floods, fire
etc

Disadvantages:

 More expensive then traditional external hard drives. Often requires an ongoing
subscription.
 Requires an Internet connection to access the cloud storage.
 Much slower than other local backups

Magnetic Storage Devices and Media

Magnetic storage uses magnetization to store data. Common examples include hard disk drives
(HDDs) and magnetic tape.

Limitations:

1. Fragility: Magnetic storage devices can be easily damaged by physical shocks or drops.
2. Susceptibility to Magnetic Fields: They are vulnerable to data corruption or loss when
exposed to strong magnetic fields.
3. Mechanical Wear and Tear: Moving parts in HDDs are prone to wear and tear over
time, leading to potential failure.
4. Limited Lifespan: The magnetic coating can degrade, reducing the lifespan of the
media.
5. Data Density: While magnetic storage can store large amounts of data, it still has a lower
data density compared to some newer storage technologies.
6. Slower Access Speeds: Compared to solid-state drives (SSDs), magnetic storage
typically has slower read/write speeds.

Optical Storage Devices and Media

Optical storage uses lasers to read and write data. Common examples include CDs, DVDs, and
Blu-ray discs.
Limitations:

1. Physical Damage: Optical discs are susceptible to scratches, which can cause data loss
or make the media unreadable.
2. Limited Rewritability: While some optical media are rewritable (e.g., CD-RW, DVD-
RW), they have a limited number of write cycles compared to magnetic or solid-state
media.
3. Data Lifespan: The data on optical media can degrade over time, especially if not stored
properly.
4. Storage Capacity: Optical discs have relatively lower storage capacities compared to
modern storage devices like HDDs and SSDs.
5. Access Speeds: Optical storage has slower data transfer speeds compared to magnetic
and solid-state storage.
6. Portability Issues: While optical discs are portable, they require dedicated drives to read
or write data, which can be inconvenient for some users.

DATA TYPES

Integer

 Description: Represents whole numbers (both positive and negative) without any
fractional or decimal component.
 Example: 1, -42, 365.

Decimal (or Float)

 Description: Represents numbers that have a fractional or decimal component. It's used
for more precise calculations and can include both positive and negative values.
 Example: 3.14, -0.001, 123.456.

Text/Character (String)

 Description: Represents a sequence of characters (letters, numbers, symbols) used to

store textual data.
  Example: "Hello, world!", "1234 Main St", "A".

Logical (Boolean)

 Description: Represents one of two values: true or false. It's commonly used in
conditions and logical operations.
 Example: true, false.

Date

 Description: Represents dates and times, often stored in formats that include year,
month, day, hour, minute, and second.
 Example: 2025-01-08, 08-01-2025 13:25:00.

Currency

 Description: Represents monetary values, often including a fixed number of decimal

places to account for cents.
 Example: $100.00, €50.75.

Defining data by type is crucial for several reasons:

1. Accuracy and Integrity: Ensures that data is stored and processed correctly. For
example, defining a field as an integer prevents the entry of non-numeric values,
maintaining data integrity.
2. Memory Efficiency: Different data types use different amounts of memory. By
specifying data types, systems can allocate memory more efficiently, optimizing
performance.
3. Operations and Functions: Certain operations and functions are specific to data types.
For instance, mathematical operations apply to numeric data types, while string
operations apply to text data. Defining data types ensures appropriate operations are used.
4. Validation and Error Checking: Helps in validating data during input. For example,
defining a field as a date ensures that only valid dates are entered, reducing errors.
 5. Sorting and Indexing: Data types are essential for sorting and indexing. Numeric data
types are sorted numerically, while text data is sorted lexicographically, ensuring
accurate ordering.
6. Interoperability: When different systems exchange data, defining data types ensures that
the data is interpreted correctly by all systems, facilitating seamless integration.
7. Security: By defining data types, systems can enforce constraints and rules, preventing
invalid data and enhancing security. For example, limiting a field to a specific data type
can prevent certain types of injection attacks.
8. Performance Optimization: Data types help in optimizing query performance in
databases. Indexing numeric fields, for example, can speed up searches compared to text
fields.
9. Consistent Formatting: Ensures consistent data representation. For example, defining a
currency type ensures that values are consistently formatted with the correct decimal
places.

Features of a modern PC

Modern PCs come equipped with a range of advanced features designed to enhance performance,
usability, and versatility. Here are some key features:

Hardware Features

1. High-Performance Processors: Modern PCs often feature multi-core processors from

Intel or AMD, providing powerful computing capabilities.
2. Large Memory (RAM): PCs now come with substantial RAM, often ranging from 8GB
to 64GB or more, allowing for efficient multitasking and smooth performance.
3. Solid-State Drives (SSDs): SSDs provide faster data access and boot times compared to
traditional hard drives.
4. High-Resolution Displays: Full HD (1080p), 4K, and even 8K displays are common,
offering sharp and clear visuals.
5. Graphics Cards: Dedicated graphics cards from NVIDIA or AMD enhance gaming and
graphic-intensive tasks.
 6. Multiple Connectivity Options: USB-C, Thunderbolt, HDMI, and DisplayPort options
are standard, allowing for easy connections to peripherals and external displays.
7. Built-in Wi-Fi and Bluetooth: Modern PCs support the latest Wi-Fi standards (e.g., Wi-
Fi 6) and Bluetooth for wireless connectivity.
8. Ergonomic and Compact Designs: Sleek and compact designs, with options for
ergonomic keyboards and adjustable monitors.
9. Expandable Storage: Options to add additional storage via external drives or internal
slots.
10. Touchscreens and 2-in-1 Designs: Many modern PCs, especially laptops, feature
touchscreens and convertible designs that can function as both laptops and tablets.

Software Features

1. Operating Systems: Windows 10 or 11, macOS, and Linux are commonly used
operating systems, providing user-friendly interfaces and robust security.
2. Pre-installed Applications: Productivity suites (e.g., Microsoft Office), antivirus
software, and other useful applications are often pre-installed.
3. Virtual Assistants: Features like Cortana, Siri, or Google Assistant provide voice-
activated assistance.
4. Cloud Integration: Seamless integration with cloud services (e.g., OneDrive, Google
Drive, iCloud) for easy file storage and access.
5. Advanced Security Features: Biometric authentication (fingerprint scanners, facial
recognition) and enhanced security protocols protect user data.
6. Gaming Capabilities: Support for gaming platforms like Steam, Xbox Game Pass, and
advanced gaming settings.
7. Virtualization and Containerization: Support for running virtual machines and
containers for development and testing purposes.

Additional Features

1. Energy Efficiency: Modern PCs are designed to be energy-efficient, with power-saving

modes and eco-friendly components.
 2. Portability: Laptops and ultrabooks offer portability with long battery life and
lightweight designs.
3. Customizability: Options for customizing hardware components to suit specific needs
and preferences.
4. Enhanced Audio and Video: High-quality audio systems, built-in webcams, and
microphones for an improved multimedia experience.

SOFTWARE
Clear distinctions are needed between the broad types.
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
Operating System – This is the management software that oversees all operations in the computer.
The main tasks it
performs are:
 “Boot up” the computer when it is switched on. The term means to pull in the routines it
needs from disc and to run
 Start routines. Modern operating systems now save the settings of the computer when it
was last used and in booting,
 The computer is returned to this same state (icons on the desktop screen etc).
 Load programs from disc into memory and run them ensuring there is no violation when
several programs are in
 Memory at the same time. Handling multitasking.
 Manage the use of peripherals and transfer data between peripherals and memory.
 Interpreting user keyboard commands and taking appropriate action.
 Deciding the priority of events when two coming together might conflict.
 Handling security of all elements within the computer and taking appropriate action when
a violation occurs.
 Networking where computers are connected to a LAN.
 Logging the processes that have been run.
Utility Programs
Provide utility programs for common organizational use. This includes:
 Disc management routines - creating folders, copying/deleting/moving/renaming fi les
  Sort programs.
Language translators
These refer to computer languages
1. Compilers for HIGH level languages – they convert programmer’s source code in one
stage to produce a runnable program and a machine code version which can be saved.
2. Interpreters for HIGH level languages – convert programmer’s source code one line at a
time and then executing that instruction before moving to the next. No runnable program
is produced and an error in a particular instruction will only show when that instruction is
translated – if it is not translated in a given run, the error will not be detected. Interpreters
are used for development of new programs.
3. Assemblers for LOW level languages (machine code languages). Low level languages use
coded instructions similar to binary machine instructions. This means that although writing
in these languages there are restrictions (slow and therefore expensive to generate,
restricted to particular machines), there are some great advantages (code has less overheads
and so much smaller final programs are produced which are fast to run). In certain
circumstances, these advantages outweigh the restrictions such as in machine or industrial
process control.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
The distinction between General Purpose and Special Purpose software needs to be stressed.
Candidate answers suggest Special purpose software is produced “to perform a specific task” –
ALL programs are produced for this reason! A “specific BUSINESS task” should earn the mark.
General Purpose Software – software produced of a general nature where the producer does not
govern HOW the user actually uses it. The user decides the uses. Examples;
 Word processing package – This is a substantial text editing package enabling the user to
create textual documents and choosing the editing features (underline, centring, margins,
fonts etc). Sophisticated features include mail merge, some drawing/graphics and the
inclusion of items created in other packages.
 Spreadsheet package – This package provides a grid of cells. Each cell can hold a variety
of types of data and relationships (formula) can be generated to produce values in one cell
calculated from values in other cells. A large selection of prewritten functions means the
user can draw on the expertise of others.
  Database package – This package enables related data to be structured into records (e.g.
customer details, student details). These records can then be amended, deleted and
displayed. Searches enable records that satisfy the user conditions to be displayed.
Elaborate optimization of the way data is stored enables databases to be accessed very
quickly. Teachers should emphasize that the purpose of a data base is to produce OUTPUT,
not to accept input.
 Graphics/Drawing package – This package provides standard shapes (circles, rectangles,
lines) to be positioned, rotated, stretched and colored. Combining a number of these
components builds up a picture/diagram which could be used in the design industry.
 Presentation package – This is a fashionable package that enables the user to produce a
multi-media slide show with color, animation and sound for showing to clients. This could
be used to promote a new product, idea or procedure. There are other general purpose
packages but only these will be tested in examinations. None of these packages “do”
anything when started. It is the user who dictates what is produced.
GH
Special Purpose Software – software to administer/arrange/run a particular business/industrial
process. Once the software is started, the user is guided to select the appropriate options and
enter the required data. Most application software falls into this category. The APPLICATIONS
module considers some in detail.
Three examples are given briefly:
 Retail Administration – This deals with selling products to customers. Details of the order
are entered and an invoice/ receipt/packing note/picking list could be generated. The order
details would be stored on a disc fi le and accessible when the customer pays at a later date.
Associated with retail would be the administration purchasing goods from suppliers in
bulk. This is effectively the same as the retail but in reverse where the company now the
customer. Stock control enables efficient ordering and minimum expenditure of goods
awaiting purchase.
 Medical Records – A patient registers, his/her details are held on fi le including the various
treatments offered. Later consultations by that patient with different doctors enable the
previous medical history to be accessed quickly. Drug information could be held for the
 doctor to read before making a decision on treatment. Stock control of drugs could be
included.
 Estate Agency – A person wanting to sell a house could register with the agent, the details
stored on fi le. When a prospective buyer arrives, all the properties meeting his/her
requirements could be accessed. In all of these, once the program is started, the user may
be faced with a menu but each menu option would perform a specifi c task. Each transaction
would be saved automatically after it is completed, unlike with general purpose software
where the user decides when this happens.