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Lesson 1
INTRODUCTION TO GLOBALIZATION
Jayboy M. Sartorio

What Will You Learn?

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. differentiate the competing conceptions of globalization;
2. explain the metaphors of globalization; and
3. analyze the impacts of globalization.

What Is This Lesson About?

Globalization has been a highly contested concept which has always
been a subject for critical discourse among scholars. There are numerous
definitions regarding globalization, however, most of the definitions tend to
focus on the economic aspect which is only an area of globalization. In this
section, we will unravel the concept of globalization through examining the
different areas of globalization, and the sociocultural and socioeconomic aspect
accompanied with globalization.

Let’s Try This (Activity 1.1)

Before going further, let us see if you can answer this exercise. I know you can
do it! This will help you to determine your prior knowledge about this topic.
Good luck!

Instructions: List down all words you can think related to globalization. Use
the space provided below.

Compare and analyze your answers with your classmates. What are the
similarities and differences of your knowledge regarding globalization?
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Definition of Terms

Globalization refers to a set of economic, social, and political processes

which transform our present current condition into one of globality.
Economic globalization refers to the intensification of movement of goods,
capital and services.
Political globalization refers to the growing complexity of the political
system which is not limited to states and their government but also
include nongovernmental and intergovernmental organizations.
Cultural globalization refers to the intensification of social relations
through the transmission of ideas, meanings, and values around the
world.

Conceptualizing Globalization

The advent of technology has paved way for the easier access to
information about ideas, culture, and practices all over the world. The
seemingly interconnected world has provided a platform for exchange of
communication, commerce, and industry. The borderless world as how we
described our world today is the result of the so-called globalization.

What is globalization? There are numerous definitions concerning

globalization in the literature. Globalization cannot be defined using a single
concept as it encompasses political integration, global policies, knowledge
transmission, cultural stability, and economic discourse. Some definitions
focused on the interconnectedness of decisions, processes and events while
other focus on the trade, economy, and integration. Also, some of the authors
highlight the cultural aspect in defining globalization.
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There are two competing areas in defining globalization: the inclusive

and broad definition, and the exclusive and narrow definition.

Globalization is the commencement of a borderless world. The

accessibility of information and the movement of goods from one country to
another suggest a world without borders. The existing barriers are waning and
paves the way for social, cultural, political, and economic integration. Social
relations have been intensified with globalization processes where humans live
in a single and compressed space in continuum. The dwindling borders across
nations and the ambiguity of definition and implications of globalization
characterize the broad and inclusive definition of globalization.

On the other hand, defining globalization as narrow and exclusive

implies a particular scope of activity which provides a specific description of
human activity. Globalization can be defined in the internationalization of
production and division of labor, migration of people from south to north, and
the intensification of production and manufacturing of goods. Furthermore, it
can be defined in the acquisition of products of countries from other parts of
the world, and the presence of free trade and market integration. It can be
defined as well as the process of integration of production and financial
systems of countries through cross-border transactions, including but not
limited to, products, labor, and investment with mutual benefits with the states
involved. Globalization can be defined as technological advancement which
has paved the way for the conduct of affairs that transcend boundaries, time,
and space.

Moreover, various scholars also presented differing definitions of

globalization.

According to Anthony Giddens, globalization is the “intensification of

worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local
happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away”.

Thomas Friedman defines globalization as, “the inexorable integration

of markets, transportation systems, and communication systems to a degree
never witnessed before- in a way that is enabling corporations, countries, and
individuals to reach around the world farther, faster, deeper, and cheaper than
ever before.”

Also, Manfred Steger provided scholarly description in his

Globalization: A Very Short Introduction, the term globalization should be
used to refer to a set of social processes that are thought to transform our
present social condition into one of globality”.
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World Health Organization defines Globalization, “the increased

interconnectedness and interdependence of peoples and countries, is generally
understood to include two interrelated elements: the opening of international
borders to increasingly fast flows of goods, services, finance, people, and ideas:
and the changes in institutions and policies at national and international levels
that facilitate or promote such flows.”

Dimensions of Globalization

Most accounts view globalization as mainly an economic process,

however, various dimensions of globalization can also be examined to have a
holistic understanding of the phenomena.

Economic globalization refers to the intensification of movement of

capital, goods and services. It is also characterized with the increasing
integration and interdependence of economies from local, regional, national to
international level. This dimension of globalizations is primarily driven with
technology, state collaboration, intersection of economies and labor.

Political globalization refers to the growing complexity of the political

system which is not limited to states and their government but also include
nongovernmental and intergovernmental organizations. One of the essential
components of political globalization is the dwindling significance of nation-
state and the rise of non-state actors in the political arena.

Cultural globalization refers to the intensification of social relations

through the adaptation of traditions, beliefs, and practices. It involves the
sharing of norms and knowledge and the development of individual and
collective identities. The diffusion of cultures brought by internet, social media,
and technology has paved the way for the sharing of cultures. Moreover,
colonization has provided an intense history of bringing cultural meaning
across the globe. The cross-national and regional circulation of cultures
provides interconnectedness on the diversity of people.

Reflect! What is globalization? What are the commonalities of the

definitions of globalization? How do these definitions differ from each other?
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Metaphors of Globalization

Globalization scholars used the solid-liquid-

flows metaphor to further explain globalization.

Our world before is characterized with

solidity where barriers both man-made and
natural provide limited mobility to people, things,
and information. Examples of man-made barriers
are the Berlin Wall and Great Wall of China and.
On the other hand, natural barriers include
territorial boundaries. These barriers still exist up
until today; however, these have melted through
time and have become increasingly liquid.

The advent of technology, public policy

changes among nations, and the integration of
economy has paved the way for the unprecedented
pace of globalization which slowly diminished the
solidity of the world. Countries today are in
continuous flux where it is ready to adapt to change
and to take up space in the world system. The
increasing movement of people, things, and
information characterized the liquidity of our
world.

The growing porosity of the global barriers and the consequences of

technological advancements, economic integration, and public policies have
provided the movement of people, things, ideas, and culture. Foods are
becoming more globalized through the introduction of cuisines from various
countries. Financial system is also globalized through the interconnection of
currencies and financial system across the world. The flooding of migrants, the
influx of information, diversity in communities across the world are just few of
the manifestations of flows in the contemporary world.

Reflect! What are the manifestations of solid-liquid-flows metaphor of

globalization in our world today?

Impacts of Globalization
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The changes brought by globalization paved the way for liberalization,

free trade, and increase of economic activity across the world. It also established
relationships among countries, including, but not limited to economic relations.
Expansion of economic activities has facilitated for the increase of mobility of
labor.

Globalization facilitated innovations in transportation and

communication systems as it is needed to increase international transactions.
Countries focus on development of technologies to be at paced with the
changes brought by globalization. Technological developments are perceived
as a major facilitator and a driving force of globalization processes.

On the other hand, globalization has promoted a two-way cultural

exchange raising consciousness and awareness on cultural diversity. It has
promoted expansion and stretching of social interactions and networks
creating a complex set of interconnecting relationships. It has integrated local
and nationalistic perspectives to the global scale. Globalization has created a
hybridized global identity coming from the diffusion of cultural styles in food,
lifestyle, fashion and music.

However, globalization has also impacted the uneven wealth

distribution especially for those countries which cannot keep abreast with the
developments happening across the world. There is a disparity among nations
which has only benefitted only those states which can persist with the cut throat
competition in the global economy. Globalization has also brought problems
with environmental degradation as industries rely on the utilization of natural
resources to provide the increasing demands due to market integration.

Globalization has also influenced the cultural diversity of a country.

Critiques argue that globalization has contributed to detraditionalization. The
mobility of people in a globalized world has taken culture at a backset. It has
generated questions among people regarding their beliefs about gender roles,
marriage, and religion.

There is a growing international influence of a particular culture which

has subjugated the culture of less developed countries. Critiques argued that
globalization is a form of Americanization – a one-way process from west to
the rest in which power is exercised indirectly.
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Reflect! How does globalization affect your life?

Is globalization a boon or a bane?

Summary
Globalization is multifaceted. It can be viewed in numerous lenses –
economically, culturally, and politically. With the declining porosity and
increasing liquidity of the world because of globalization, the world has been
more connected than ever. It has created a borderless world generating a
complex and interconnected network of interactions and relationships.
Technological advancements serve as a potent tool towards globalization.
Though globalization has provided mankind and states numerous benefits, it
has provided as well drawbacks to humanity and nations.

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Assessments

A. Instructions: Create a graphic organizer reflecting the competing

conceptions of globalization and answer the succeeding question. Write your
answers on the space provided.
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B. Complete the graphic organizer below to explain the metaphor of

globalization.

Metaphor of Characteristics Examples

Globalization

Solid

Liquid

Flows
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C. Instructions. Complete the graphic organizer below to explain the effects of

globalization to economy, politics, and culture.

Effects of Globalization

Economy

Politics

Culture
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Lesson 2
GLOBAL ECONOMY AND MARKET INTEGRATION
Jayboy M. Sartorio

What Will You Learn?

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the discussion, the student should be able to:
1. describe economic globalization;
2. discuss global economy and market integration; and
3. explain the actors of global economy and market integration.

What Is This Lesson About?

Globalization, characterized by the intensification of global social
relationships, has connected nations economically, politically, and culturally. It
has provided increasing economies of scale and has been the main driver of the
global economy in the world today. The global economy promotes the
interdependence of economies through the accumulation, importation, and
exportation of goods from one country to another. In this chapter, you will be
learning the processes and dynamics of the global economy and market
integration.

Let’s Try This (Activity 2.1)

Before going further, let us see if you can answer this exercise. I know you can
do it! This will help you to determine your prior knowledge about this topic.
Good luck!
1. Do an inventory of what you have in your room.
2. Identify the things which are made in the Philippines and those that are
of foreign brands.
3. Provide a list containing the countries of the origin of your items from
foreign brand.
4. Provide implications and analysis of the data you have gathered.

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Definition of Terms

Economic globalization refers to the growing interdependence of the world

economies as a result of the increasing scale of trade in goods and services
across the world.
World system is a world economy integrated through a market instead of
political center.
Market integration is a phenomenon where the market is experiencing
patterns of prices of products.
International Financial Institutions (IFIs) refer to institutions mainly
mandated to create an efficient foreign exchange system, to prevent
currency devaluation, and to promote economic growth.

Economic Globalization
Economic globalization refers to the growing interdependence of the
world economies as a result of the increasing scale of trade in goods and
services across the world, the influx of foreign capital, and the pervasive and
radical dissemination. It also refers to the international movement of capital,
goods and services.

There is a growing link of world economies as an outcome of the

expansion of economies of scale through international trade, international
finance, and global investment. The advancement of communication and
technology allowed international transactions more possible from the capital
to market exchange of goods and services.

The increasing integration in the global economy would contribute to

nation’s wealth, however, economic globalization remains an uneven process
wherein countries, corporations, and individuals receive unequal benefits.
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Most developed countries frequently decline to lift policies to protect

their products which may be overwhelmed by the imports from developing
countries. Government policies may restrict international trade by imposing
quotas, tariffs, and product standards. These protectionist measures aims to
augment domestic economy to urge citizens to patronize local products rather
than imported products. In this case, poorer countries have difficulty in coping
with protectionist measures from powerful countries.

Japan’s economic muscle on its resistance of rice importation to protect

its farming industry is an example of this protectionist policy. The United States
likewise mandated consumers and sugar-dependent businesses to pay higher
taxes rather than getting cheaper sugar from Central America plantations to
protect its sugar industry.

On the other hand, countries may also remove or reduce the barriers or
restriction for trade liberalization. The reduction of barriers such as tariffs and
important quotas to facilitate exchange of goods and services which would
lessen consumer costs while increasing efficiency and promoting economic
growth. Trade liberalization would also increase competition among local and
international businesses which would also lessen consumer prices. This would
also allow developing countries to access markets across the developed world
attracting foreign investments.

However, trade liberalization posits immense risk to local businesses

and its products. Powerful countries may also take advantage of the
vulnerabilities of the underdeveloped and developing countries as to its
policies and standards. Countries and companies who cannot compete in the
trade liberalization may lose gain and have less profit in the long run.

Reflect! What is economic globalization? How globalized is your home?

Global Economy and Market Integration

The inequalities among nations can be best further explained using the
World Systems Theory of Immanuel Wallerstein. This theory argues that
capitalist countries have contributed to the distorted development and
inequalities in global economy.
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A world system, according to Wallerstein, is a world economy

integrated through a market instead of political center. The world system is
divided into a three-tier geographically and culturally different structure – core
countries, semi-periphery countries, and the periphery countries which are
interdependent to each other.

Core countries are industrialized nations with skilled labor force which
produce manufactured goods,
however, with limited resources.
It has strong central government
and a large tax based. On the
other hand, the semi-periphery
countries are middle income and
industrializing countries moving
towards becoming core nations.
Periphery countries are the least
economically diverse and least
industrialized nations which need
investment, however, with
enough resources.

The core countries fill its insufficient raw resources to manufacture

goods from the exports of semi-periphery and periphery countries. Non-core
countries exports raw materials since they are incapable of transforming these
into goods. The exported raw resources to the core nations coming from semi-
periphery and periphery nations are cheap, however, the manufactured goods
from the core nations exported to semi-periphery and periphery are high profit
consumption goods.

Countries that are not as rich as the core countries usually depend on
these powerful, wealthy, and industrialized countries. The incapacity of the
semi-periphery and periphery nations to manufacture their raw resources into
goods and the capability of the core nations to utilize its skilled labor force and
the exported raw resources has perpetrated inequalities among these countries.
The power of the core countries to control global market has perpetrated
growing inequalities exploiting the periphery countries where rich is getting
richer and the poor is getting poorer.

The economic globalization has paved the way for the integration of
markets. Market integration facilitates the transfer of price signals from one
market to another which allows the stability of prices of the global market. It
is a phenomenon where the market is experiencing patterns of prices of
products.
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Local corporations and the international financial institutions (IFIs) have

crucial roles in the promotion of market integration to generate price stability.
Loans, credits, and grants are the common programs implemented by the IFIs
to generate economic and social growth to countries. It also provides advisory
and technical assistance for the sustainability of the programs.

Reflect! Is global economy and market integration beneficial to states? How

can states mitigate the negative impacts of economic globalization?

Actors of Global Economy and Market Integration

A. International Financial Institutions
The new world paradigm was put forward in a meeting at the Mount
Washington Hotel in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire with H.D. White and
J.M. Keynes, the US and English representatives respectively. The Bretton
Woods Agreement was established during the post-world wars by the Western
Allied powers in July 1944. Its aim is to create institutions to prevent the
recurrences of the conditions which led to World War II, to create an efficient
foreign exchange system, to prevent currency devaluation, and to promote
economic growth.

The agreement established International Financial Institutions (IFIs)

which plays an essential role in the smooth functioning of global economy and
to address concerns regarding economic crisis that the world has experienced
during post-world war period. IFI’s goal is to foster social and economic
development in transitioning and developing countries through financial and
advisory assistance.

The World Bank was created to rebuild the war-ravaged economies of

Asia and Europe. The IBRD has evolved into one of the most significant lender
of foreign aid to the world especially to developing nations. It provides loan
with low interest, credits with zero interest, and developmental grants to boost
economic growth. Moreover, it provides strategic advice and financial
assistance to countries ravaged by previous world wars in order to end extreme
poverty and promote overall prosperity. The World Bank has four other
organizations which help the organization to achieve its goal. These were:
1. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
helps middle-income countries to facilitate debt financing.
2. International Development Association (IDA) provides low-
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income countries with interest-free loans.

3. International Finance Corporations offers investment financing and
financial advisory services to private sectors and to developing
countries.
4. International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes helps
in mediating and arbitrating disputes regarding international
investment.

On the other hand, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) was created
to uphold the Bretton Woods system - a fixed exchange rate system. Its main
function is to safeguard the stability of the world’s monetary system. It is
composed of 189 member countries that collaborate and cooperate to achieve
global monetary cooperation, financial stability, international trade, and
economic growth.

However, International Trade Organization (ITO), another organization

developed in the Bretton Woods agreement was not endorsed by the US
Congress. Its principal purpose of liberalizing world trade delegated to the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). GATT was signed into law
on January 1 1948 with 23 member countries. The goal of GATT is to monitor
the economic recovery through elimination of international trade barriers
throughout the post-war period. The organization promoted for the reduction
and removal of tariffs and quotas.

However, the GATT was replaced by World Trade Organization (WTO)

in 1995. WTO is composed of 164 member countries. It resolves disputes
between and among its member countries and supervises the trade among
nations. Its goal is to guarantee that there is a predictable and smooth flow of
trade in the global economy. While GATT focused the reduction of tariff, WTO
focuses more on the non-tariff barriers for trade but WTO was criticized in
countering trade barriers only for developed countries.

B. International/Regional Organization and Alliances

International financial institutions (IFIs) play a significant role in the

social and economic development programs of emerging or emerging
economies in many parts of the world during the post-World War period. Two
geopolitical events marked the post-World War II period – Cold War and the
period of decolonization. The birth of relatively young and developing
countries has prompted for an economic structure to achieve developmental
goals.
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Aside from IFIs, the establishment of international and regional

organization and alliances have also helped countries for economic recovery,
growth, and development during the post-World War II period.

The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)

is an international entity that aims to establish better policies for prosperity,
opportunity, and wellbeing of citizens. It is comprised of 35 member states
encompassing richest countries in the world which are the major exporters of
oil in the world including Saudi Arabia, Ira, Kuwait, Iran, and Venezuela.

The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) founded at

the Baghdad Conference on September 10, 1960 by Venezuela, Iraq, Iran,
Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia aims to monitor and stabilize the price of Oil. It is a
permanent intergovernmental organization which is both beneficial and fair to
both producers and consumers.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was founded by

Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, and Singapore to promote stability
in the region and at the same time economic growth. The socio-cultural,
political-security, and economic factors are the pillars of the ASEAN
community. The development of these areas is the goals of the organization.

The Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) with twenty-one

members over the four continents collaborate together to sustain economic
growth through open trade, economic reform, and investment. The decrease of
barriers such as import quotas and tariffs are the commitment of member
countries to ensure sustainability of growth and development.

The European Union follows political and economic union where 28

member states have a single currency which is Euro. This economic and
political policy delivered peace and stability, and prosperity to the region for
more than five decades. The EU remains to its commitment on the promotion
of the standard of living of the people, transparent and democratic institutions.
The EU is considered as the largest trade block in the world providing the
biggest exporters of services and goods and is also considered to be the largest
market on import.

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) founded by

America, Canada, and Mexico in 1994 aims to reduce the trade and investment
barriers in the production and manufacturing sector, investment, agricultural
sector, and other services. The NAFTA highlights intellectual property rights,
rights of workers and the environment. The goal of NAFTA is for small
businesses to thrive on the lowering of trade barriers.
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Finally, international financial institutions, international and regional

alliances have a primordial role in the economic and social development
programs of developing and underdeveloped countries. They are instrumental
in the functionality of the global economy which is reliant on global
corporations.

C. Global Corporations
The growth of global corporation is a manifestation of globalized market
integration. The Transnational Corporations (TNCs) and Multinational
Corporation (MNCs) propagated across the world and are no longer limited to
their home countries.

Global corporations are considered as one of the important players in

economic integration as it aids for economic development and are potent
entities in a country. There is an expansion of power and influence to other
countries which can influence local and global laws.

Types of Global Corporations

Multinational companies (MNC) operate in more than one country.
MNCs receive a large income from foreign operations and are commonly
controlled from the home country. MNCs invest directly in foreign nations and
respond to the local preferences rather than homogenous products. Decision
making is made by their headquarters from their mother country and it has to
take effect in all subsidiaries globally. However, MNCs face restrictions when
it comes to local markets since management is in centralized system.

Transnational companies (TNC) are businesses with separate divisions

and operate with significant amount of independence in their markets unlike
MNCs. TNCs invest in numerous countries, wherein, decision making is
delegated mainly to local operations and does not have subsidiaries in other
countries. TNCs are free to make decisions based on the trends in the local
markets.

Global corporations remain a potent tool towards economic

globalization and market integration. It boosts economic growth bringing
massive capital and investments, innovations and technological advancements,
and the maximum utilization of country’s resources. Moreover, it makes home
countries rich through the influx of revenues, and inflow of foreign exchange.
It also promotes cooperation among nations which allows partnership and it
promotes bilateral trade which is beneficial to both countries and to the global
economy.
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Global Corporations remain to be the major beneficiaries of the global

commerce gaining more profits from their lucrative businesses. However, the
fragile governance of developing countries may lure foreign investments who
seek high profit margins at the lower cost possible. Predatory global
corporations may take advantage of loose tax and environmental laws of
vulnerable countries which would result to social and environmental problems
undermining the underprivileged sector of the society.

Reflect! Are the actions of the globalization actors a form of intervention

towards state affairs?
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Assessment
A. Read about the history of Coca-cola about their journey to their expansion.
Answer the given questions below.

The Coca-Cola Company

The Coca-Cola company was founded in the United States in 1886.
The company set up bottling plants in Canada in 1906. In 1928, it introduced
the soft drink Coca-Cola at the Olympic Games which were held in
Amsterdam. In the 1940s, the company began to set up bottling plants in
countries around the world.

Coca-Cola is popular because it has been advertised as a brand of

soft drink connected with fun, friends and good times. Its international image
was successfully promoted by a 1971 commercial, where a group of young
people from all over the world gathered on a hilltop in Italy to sing "I'd Like to
Buy the World a Coke." In 1978, the Coca-Cola Company was selected as the
only non-Chinese company allowed to sell packaged cold drinks in the People's
Republic of China.

Today, the company produces nearly 400 brands in over 200

countries. More than 70 percent of the company’s income comes from outside
the United States. Coca-Cola is an extraordinarily successful example of
multinationalization (跨國化). Its success raises the question of why and how it
has been so successful. The multinationalization of the Coca-Cola Company is
also often used as an example to illustrate the concept of economic
globalization.

Note: The following website provides more detailed information about the
history of the company: http://heritage.coca-cola.com/

Answers the questions using correct, specific details from the 5 points
lessons in a clear, concise, and complete manner.
Answers the questions using the correct, albeit incomplete, specific 4 points
details from the lessons in a clear, concise and cohesive manner.

Answers the questions with only one related detail from the lesson 3 points
Answers the questions using specific but unrelated details. 2 points
Answers the questions without using any details from the lessons. 1 points

1. How was economic globalization illustrated in the Coca-cola company?

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2. How were the states and nations affected by expansion of international

companies such as Coca-cola?
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3. What are the factors that facilitated the integration in the global market of the
Coca-cola company? Explain.
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Lesson 3
THE GLOBAL INTERSTATE SYSTEM
Colt Ian U. del Castillo

What Will You Learn?

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. explain the evolution of the concept of state;
2. discuss the nature of the modern-nation states; and
3. analyze how the global interstate system work

What Is This Lesson About?

In the previous lessons, you learned that globalization has many facets,
including global politics. In this lesson, you will learn that the world is divided
into units called states or nation-states. You will also be introduced to the
related concepts of international relations and internationalism.

In a world devoid of a world government, you will realize that the states
remain as the main actors in a global arena tackling political, social, economic,
and environmental concerns among others. These interactions of state-actors
shaped and will continue to determine the global state of affairs.

Definition of Terms
International relations refers to the interaction of two or more states in a
global interstate system.

Nation-state refers to the convergence or alignment of culture (nation) and

the political unit (state).

Internationalism refers to the principle of cooperation among nations for the

promotion of their common good.

Let’s Try This! (Activity 3.1)

Arrange the words below into appropriate columns:

United States of America Filipino People Kurdistan Military Alliance
Palestine Philippines Malaysia Trade Agreements Diplomacy
State Nation International relations
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Let’s Think About It! (Activity 3.2.)

1. How did you classify these words accordingly?
2. Why should knowing states, nations, and international relations
should matter to us?
3. What are the pressing international issues which the Philippines is
involved in? What are they to you?

State as a Product of Historical Evolution

States are considered the primary actors in a global interstate system,
tackling various concerns, such as economics, diplomacy, security, climate
change, etc. Without a global government, states rely on mutual cooperation to
achieve common goals such as global peace and security.

As we know it, the contemporary world is composed of states that are

commonly known as countries. Each has its form of government that
administers the affairs of the state. The United Nations, considered the largest
international organization in the world, currently has 193 member-states
(National Geographic, n.d.). According to the UN, the Philippines is one of its
original charter members, although the country was still under American
occupation in 1945. The newest addition to the community of states is South
Sudan Africa, established in 2011 (Taylor, 2014).

Before discussing international relations in the present, it is important to

know the historical evolution of states and how the concept was born.
Historically, the notion of state is a recent addition to the game of power in a
turbulent 17th century. It is a product of necessity, thus, invented by the major
powers in Europe to protect their interests. Empires at the time fought for
various reasons, including territorial and religious matters. For instance, the
Thirty Years War began in 1618, when the Holy Roman Empire emperor
Ferdinand II attempted to impose Roman Catholicism in his domain. This was
viewed as an act of absolutism. Understandably, this was not received well by
the Protestants, who were the majority of Austria and Bohemia, and who
eventually staged rebellions led by their nobles (Wilson, 2009). However, the
'religious war' eventually shifted to a war for dynasty, territory, and status
(German History, 2018).

The Thirty Years' War was concluded in 1648 by virtue of the Treaty of
Westphalia or Peace of Westphalia and provided stability in Europe. Peace
settlement brought the concept of sovereignty under the principle of non-
interference, which served as the foundation for the claim of legal identity of
the modern nation-states. The conclusion of war with the treaty connotes that
people inherently do not want to be dictated by other entities as regards their
 25

sociocultural, economic, and political life. This exemplifies the idea of

sovereignty or independence reminiscent of the contemporary world.
Therefore, significant historical developments such as this had a major impact
on our present system, i.e., the global interstate system.

Fig. 1: Illustration of Napoleon Bonaparte Crossing the Alps (1800)

Source: Jacques-Louis David (1805) as cited in Pollitt (n.d.)

However, the Westphalian system was challenged by Napoleon

Bonaparte (Claudio & Abinales, 2018). He was convinced that the system
served only the interests of the monarchs. To him, the ideals of the French
Revolution i.e. liberty, equality, and fraternity, should be the creed of the
people of Europe. To advance his vision, Bonaparte launched a policy of
aggression in Europe that led to the Napoleonic wars and was deemed as the
extension of the French Revolution. Napoleon had some success and briefly
established French hegemony in Europe. However, to protect their interests,
the great powers of Europe launched a counter mechanism called the Concert
of Europe- a grand alliance that defeated even the formidable force of the tyrant
Napoleon. The Concert was a product of understanding that individual
interests can be exceeded by cooperative efforts to end the war (Schneid, 2011).
Thus, these 'states' in Europe persisted when Napoleon was removed from
power. History is replete with demonstrations of such cooperation and
alliances for a common goal.

Let’s Try This! (Activity 3.3)

1. What is the significant outcome of the Treaty of Westphalia?
2. Why did Napoleon Bonaparte object to the Treaty of Westphalia? Do you
agree?
 26

The Nature of Modern Nation-State

Nation and state are distinct but are closely related concepts. Thus, it is
important to delineate the two based on their fundamental differences. The
nation is an ethnic concept, while the state is a political concept. Nation refers
to a group of persons bound together by common attributes such as
history/origin, language, culture, customs, or tradition and who believe they
are different from others (De Leon, 2019). On the other hand, the state is the
political organization of the society that encompasses certain elements, such as
the people or population, government, territory, and sovereignty. The modern
state is best defined by James Garner (2018) as:
A community of more or less numerous persons occupying a definite portion of
territory, having a government of their own to which a great body of inhabitants
render obedience, and enjoying freedom from foreign intervention.

See the definition of each element in Table 1 below.

Table 1: Definition of the Elements of State

Elements Definition/description
A community of persons sufficient in number and capable of maintaining
People or
the permanent existence of the community & held together by a common
population
bond of law.
A definite portion territory over which an entity exercises permanent
Territory
sovereignty.
Institution or its aggregate by which an independent society makes and
carries out those rules of action which are necessary to enable men to live
Government
in a social state. Or simply the agency through which the will of the people
is formulated, expressed, and carried out.
Sovereignty Independence from outside control and being the boss in its own turf.
Sources: Bernas (2009), De Leon, 2019; and Roskin et al. (2012)

Not all nations are states. Nation is strictly related to "people" (De Leon,
2019). A nation, in order to become a state, has to possess the four elements
mentioned. When elements are incomplete, people struggle to establish their
own government, take control of a territory, and declare or claim independence
(sovereignty). If these are achieved, a nation can have a legitimate claim to
statehood. However, a new country or state may have to earn the recognition
of other states, which signifies that they are "acknowledging the capacity of an
entity to exercise rights belonging to statehood" (Bernas, 2009, p. 74). An
example of this is the right to sovereignty and self-defense. When an aggressor
threatens its existence, it has the right to use measures to defend its existence
as a state.

Moreover, recognition also implies that states are willing to establish

diplomatic and economic relations with one another. The Philippines was
 27

simply a nation during the Commonwealth period. However, it became a state

when the Americans granted its independence on July 4, 1946.

Nonetheless, a nation may have one or more states and vice versa. Arab
nations, for instance, are divided into Middle Eastern states. The United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is one state composed of
Britons, Scots, Welch, and Irish people (see the political map in Figure 1 below).
Fig 2: The Political Map of the United Kingdom

Source: Roskin, 2013 p. 27

In our case in the Philippines, Prof. Julkipli Wadi (2006) observed that
Bangasamoro claims a distinct national identity. However, their elites submit
to the authority of the Philippine government (Claudio & Abinales, 2018). The
Philippine government has implemented policies such as the Bangsamoro
Organic Law in an effort to strengthen Filipino nationalism, particularly in the
south.

A nation-state exists when there is alignment or convergence between the

nation and state (Quilop, 2006), the population is relatively homogeneous, and
the core national group believes that the state belongs to them and their
territory is their homeland (Britannica, n.d.). Nation-states are states of and for
particular nations (Brubaker, 1996). Based on this description, many of the
states in the world today, including the Philippines, claim to be nation-states.

Modern nation-states need to be impersonal and insulated from the

influence of the social groups (especially the elites) in order to pursue the
national goals and aspirations of its people and "not simply reflective of the
demands or particularistic interests of social groups or classes in the society"
(Doner 1991 as cited in Quilop, 2006 p. 3). This means that states and their
 28

agencies (government) are assembled to realize the national aspirations of their

people.

Let’s Try This! (Activity 3.4)

1. What are the elements of the state?
2. Why is state recognition important?
3. What is a nation-state?

The Global Interstate System

The contemporary world is a community of states or nation-states called
an interstate system. Each of these states has its own interests to pursue in its
interactions with one another. These interactions between two or more states
are called international relations and are an important aspect of globalization.
However, we have to distinguish international relations from International
Relations (IR). When you read International Relations (initials are capitalized)
in a book or journal article, it refers to the subfield of Political Science that
specializes in state interactions (international relations).

In the interactions of states, they agree on matters relating to economics,

security, and diplomacy, to name a few that are of mutual interest to the states
involved. For example, they may enter into agreements (typically treaties or
conventions) and are represented by their governments, which they deem fit to
achieve their national goals, say, economic expansion. Therefore, states interact
with one another for a particular purpose. In the case of the Philippines,
through our government, the state is mandated to pursue an independent
foreign policy in our dealings with other states. The paramount consideration
in these relations is always our national sovereignty, territorial integrity, and
national interests (De Leon, 2019). This means that the state should always put
the interest of its people first and see to it that no act shall be committed to the
detriment of that interest. Otherwise, government officials shall be accountable
to its people.

At present, we do not have a global or world government. Though

Immanuel Kant was pessimistic of world global government as it is prone to
tyranny, Jeremy Bentham was open for administration of global affairs through
international law (Claudio & Abinales, 2018). However, we do have global
governance, which will be discussed in length in the next lesson. Global
governance is anchored mainly on the cooperation of states for their common
good. Because of the perceived benefits of the cooperation, there is a desire for
greater cooperation among sovereign states but with emphasis on maintaining
independence. This is called internationalism. Internationalism is an advocacy,
principle, or ideology that seeks to attain shared goals among nations through
voluntary cooperation. International organizations, such as the United Nations,
 29

have facilitated cooperation among sovereign states, and much has been
achieved. For example, the commitment of the members of the UN to tackle
and act on humanitarian, security, and development issues has eased some of
the suffering of people in the world.

However, critics of the interstate system argue that the system promotes
the capitalistic agenda of developed countries under the so-called neo-
imperialism. Immanuel Wallerstein (2004) and Andre Gunder Frank,
prominent thinkers on world systems theory, maintain that the current
interstate system is designed to benefit the advanced nations
(core/metropolitan) primarily to the disadvantage of the developing nations
(periphery/satellite). Cooperation appears to be a facade, and the benefit is
imbalanced because the core extracts natural resources at a cheaper price and
then sells finished goods to the periphery at a much higher price. They argued
further that the system allows the developed countries to earn more and the
developing less, thereby widening the income gap between the rich nations and
the "poor" ones.

Theories are scholarly attempts to explain certain phenomena. They

have their own strengths and weaknesses. World systems theory is a noble
attempt to point out the interstate system's weaknesses, which also has its
strength. However, it lacks attention to the positive avenues that the present
interstate system offers, for instance, the development of the
"underdeveloped." Otherwise, how can we explain the development and
progress of China, Singapore, Taiwan, and South Korea based on
macroeconomics? Development may largely depend on how states play on the
politics of nations (international relations) and manage their domestic politics.

Let’s Try This! (Activity 3.5)

1. Why do states interact with one another?
2. What are the considerations for the Philippines in interacting with other
states?

Summary
The world at present is shaped by the interactions of state-actors in the
global arena. How state actors interact globally will definitely influence the
characteristics of the contemporary world. In a world of states, sovereignty
remains a strong basis of states' legal identities, a legacy of the Westphalian
system. States want to continue their exercise of freedom or independence.
With a strong emphasis on independence, the community of nations is without
a global government. However, with the help of international organizations,
sovereign states rely on cooperation to maintain harmonious relations and to
promote their common good.
 30

==================================================================
Assessments

Provide concise answers on the guide questions below. (30 points)

A. How did state as an idea evolve through time?

B. Why are states naturally protective of their independence?

 31

C. How do states interact in the global inter-state system?

 32

Lesson 4
A WORLD OF REGIONS: ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN
NATIONS (ASEAN) IN CONTEXT
Beverly T. Garcia & Kenneth C. Lisbo

What Will You Learn?

Lesson Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Discuss the concept of regional cooperation in the context of ASEAN
integration;
2. examine ASEAN's initiatives and approaches for fostering regional
cooperation; and
3. write an article that synthesizes ASEAN integration identifying key
themes, challenges, and impacts on member states.

What Is This Lesson About?

Globalization is a phenomenon that facilitates the movement of
people across nations, facilitating the endless flow of commodities and ideas
especially in the context of regionalism. In this lesson, you will explore the
contemporary world of regions and the thriving dynamics within Southeast
Asia. As the world is continually globalizing, it's important to understand how
regional organizations emerge and evolve, shaping the global community. This
chapter will examine the case of Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN), its role as an international organization in the context of economic,
political and cultural globalization.

In the following sections, we will uncover the initiatives and key

features of regionalism, including its dynamic nature, and its significance in the
dealing of global affairs. At the center of investigating ASEAN, this section will
examine the organization's significant initiatives, approaches and programs.

Lastly, as we transition to a more comprehensive understanding of

regionalism and to encompass global diversity. We may reject conventional
Eurocentric viewpoints and adopt a flexible and ever-changing understanding
of regions worldwide. By adopting this new viewpoint, we will be able to
analyze the complicated interdependent connections between regionalism and
globalization in our evolving world.
 33

Let’s Try This (Activity 4.1) - ASEAN Member Countries Map Challenge
Instruction:
1. Examine and analyze the collage of pictures and identify the Southeast
Asian countries.

Let’s Think About It (Activity 4.2) - Thought Experiment on Regionalism in

Focus: In the Context of ASEAN Integration
1. Think about a hypothetical global cooperation (e.g. trading agreement,
free visa, maritime cooperation, and etc.).
2. Reflect on how you believe the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) would respond to this initiative based on your perceived
actions and mandates of this international organization.
3. Consider both the strengths and limitations of the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in your scenario.
4. Share your thought experiment with the class.

Definition of Terms
Regionalism is an innovative intention that reorganizes social, political, cultural,
and economic life around the imagined, identified and specific region rather than
the traditional political unit of the nation-state that is limited to its boundaries. It
aims to strengthening regional political and governmental institutions through
cooperation that will benefit the local population by improving the regional
economy through improved resource allocation and regional development.
 34

Regional Cooperation in the Context of ASEAN

Figure 1: The Map of ASEAN

Source: (Shvili, 2021)

The concept of regionalism or regional cooperation has

progressively developed as a central phenomenon in global politics. It
influences various aspects of worldwide affairs such as economic, political and
cultural globalization. Yet, its understanding is often challenged due to varied
interpretations across different contexts and literature. The crucial element to
understand about regionalism is that regions are not simply pre-given, policy-
driven, or interstate frameworks. Instead, they are 'made and unmade' societal
constructs developed through collective human action and identity. Regions
carry no 'natural' or 'given' label- their boundaries, characteristics, and
structures are carved out through historical interactions and strategic moves
(Söderbaum, 2013).

In the presence of regionalism or regional cooperation, it can include and

facilitate promising features that will facilitate mutual benefits and interests
among member states. Here are some of the main key features of regional
cooperation (Kimura, et.al., 2022, Lombaerde, 2024):
 35

KEY FEATURES OF DESCRIPTION

REGIONAL
COOPERATION
It includes the creation of free trade areas, customs
unions, and common markets with the aim of
Economic Integration innovating trade and investment between member
states of a regional cooperation. The integration of
regional economies can result in enhanced
economic growth and development through the
removal of or minimal trade barriers and the
standardization of regulations and standards
(Kimura, et.al., 2022, Lombaerde, 2024).
It involves engaging in political discourse and
Political Integration collaborating on matters such as governance,
security, and democracy. These actions can
contribute to the stabilization of regions, and the
aim for the promotion of common political
principles and practices (Lombaerde, 2024).
It promotes social integration and fostering cultural
Social and Cultural Exchange empathy among member states. This may facilitate
collaboration in the areas of education, healthcare,
and cultural interchange to cultivate enhanced
mutual understanding and collaboration
(Lombaerde, 2024).
It effectively tackles transboundary environmental
Environmental Protection and challenges by developing collective efforts for
Sustainability environmental preservation, responsible utilization
of natural resources, and mitigation of climate
change. This frequently involves the enactment and
implementation of treaties and sharing of
technologies for sustainability (Lombaerde, 2024).
It addresses regional security challenges through
Security Cooperation collaborative initiatives and agreements tackling
regional issues like as terrorism, transnational
crime, and human trafficking. Regional security
frameworks frequently bolster collective defense
mechanisms and crisis management capacities
(Lombaerde, 2024).

Furthermore, an example of a regional cooperation is the

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) which includes ten-
member nations, specifically Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia,
Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Its mission is to
bolster security and economic cooperation among the members. The combined
gross domestic product (GDP) of these countries is an impressive $3.2 trillion,
with a collective population totaling 662 million. The group's activities have
 36

included discussions surrounding the establishment of the world's most

extensive free trade agreement; it has also signed six complimentary trade pacts
with regional countries. Such activities underscore its significant role in
facilitating economic integration within Asia (Council on Foreign Relations,
n.d.).

Historically, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and

Thailand joined together to form ASEAN in 1967 to form a unified front against
the rise of communism. The Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast
Asia, which was signed in 1976, emphasizes respect for one another and
refraining from meddling in the internal affairs of other nations (Council on
Foreign Relations, n.d.).

The member countries of ASEAN adhere to core principles in their

mutual relations as enshrined in the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in
Southeast Asia (TAC). These guiding tenets form the bedrock of their
collaborative efforts and interactions:

● mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial

integrity, and
● the national identity of all nations;
● the right of every State to lead its national existence free from external
interference,
● subversion or coercion;
● non-interference in the internal affairs of one another;
● settlement of differences or disputes in a peaceful manner;
● renunciation of the threat or use of force; and
● effective cooperation among themselves.
ASEAN membership experienced a twofold increase by the '90s.
The integration of new members and a series of geopolitical events leading to
relative stability in mainland Southeast Asia saw the expansion of alliance.
These events included the cessation of Cambodia's civil unrest in 1991, the
conclusion of the Cold War, and the revival of diplomatic relations between the
United States and Vietnam in 1995. This period also marked the organization's
increased efforts to promote regional cooperation, coinciding with the
admissions of various nations - Brunei (1984), Vietnam (1995), followed by Laos
and Myanmar (1997), and lastly, Cambodia (1999) (Council on Foreign
Relations, n.d.).

Since 2000, ASEAN nations have attained notable advancements

in increasing wages and economic possibilities, particularly for women, as well
as decreasing poverty. Strong income growth, structural change, and
infrastructure upgrades continue to underpin sustainable development in
 37

ASEAN, manifesting the economic vitality of the region. In 2002, East Timor
expressed a strong desire to join the ASEAN, and it has been granted observer
status in ASEAN. Presently, efforts and processes are ongoing for East Timor
to fulfill and comply with the requirements for full ASEAN membership.
However, East Timor has not yet been granted a full membership in the
organization.

Presently, the ASEAN nations are on track to end global poverty

by 2030, a significant milestone to sustained economic growth and sound policy
initiatives. Additionally, gender equality is already very well-established in
several ASEAN nations. As a result, with ongoing income growth supporting
it, it is anticipated that economic well-being in ASEAN nations will continue to
converge toward levels seen in advanced Asia (International Monetary Fund,
n.d.).

As the nations within ASEAN strive towards the Sustainable

Development Goals (SDGs), they continue to receive valuable support from the
International Monetary Fund (IMF). Both organizations share a common
objective of stimulating economic growth and driving sustainable
development by promoting integration and collaboration amongst respective
member states.

In line with these goals, the IMF has deepened its engagement with
ASEAN countries through its offerings of policy analysis, advice, and capacity
building, all aimed at supporting their respective political initiatives. Through
such arrangements with the IMF, ASEAN countries have seen progress in
several areas. These include improved tax revenue generation, strengthened
state infrastructure capabilities, expanded economic and financial inclusion,
proactive responses to climate change issues, upgraded economic institutions
for transparent governance, and better statistical capabilities.

Although the transformation required for sustainable

development may require time to take effect, there are indications that these
joint efforts are starting to yield results (International Monetary Fund, n.d.).

Let’s Try This (Activity 4.3). After you have presented the ideas of regionalism
in the context of ASEAN, ask the students the following questions:
1. Analyze the key features of regional cooperation as previously
discussed in this chapter. What is the importance of each feature in
pursuing regional cooperation especially in the context of ASEAN?
2. Discuss the historical development of ASEAN. Which geopolitical
and historical events facilitated its expansion and increased regional
influence?
 38

3. How does the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia

(TAC) guide the ASEAN members towards cooperation and
integration?

Approaches and Initiatives of ASEAN for Fostering Regional Cooperation

As discussed from the first section of this chapter, regionalism
manifests in different region around the world, one notable example of
regionalism is the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). In terms
of diplomacy, the organization manage to deal with the rivalries between
powerful core states via a method known as neutrality and non-alignment. This
method includes not only the management of self-interests of these core states
but also socio-cultural normative frameworks that govern the region. Also,
ASEAN's long-term diplomatic strategy maintains neutrality, impartiality, and
autonomy (Yoshimatsu, 2023).

Furthermore, the formation of the Association of Southeast Asian

Nations (ASEAN) exhibited a crucial role towards regional cooperation and
integration. The ASEAN Declaration, signed by the Foreign Ministers of
Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand, described the
organization's aim for regional integration. These encapsulates and framed
through economic, social, cultural, technical, and educational cooperation, with
a focus on facilitating and maintaining regional peace and stability through
adherence to the principles of justice, good governance, and the principles and
values of the United Nations (UN) Charter (Association of Southeast Asian
Nations, n.d.).

Additionally, the organization facilitated a multifaceted approach

to develop regional cooperation. The organization aims to address the different
economic, social, and environmental challenges through collaborative
initiatives which is crucial within the region. This section explores several key
strategies and initiatives that ASEAN has implemented to enhance regional
cooperation and integration.

1. Economic Integration in the Context of ASEAN

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) has made significant
initiatives to facilitate economic integration through the establishment of the
ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) Blueprint 2025. This initiative outlined
to create a cohesive regional economy within Southeast Asia to reduce and
minimize trade barriers, that will improve trading activities within the
Southeast Asian region. The AEC Blueprint 2025 aims to promote equitable and
sustainable development, that will enable the member states to benefit from
regional economic growth (Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 2015 as
cited in ASEAN Institute, 2024).
 39

Also, efforts towards trade, the organization has increased trade

within the region, from $10 billion in 1967 to $2.3 trillion in 2015. Regional
projects and initiative like the ASEAN Highway Network and the Singapore-
Kunming Rail Link facilitated and enhanced connectivity. This intention
enabled the movement of goods and people across regional borders (World
Economic Forum, 2017) .

The organization cultivated efforts to integrate financial markets,

including cooperation on macroeconomic and financial issues. The
organization supported the financial integration together with the Northeast
Asian countries through initiative like the Chiang Mai Initiative
Multilateralization (CMIM) offers financial support to ASEAN countries
during financial crises (Hill, 2018) .

Lastly, on the economic front, ASEAN has headed the creation of

ASEAN+1 Free Trade Area (FTA) networks with China, Japan, South Korea,
Australia/New Zealand, and India as a project that will foster a Pan-East Asian
Free Trade Area (FTA). These trading projects primarily aim to foster stronger
economic ties within the region, simultaneously acting as a diplomatic policy
to manage geopolitical rivalries (Yoshimatsu, 2023).

2. ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC)

The ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC) was established on
improving the quality of life for ASEAN citizens through initiatives in the
context of education, health, employment, social protection, and the promotion
of cultural heritage. The organization pursued programs to facilitate poverty
reduction, enhancing social welfare, and addressing social inequities
(Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 2024).

Furthermore, a cohort on the Culture of Prevention (CoP) was

established to ensure the implementation of the ASEAN Declaration on Culture
of Prevention (CoP) for a Peaceful, Inclusive, Resilient, Healthy and
Harmonious Society, adopted by the ASEAN Leaders during the 31st
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Summit in Manila last
November 13, 2017. This contains developing an ASEAN plan of action to
promoting six (6) thrusts as contained in the declaration, which are
(i) a culture of peace and intercultural understanding;
(ii) a culture of respect for all;
(iii) a culture of good governance at all levels;
(iv) a culture of resilience and care for the environment;
(v) a culture of healthy lifestyle; and
 40

(vi) a culture supporting the values of moderation (Association of

Southeast Asian Nations, 2024).

3. Environmental Protection and Sustainability

In the context of environment and sustainability, the organization signed an
agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution in 2002. This landmark treaty is
the world's first regional agreement that aims to address transboundary
pollution from forest fires. This environmental agreement aims to mitigate the
impact of haze pollution on health, the environment, and economies across
Southeast Asia (Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 2024).

Also, the organization pursued the ASEAN Peatland Forests

Project (APFP) funded by Global Environment Facility (GEF) & International
Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and executed for four years (July
2009 – December 2014). The countries involved in this project were Malaysia,
Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Brunei Darussalam, and Singapore. The
project demonstrated, implemented, and scale up the sustainable management
and rehabilitation of peatland forests in Southeast Asia. This project coincides
within the framework of the ASEAN Peatland Management Initiative (APMI)
and directly supports the ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy (APMS) and
associated National Action Plans on Peatlands (NAPs) (Association of
Southeast Asian Nations, 2024).

The project tackled the problems and causes that prevent sustainable peatland
management while, at the same time, delivered tangible environmental
benefits, reduces peat fires and associated transboundary haze pollution by
focus on:
● enhancing institutional capacity and framework;
● Minimizing the rate of degradation on peatlands in Southeast Asia;
● Strengthening integrated management and rehabilitation of peatlands at
target sites; and
● Collaboration with the private sector and local communities to facilitate
sustainable peatland management (Association of Southeast Asian
Nations, 2024).
Moreover, in 2005, the organization established the Centre for Biodiversity
(ACB). This is the response of the ASEAN to facilitate biodiversity loss. It is
an intergovernmental organization that facilitates cooperation among the
ten (10) ASEAN member states and with regional and international
organizations to engage on the conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity, and the just, fair and equitable sharing and utilization of
natural resources. This initiative with funding support from the European
Union. The project was implemented with two (2) key objectives:
a) facilitate and amplify biodiversity conservation and;
 41

b) strengthen and enhance institutional networking among ASEAN

countries and between ASEAN and European Union partner
organizations (Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 2024).
4. ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC)
The ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) was created to
ensure that ASEAN member states live harmoniously with one another and
with the wider world in a just and democratic environment. The APSC
Blueprint 2025 builds on over four decades of political and security
cooperation, promoting regional peace and stability through conflict
prevention, management, and resolution efforts. Few notable milestones
include the establishment of the ASEAN Charter, which provides a legal and
institutional framework for ASEAN, and the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation
in Southeast Asia (TAC), which promotes peaceful settlement of disputes
(Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 2023).

Furthermore, in terms of strategic positioning, the organization

has implemented mechanisms to monitor nations and reduce potential power
conflicts within the region. Notable instances include the organization's
proactive involvement in resolving the China-US and China-Japan conflicts
(Yoshimatsu, 2023). In order to enhance stability in the Asia-Pacific region, the
organization has played a crucial role in establishing regional frameworks,
such the East Asia Summit (EAS), the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), and the
ASEAN Defence Ministers' Meeting-Plus (ADMM+). The alliance aims to foster
regional cohesion and long-lasting stability through the implementation of
diverse strategies and efforts through neutrality (Yoshimatsu, 2023).

In this context, the organization adheres to a position of neutrality

and non-alignment in dealing of the geopolitical rivalries involving the United
States of America (USA), China, and Japan. Adopting a non-aligned position is
crucial for ASEAN to effectively manage the complexities of global diplomacy
without being compelled to align with any particular faction, therefore
safeguarding its regional interests and cooperation within the Southeast Asian
region.

In connection to this, the ASEAN's policy was influenced by its

historical experience with colonialism and the Cold War. These historical
events highlighted the dangers of becoming entangled in conflicts involving
powerful nation-states. The organization aims to prevent the recurrence of
similar global disasters by strictly adhering to the principles of neutrality and
non-alignment. ASEAN's commitment to peace and stability in the region is
clearly pursued in the important treaties such as the Declaration for a Zone of
Peace, Freedom, and Neutrality (ZOPFAN) and the Treaty of Amity and
Cooperation (Piromya, 2023).
 42

Let’s Try This (Activity 4.4). After you have presented the ideas of ASEAN’s
iniatives and approaches, ask the students the following questions:
1. How does ASEAN's initiatives for regional cooperation deals with
economic, socio-cultural, environmental, and political-security concerns
in Southeast Asia? Please provide specific examples from each of these
contexts.
2. How does ASEAN manage to deal with the interests of its member states
and the geopolitical rivalries involving superpowers like the United
States of America (USA), China, and Japan?

Summary
This chapter, "A World of Regions: ASEAN in Context," analyzes the
concept of regionalism discovered through a comprehensive study of ASEAN
and their existence within global politics through its establishment and
initiatives.

This chapter elucidated the contemporary nature of regionalism in

the context of Southeast Asia. It illuminated that regions are not simply policy-
driven construct, but complicated societal entity, created over time through
collective human action and societal identities. Also, a thorough examination
of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) provides an exemplary
illustration of pragmatic regionalism in many of its initiatives through
programs and agreements.

Furthermore, global entities, including international organizations

like the European Union (EU), the Association of South East Asian Nations
(ASEAN), and the United Nations (UN), wield considerable influence in
the context of regionalism. These organizations, by way of economic
integration, conflict resolution, and safeguarding human rights, guide regional
policies and tactics, thus illuminating the positive impacts of regionalism
especially in the Asia and pacific.

Lastly, the chapter culminates by emphasizing the need to move

beyond the traditional Eurocentric viewpoint, urging readers to appreciate the
fluidity and diverse nature of regions. This perspective allows for a better
understanding of regional dynamics. The chapter also discusses the
transformative role of ASEAN in many contexts. This chapter offers a holistic
understanding of regionalism and its relevance to the unfolding global
scenario. These insights will be valuable for studying the future development
in the Southeast Asia.
 43

====================================================================

Assessment
A. Exploring ASEAN Integration: Annotated Bibliography of Research
Studies and Analysis
Instructions:
❖ Write an article that thoroughly review of at least 5 research
studies/articles on ASEAN regional cooperation.
❖ Ensure the sources are scholarly and relevant to the topic.
❖ Create an annotated bibliography that includes the following for content
and criteria:

EXCELLENT GOOD SATISFACTORY (3) NEEDS POOR

CRITERIA (5) (4) IMPROVEMENT (2) (1)
SCORE

It provides a comprehensive and It offers a clear explanation It gives a general It provides a vague It fails to explain
clear explanation of regional of regional cooperation in explanation of regional explanation of regional the concept of
CLARITY AND cooperation. It thoroughly ASEAN. It offers good cooperation in ASEAN cooperation with minimal regional
DEPTH OF discusses the significance and examples and context, but with limited examples or context or examples. cooperation in
EXPLANATION implications within ASEAN. lacks some depth. context. ASEAN
Includes detailed examples and adequately.
context.
It deeply connects the concept of It clearly connects regional It generally connects It provides minimal It does not connect
regional cooperation to ASEAN cooperation to ASEAN regional cooperation to connection between regional
RELEVANCE TO integration, showing a strong integration but misses ASEAN integration but regional cooperation and cooperation to
ASEAN understanding of how some intricate details. with limited ASEAN integration. ASEAN
INTEGRATION cooperation fosters integration. explanation. integration
effectively.
It thoroughly examines multiple It examines several It discusses a few It only mentions initiatives It fails to
key initiatives and approaches initiatives and approaches initiatives and and approaches with little adequately discuss
COVERAGE OF that the ASEAN has taken to with good detail but may approaches with basic detail or specificity. ASEAN's
ASEAN'S foster regional cooperation. It miss some key aspects. details. initiatives and
INITIATIVES provides specific examples. approaches.
It uses a wide range of credible It uses several credible It uses some credible It uses few sources, not all It fails to use
sources. The article was properly sources, mostly well-cited, sources with basic credible, with poor citations credible sources or
USE OF cited in an annotated with an annotated citations and an and a weak annotated provide an
SOURCES AND bibliography that includes bibliography that includes annotated bibliography bibliography. annotated
ANNOTATED thorough summaries and good summaries and with limited summaries bibliography.
BIBLIOGRAPHY evaluations of each source. evaluations. and evaluations.

TOTAL SCORE
 44

Lesson 5
GLOBAL GOVERNANCE & INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
Beverly T. Garcia & Kenneth C. Lisbo

What Will You Learn?

Lesson Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. discuss the emergence of global governance and the structure of the
United Nations;
2. analyze the notions of global public health and global security and
challenges of United Nations; and
3. layout an infographic material that illustrates the present conditions of
global governance and United Nations (UN).

What Is This Lesson About?

In the previous lesson, you learned the ideas and perspectives of
economic globalization. In this topic, it will cover the concepts and notions of
political globalization in the areas of global governance and international
organizations. The results of global wars, internal strife, expanding
international trades and alliances, and many alarming global concerns that
threaten humanity are primarily responsible for the rise of global governance
and its implications for global public health.

Moreover, the unstoppable movement of people, the interactions of nation-

states throughout history and the development of technology and
communications enabled planetary connectivity and facilitated the interest of
the community of nations.

Let’s Try This (Activity 5.1) - UN Word Quest: Global Governance Edition
Instructions:
2. Analyze the collage of four (4) pictures and identify the common
theme.
3. Utilize the pictures provided to form a word related to global
governance and the UN.

First Word Quest: This word has nine (9) letters. It represents the skill, process
and practice of conducting negotiations between countries, a core activity of
the United Nations (UN) and its member countries in maintaining international
relations and preventing conflicts.
 45

Second Word Quest: This word has six (6) letters. It refers to formal agreement
which helps United Nations and its member countries to negotiate and discuss
global issues and cooperation.

Let’s Think About It (Activity 5.2) - Thought Experiment on Situating United

Nations: In the Context of Global Health and Global Security
5. Think about a hypothetical global crisis (e.g., a major natural disaster, a
new global pandemic, a sudden outbreak of war).
6. Reflect on how you believe the United Nations (UN) would respond to
this crisis based on your perceived actions and mandates of this
international organization.
7. Consider both the strengths and limitations of the United Nations (UN)
in your scenario.
8. Share your thought experiment with the class.
 46

Definition of terms

Global Governance is a formal and informal set of collective actions to establish

international institutions and norms to facilitate and deal with national and global
issues or problems. It covers wide-reaching issues such as human rights,
development, democratization, environment, security, terrorism and international
investments.

International Organizations formed by sovereign nations and other international

entities through treaties and other legal arrangements to achieve particular global
objectives and serve as a setting and framework for deliberation, resource
allocation, and coordination of action. It can be divided into two major categories:
intergovernmental institutions, also known as “public” and non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), also known as “private”.

Global Governance: The United Nations in Context

The devastation shaped by World War I led to widespread support for
the concept of an international organization, President Woodrow Wilson of the
United States of America (USA) proposed the League of Nations to prevent
another world war (Hanhimaki, 2008). The 1919 Paris Peace Conference
included a covenant establishing the League of Nations, which held its first
council meeting on January 16, 1920 (Khan Academy, n.d.). The League of
Nations was the earliest form of global governance to cultivate international
cooperation and achieve global peace and security.

However, The League of Nations was handicapped by its inability to

exert adequate pressure in imminent cases of aggression. It was turned
ineffective by the absence of the United States of America, and its significance
was further weakened by the lack of respect among other superpowers.
(Hanhimaki, 2008). On April 19, 1946, the League of Nations was officially
dissolved, for its ineffectiveness and inability to prevent the occurrence of
World War II.

The end of World War II was a crucial historical event for the
establishment of present-day global governance. The leaders of the alliance
against the fascist axis planned the post-war world, specifically the structure of
the UN and the strategy to win the support of the rest of the world, by
presenting a framework to strengthen international security and peace for all
(Zürn, 2018).

A liberal economic order with open borders was established. Its primary
purpose is to prevent global economic instability. In contrast to the League of
Nations, the United States of America (USA) joined the United Nations to
 47

become a key player in the institutionalized world order. As a consequence of

the United State of Americas' extraordinary economic output and political
ideas, the United Nations attained great heights and accomplishment (Zürn,
2018).

In October 24, 1945, the United Nations was founded as an international

organization. Currently composed of 193 Member States, its activities are
governed by the purposes and principles outlined in the United Nations
Charter (United Nations, n.d.). Also, the Philippines, was one of the Fifty-one
(51) founding signatories of the United Nations (UN) Charter. Additionally,
the Philippines was represented by the late Carlos P. Romulo, at the San
Francisco Conference, USA where the charter was created.

Moreover, the United Nations has played an important role in shaping

the world we know today for over 75 years. The United Nations has
consistently been called upon to respond to both human and natural disasters
and conflicts, to coordinate global efforts on and confront the challenges of
poverty, health and food security, women's empowerment, and climate
change.

Regardless of its numerous challenges over the years, it was difficult to

envision a world without the United Nations (UN) as it celebrated its 75th
anniversary in 2020. It has embodied humanity's aspirations for a better world
through conflict prevention. It has fostered a legal culture and the rule of law.
It has increased awareness of the plight of the world's poor and accelerated
development by providing technical assistance. It has fostered a concern for
human rights, such as the emancipation of women, children’s rights, and
indigenous peoples' specific rights and recognition. Throughout its history, it
has inspired numerous concepts and ideas, such as peacekeeping, human
development, human security, gender equality, and sustainable development.
It greatly contributed to making multilateral diplomacy the primary means for
establishing international norms, public policies, and laws. It has facilitated the
formation of global policy networks and collaborations with other actors. It is
fundamental to global governance (Mingst et al., 2022).

In the absence of central political authority, such as in the international

system, scholars used the word "governance" to represent the regulation of
interdependent relations. It includes the institutions, policies, norms,
procedures, and initiatives by which states and their citizens attempt to bring
more predictability, stability, and order to their responses to transnational
challenges. While acknowledging the value of global governance, we are
experiencing the growing need to deal more efficiently with global problems
in the face of increased interdependence (Bloor, 2023).
 48

Global governance sources are numerous. States sign treaties or

international agreements and form organizations as part of the process of
establishing public international law. Although not having formal state power,
Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) can pressure individual states to act
in some way.

Global governance emerged when the nation-state weakened, along

with some of its governance functions, as well as some Intergovernmental
Organizations and treaties, proved insufficient in resolving transnational
issues. This failure resulted in the establishment of the United Nations (UN), a
widely recognized international organization. The League of Nations' demise,
which failed to prevent the outbreak of World War II, prompted the
establishment of the United Nations. The United Nations (UN) was established
after World War II as an international peacekeeping organization and a forum
for resolving conflicts and to foster international peace and cooperation
between nations. The horrors of the Holocaust and the devastation caused by
the war shocked its founders. They wanted to create an organization that they
hoped would be able to prevent such disasters from occurring in the future and
improve the lives of all people in the world.
 49

Figure 1: The United Nations System Principal Organ

Source: Consolidated from different Sources crafted by the authors
 50

Let’s Try This (Activity 5.3). After you have presented the emergence of Global
Governance and the structure of the United Nations, ask the students the
following questions:
1. How did the failures of the League of Nations influence the
development of the United Nations, and what essential lessons were
learned to determine its creation and structure?
2. How do the Security Council and General Assembly of the United
Nations ensure international peace and security?
3. How does the UN's framework promote international cooperation?

Global Governance of Public Health, Security & Challenges of The United

Nations
Governance of global public health refers to the system of laws,
regulations, and organizations that oversee the well-being of individuals
worldwide. It includes the control and prevention of infectious diseases, the
promotion of healthy lifestyles, and the provision of healthcare services, among
others. In the context of globalization, global governance on public health, a
topic with multiple aspects and complexity, has become significant. The
interconnection of our society, made possible by technological and
transportation advancements, has generated new challenges for public health
because illnesses can rapidly spread across borders and affect communities all
over the world (Physio-pedia, n.d.).

Global health governance manifests through the formal and informal

institutions, norms, and procedures that govern or directly influence global
health policy and collectively promote and protect health. In general, the
essential functions of health governance include convening stakeholders,
defining shared values, ensuring coherence, establishing standards and
regulatory frameworks, providing direction (e.g., setting priorities), mobilizing
and aligning resources, and encouraging research (Sidhar & Clinton, 2014).

Kickbusch & Szabo, 2016 as cited in Physio-pedia. (n.d.), define

governance in the global health domain as transnational and cross-cutting
across three political spaces: Global Health Governance, Global Governance for
Health, and Governance for Global Health.

Global Health Governance refers primarily to organizations and

mechanisms of global governance with explicit health mandates, such as the
World Health Organization.
 51

Global Governance for Health primarily refers to organizations and

mechanisms of global governance with a direct or indirect impact on health,
such as the United Nations and the World Trade Organization.

Governance for Global Health refers to institutions and mechanisms

established at the national and/or regional level that contribute to Global
Health Governance and/or Governance for Global Health, such as national or
regional strategies or initiatives for global health.

Source: Physio-pedia. (n.d.)

Global Governance for Health

Health in the contest of global organizations in

other sectors Starting point for the social,
economic, and political determinants of health.

Global Health
Governance for
Governance
Global Health
Governance of Governance at national
dedicated health and regional levels in
organizations and their support of global
interface health agendas

Figure 2: Overlapping Spheres of Governances for Public Health

Source: (Physio-pedia, n.d.)

Globalization has also brought about changes in lifestyle and

behavior that have implications for public health. For example, the increased
consumption of processed foods and sugary drinks, along with a decrease in
physical activity, has contributed to the rise of non-communicable diseases
such as diabetes and obesity (Frenk et al.,2013).

However, there are also challenges to the global governance of public

health. One issue is the tension between the need for collective action and the
sovereignty of individual nation-states. Another challenge is the unequal
distribution of resources and power in the global health system, which can
create barriers to effective governance (Lee & Kamradt‐Scott, 2014).

Despite these challenges, there have been notable successes in the

global governance of public health. For example, the WHO's Global Vaccine
 52

Action Plan has helped to increase vaccination rates in many countries, while
the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control has contributed to reductions
in smoking rates (Kickbusch et al., 2018).

Transitioning from public health to another critical area, the

governance of global security involves understanding the threats and how
governance structures are created to combat these threats. The main perceived
threats to security among permanent members of the United Nations Security
Council and the G7, E7, and BRICS countries include force, Weapons of Mass
Destruction (WMDs), and terrorism (Cobaleda et al., n.d). Each threat has a
specific governance structure associated with it, based on the complexities and
the number of actors involved in its regulation.

The use of force remains one of the most complex threats due to its
evolving governance structure over seven decades, and the increasing number
of actors involved in managing various conflicts. Similar complexities exist in
the governance of WMD proliferation, which has been an evolving process for
over sixty years (Cobaleda et al., n.d). The fight against international terrorism
is considered relatively young and underdeveloped in comparison to the
previous architectures. Nonetheless, global responses to terrorism have
intensified since the 9/11 attacks.

Certain recurring patterns among the governance architecture of these

threats include the central role of Formal Intergovernmental Organizations
(FIGOs). However, substantial differences exist in the relative importance of
global FIGOs versus intercontinental and regional ones, depending on the
specific threat (Cobaleda et al., n.d). Informal Intergovernmental Organizations
(IIGOs) also play a varied role in the three governance architectures. In the
counter-terrorism field, the proliferation of IIGOs is evident, with an increase
in their importance for facilitating intelligence-sharing, capacity-building, and
the fight against terrorist financing.

Although international courts and tribunals are limited in their

jurisdiction, they can play determining roles in contentious cases and prosecute
individuals for serious offenses like war crimes and crimes against humanity
(Cobaleda et al., n.d). Finally, non-state actors like NGOs and multinational
corporations also play significant, but varied roles across the three threat
governance architectures.
Despite witnessing a significant drop in violent political instability since
the Cold War, the focus now turns to developing nations contending with
noteworthy challenges (Prantl, Woods, Betts, & Sridhar, 2013). Global security
governance is experiencing significant transformation driven by the scale and
 53

intricacy of conflicts, the amplified ambitions of the international community,

and the struggle to adopt formal shifts in global power.

Reform within the global security governance landscape is needed to

adequately address the evolving challenges associated with increased
globalization and threat interconnectivity (Kaldor & Stiglitz, 2013). Finding
appropriate responses on local and national levels to tackle global issues is an
uphill battle, further emphasizing the requirement for collective action and
cooperation.

There is a need for engagement with key stakeholders and striking a

balance between efficacy and representation within the Security Council
(Prantl et al., 2013). Informal institutions, like GX groups and contact groups,
present a viable alternative for more flexible problem-solving procedures,
possibly even strengthening the global governance architecture.

Creating a more balanced, secure, and prosperous global society

requires bold, innovative strategies and cooperation between nations,
organizations, and individuals to effectively address the evolving landscape of
global security governance. The United Nations has emerged as the premier
forum for dealing with cross-border issues that cannot be resolved by a single
country acting alone. Despite visible efforts to resolve conflicts and maintain
peace, the United Nations frequently faces obstacles such as geopolitical
conflicts, national sovereignty concerns, and different priorities among
member states, making effective resolution of these issues a complex and
ongoing process.

In addition to its role in global security, the United Nations

contends with several other major challenges in the twenty-first century.
Climate change, global health, migration, and the plight of refugees are just
a few of the critical issues requiring the UN's attention. These challenges further
complicate the organization's mission and necessitate comprehensive,
coordinated responses from the international community.

According to the World Economic Forum's Global Risks Report

2024, three key climate issues pose critical challenges to humanity: extreme
weather events, critical changes to Earth systems (a new addition this year),
and biodiversity loss and ecosystem collapse. Furthermore, the climate crisis
persists because the global community does not make the full commitment
needed to reverse it. Between 2010 and 2019, the world experienced its warmest
decade on record, with massive wildfires, hurricanes, droughts, floods, and
other climate disasters sweeping continents. Highly vulnerable regions, which
house approximately 3.3-3.6 billion people, had 15 times higher human
 54

mortality rates from floods, droughts, and storms than regions with very low
vulnerability. Climate change is upending national economies and affecting
people's lives and livelihoods, particularly the most vulnerable (Martin, 2023).

Over the past decade, the global refugee crisis has more than doubled in
size. In 2022, the UNHCR announced that total displacement had exceeded 100
million, implying that more than 1.2% of the global population was forced to
flee their homes. As of mid-2023, this figure included 30.51 million refugees.
Over half of the refugees come from just three countries. These numbers are
staggering—almost incomprehensible—but each one represents someone who
has been forced to leave everything behind due to circumstances beyond their
control, such as wars, disasters, and so on.

In 2024, discussions will ramp up to strengthen the global health

security architecture, including securing adequate funding, such as the
Pandemic Fund, addressing specific disease threats, such as eliminating
HIV/AIDS as a public health threat by 2030 and promoting international
cooperation on pandemic prevention, preparedness, and response through
potential International Health Regulations amendments and a potential
pandemic agreement (Carter & Bollyky, 2024).

Let’s Try This (Activity 5.4). After you have presented the ideas of global
public health, global security and the challenges of the United Nations (UN),
ask the students the following questions:
1. What are the main problems related to the influence of globalization on
the global governance of public health?
2. In the global governance of security, what are the roles and
responsibilities of Formal Intergovernmental Organizations (FIGOs)
and Informal Intergovernmental Organizations (IIGOs)? How do these
roles or functions differ with respect to pressing Global threats such as
terrorism, (Weapons of Mass Destructions) WMDs, and the use of force?
3. What are the main international problems that the United Nations (UN)
is now dealing with, and how are these problems connected to the global
problems like migration, climate change, and the world's refugee crisis?

Summary
The chapter presents an overview of global governance and
international organizations. It first introduces the historical context of the
development of international organizations, beginning with the establishment
of the League of Nations after World War I and its subsequent dissolution due
to its failure to prevent World War II. The United Nations, created in 1945 after
World War II, has since been a pivotal organization in maintaining peace,
 55

addressing global issues, and fostering international cooperation despite

numerous challenges.

The chapter then moves on to analyze global governance in public

health and security. Global public health governance concerns the management
of worldwide health challenges, with organizations like the World Health
Organization playing key roles. Global health governance faces notable
obstacles, such as the tension between collective action and the sovereignty of
nation-states, and the unequal distribution of resources.

With security concerns, global governance involves understanding

various threats and creating structures to counter these threats, with
organizations like the United Nations Security Council playing crucial roles.
The governance structure of security evolves in response to the complexities of
various threats and the number of involved actors. The governance of global
security is transforming due to the evolving scale and complexity of conflicts,
making the need for reforms and cooperation among nations, organizations,
and individuals more crucial.
 56

===================================================
Assessment
A. The United Nations in Focus: An Infographic Exploration of Global
Governance
Instructions: Please layout an infographic material that graphically and
creatively illustrates the present condition of global governance and the United
Nations (UN) based on the discussions.

Your infographic material will be assessed based on the following criteria:

EXCELLENT GOOD SATISFACTORY (3) NEEDS IMPROVEMENT POOR

CRITERIA (5) (4) (2) (1) SCORE

Thoroughly discusses the Covers most aspects of Basic coverage of the topics Limited coverage of the topics Minimal or incorrect
emergence of global global governance and the with some gaps or with noticeable gaps or coverage of the topics.
governance, the structure of UN with minor gaps. inaccuracies. Information inaccuracies. Information is Information is
the UN, global public health, Information is mostly is relevant but may lack somewhat relevant but lacks inaccurate or largely
global security, and accurate and relevant. detail. depth. irrelevant.
CONTENT COVERAGE challenges faced by the UN.
AND PRECISION Information is highly
accurate and relevant.
Infographic is exceptionally Clear and well-organized Somewhat clear with basic Design is cluttered or unclear. Design is confusing or
clear, well-organized, and with good visual appeal. design. Visual elements Poor use of visual elements ineffective. Little to no
visually appealing. Effective Minor issues with design may be inconsistent or and readability issues. use of visuals to aid
use of color, graphics, and elements but generally somewhat distracting. understanding.
VISUAL DESIGN AND text to enhance effective and readable. Readability is adequate. Difficult to read.
CLARITY understanding and
readability.
Provides a comprehensive and Covers most aspects Basic analysis with limited Superficial coverage with little Lacks depth and
in-depth analysis of global with good depth and depth. Offers minimal analysis. Limited insights comprehensive coverage.
governance, the UN, and insight. Provides some insights and perspectives. and perspectives. No valuable insights or
COMPREHENSIVENESS related challenges. Offers analysis and perspectives.
AND UNDERSTANDING valuable insights and perspectives, though not
multiple perspectives. exhaustive.
Highly creative and Engaging with some Somewhat engaging but Little engagement or creativity. Lacks creativity and
engaging. Uses innovative creative elements. lacks creativity. Basic Information is engagement. Ineffective
design elements to Communicates communication of communicated in a communication of
CREATIVITY AND effectively communicate information effectively information. straightforward, information.
ENGAGEMENT information and captivate with minor engagement unremarkable manner.
the audience. issues.

TOTAL SCORE

Submission Requirements:

● Submit your infographic in a PNG format.

● The infographic should be designed to be printed at a suggested size of
11 x 17 (tabloid size).
● File name: Title_LastnameSection.png
● Deadline: ________________________
 57

Lesson 6
MEDIA AND GLOBALIZATION
Janice Ann P. Ciocon, Joy C. Calva, Jayboy M. Sartorio

What Will You Learn?

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. analyze the relationship of media and globalization;
2. analyze how various media drive global integration; and
3. describe responsible media consumption.

What Is This Lesson About?

Globalization dominated the globe as various economic, technological,
and even cultural factors successfully influenced the different parts of the
world. Powerful and rich countries are prosperous in influencing other
countries in various industries, such as the rise of luxurious brands in America
and the domination of Korean TV shows worldwide (Claudio & Abinales,
2018). As our generation progresses, our technology continues to evolve and
advance to improve the quality of our lives.

In the 21st century, connectivity has been one of this era's priorities.
Through the advancement of mediums for communication, various platforms
have been formed that help connect with people has never been easier. With a
click of a button, we can send a message and even converse with people across
the globe. Shopping and trading have also been available in the digital world.
The wonders of technology continue to make our daily activities more effective
and efficient.

In this module, we will identify how media affected globalization and

its relevance in the 21st century and understand the relationship between
Globalization and media.

Let’s Try This (Activity 6.1)

Instructions: Choose an Asian musical act that became internationally famous.
Read about their background and answer the questions below.

1. Where did the musical act/artist originate? In which countries did the artist
become famous?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
 58

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_____________________

2. How did the artist become famous? Why do you think the artist became
famous?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_____________________

Media and Globalization

Media is the plural form of medium. It describes any channel of
communication. It includes anything from printed paper to digital data (Baffoe,
n.d.). In general, media refers to television, radio, newspaper, Internet, and
other forms of communication. Media is the very derivation of mass
communication. The Media plays a key role in our society. It is the primary
purpose of mass communication. It has various forms and aspects, such as the
Internet, wherein we can get updated news with a finger's click (Vedantu,
2022). Media is a communication tool that is used to deliver information. Media
enables us to gather and utilize information across various platforms according
to their purpose. Commonly, there are three types of media: news media, social
media, and web media, which are also referred to as earned media, shared
media, and owned media (Nilsen, 2022).

Source: imaginima (2021)

 59

The media plays a significant role in society in shaping the public's

opinion, the interplay of social and political actors, the discourse between
people, and how it promotes culture in the context of globalization. It connects
people effortlessly, which not only provides effective communication but
relatively efficient communication. Despite its numerous advantages, we must
learn to use the media critically to ensure the reliability of the information
(Claudio & Abinales, 2018).

Despite the term not having a concrete meaning, Globalization is a term

used to contextualize how trade and even technology made the world into an
interconnected and interdependent place. It captures in its scope the economic
and social changes that were present. It may be identified as the threads of an
immense spider web formed over millennia, where the threads of this web
continue to spread over time. Various factors affect these threads, such as
economics, development, and even health. Globalization is the process by
which people and goods can move easily across borders. It is considered an
economic concept – the integration of markets, trade, and investments that
significantly indicates the flow of products and services between nations
(Pkadams, 2022).

Globalization also touches various lenses, which also refers to a holistic

view of interconnectedness in economics, technology, and even culture. The
integration of the influence of other countries in the technology and culture of
other countries proves that powerful countries can continuously set the
standard. With that being said, other countries must catch up and follow such
trends. Globalization might provide us with economic benefits, but it is
undeniable that it can also cause harm to other countries, such as the loss of a
country's cultural identity, brain drain, and cultural homogenization (Young,
2023).

Source: Press One (2023) Daily Express (n.d) Source: iStock (n.d.)
 60

Media is perceived to be a means of communication. In the constant

progression of technology and the reach of information, the effectiveness of
media in its exposure to the global audience is attributed to mass media. By this
definition, mass media is a form of mass communication - through media, the
message and spread of ideas that reach a global audience in a large number is
communicated considerably (Vedantu, 2022). This Media expands the reach of
communication without the hindrance of physical limitations by distance or
geographical barriers. Instantaneously and simultaneously, communication is
possible through the aid of media by showcasing information, regardless of
where the individual is in the world. Efficiency in spreading a message to the
masses is the primary use for media; however, the ethics of using media is a
separate discussion altogether.

Reflect! What is the role of media in our contemporary world? How does
globalization affect media?

Types of Media
The function of media is to provide a means of communication and
information dissemination to a wide audience. It plays an important role in
shaping public awareness and providing information that shapes attitudes and
public opinion. It serves as a gatekeeping function, affecting or controlling the
information transmitted to the audiences. In essence, the mass media serves
information, interpretation, instructive, bonding, and diversion functions. In
addition, Marshall McLuhan, a renowned media theorist, argued that while
new media allows information to reach a wider audience, it can also dull
 61

people's communication skills, limit their senses, and make them overly reliant
on technology (Claudio & Abinales, 2018).

1. Print media – refers to media printed on paper and typically distributed

regularly in physical form. These include books, magazines, and
newspapers.
2. Broadcast media refers to media that are broadcasted through cable or
satellite transmissions and distributed electronically, which can reach
large audiences simultaneously. It can be live or pre-recorded. These

Source: Gonzaga University (n.d)

include radio, film, and television.

3. Digital media – refers to media that are created, distributed, and
consumed digitally using electronic devices such as computers and
smartphones. These include the Internet and mobile mass
communication.
4. Internet media – refers to digital media that are exclusively distributed
over the Internet and can only be accessed through an online connection.
These include e-mail, internet sites, social media, and internet-based
video and audio.
5. News media (earned media) – News media takes mass media elements
and uses them to deliver news to a target audience or the general public.
It's any material or content that is written about you or your company
that you didn't create or pay for yourself. For example, your company
can earn a story in Forbes instead of paying for advertising. In today's
world, earned media can come in various forms, such as being featured
in a review (even bad Yelp reviews) or through a tweet about your
business that was liked and re-tweeted.
6. Web media is a form of communication that uses audio, text, and visuals
on the web. Some examples of web media are videos, photos, and
graphics. It's content you own by personally creating it. Some examples
 62

of owned content that are popular today include podcasts, websites,

blog posts, and videos. Owned media can also be content your
employees created as long as that content is put into a contract signed
by both parties.

Impact of Various Forms of Media on Globalization

Global Village
In the process of media connecting individuals from far parts of the
world into a circle of communication, the prospect of the world morphing into
a ‘global village’ surface. The global village is the proposal of the entire world
mimicking the system of a sole village - even with the obvious contradiction of
physical distance and reach. Media has made it possible for people all over the
globe to experience things at the same time - to see, hear, feel, and live through
events without delay. Globalization enables this phenomenon through
utilizing media as the medium, most significantly through the Internet, as its
capability of producing information and releasing it to the virtual mass is
executed at a rapid pace (Claudio & Abinales, 2018). In line with this idea of
having a globalized circle where individuals consuming media reside in the
same circle as others all over the globe, critiques over its effects of prioritizing
certain forms of information - or cultures - have given rise to critical
imperialism. Critical imperialism is the implication of large nations such as the
US; the most robust notion of this phenomenon is its nature to overwhelm the
culture of smaller nations in its use of mass media with their production and
spread to international areas. Consumers of this media internalize the content
delivered through media, which affects how they think, believe, and feel about
various topics in the world (Jule, 2014).

Global Village is an idea that people are connected by easy travel, mass
media, and electronic communications and have become a single community.
It also symbolizes the modern world that coalesces into one village through
electronic networking. It is about communicating with people all over the
world without physical interaction. A global village is what the world
considers a single community that links together in a digital world to be
mentally connected (Claudio & Abinales, 2018).

Cultural Imperialism
Cultural imperialism is defined as the imposition and promotion of a
politically powerful culture over a less powerful nation. Simply put, this
describes the phenomenon of cultural domination, which endangers the
culture of weaker nations. This usually happens between powerful and
influential first- and third-world countries (Claudio & Abinales, 2018).
 63

Additionally, the term cultural imperialism is utilized in history, cultural

studies, and even postcolonial theory. Moreover, prominent figures in the
study of cultural imperialism, such as Herbert Schiller, Michael Foucault,
Edward Said, and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, shaped the perspective of
cultural imperialism, which is why it can take various forms, for instance, in
formal policy or military action, and even to the extent that it strengthens
cultural hegemony. The creation of such formal policies in the educational and
religious sectors of a country can impose an influence on its culture. For

instance, Native Americans were forced to study English, given that it is a

prerequisite for their curriculum in their academic journey (Hasa, 2020).

Reflect! How do media pave the way for global integration? Can you
provide examples?

Responsible Media Consumption

Media and Cyber Ghettos

From the book of Claudio & Abinales (2018), the massive reach such as
the Internet, and social media are platforms by which digital users have access
to communication channels where interaction is constant, dynamic, and never-
ending. The integration of cliques and communities has also formed to curate
their own spaces out of comfort or survival. The cyber ghettos, as they are
referred to, are marginalized people who utilize cyberspace to open discussions
and share their experiences are people within the minority, either to those of
similar backgrounds or to people who are within the majority and willing to
learn about such matters. Social media is the perfect field for the cyber ghettos
as the reach in the virtual world is wider than the physical -without the
hindrance of distance, communication with large audiences is efficient as it is
effective in the absence of difficulty from physically reaching out to people in
Source: pinterest (n.d)
the real world.
 64

Moreover, it establishes a place where people of the same background

or life experiences may freely engage with one another while promoting the
values they've gained as individuals living in a world where they are not part
of the majority, facing alienation and, at times, discrimination, gives cyber
ghettos the opportunity to unwind and express freely, even if just through a
series of posts on social media. Cyber ghettos came to life thanks to the
existence of media and its accessibility globally - which is also the result of
Globalization working within media's means and will continue to exist so long
as the world is connected through mass communication channels.

Media is the perfect conduit for Globalization - or even the other way
around, to prove that Globalization exists; we merely look at media and its
reach, effect, and change in societies and cultures. The absence of many
limitations makes media the best channel to spread ideas to the world in a small
amount of time, and Globalization has only developed exponentially since the
Internet and new technologies were established. Cultures that are shared
through media have already begun to influence other cultures - primarily the
most focused form of content individuals are exposed to on media, which is
from the West, mostly from the United States - as the media content that is
globally accessible mainly comes from them.

Source: Grammarly (n.d)

Media is merely a form of medium for communication to take place – it

broadcasts what the producers create and shares onto the global stage.
Therefore, it is not the actual instigator of the nature in which content is shaped
after that individuals consume. In light of the ethical use of media for sharing
information, it is suggested that both types – the producer and the consumer -
are aware of the effect of Globalization and the influence that media may have
on them, personal and culture-wise. Therefore, the preservation of culture,
even in the face of cultural imperialism through media, is a conscious decision
and reflection of the individual's own ideals.
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While Globalization does not have a sole definition that wholly covers
its cause and advance, what is ascertained is that just by the form of media,
Globalization is almost impossible to prevent from happening - instead, thanks
to media, the growth of communication and the information readily available
to people all over the world will only serve to further increase the exponential
growth and potential of Globalization. As media consumers, awareness and
control start the moment exposure takes place, and staying vigilant of the
effects is a conscious decision and responsibility to uphold (Claudio &
Abinales, 2018).

Reflect! How can we practice responsible media consumption

in our daily life?

Source: z_wei (2019)

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Assessments

A. Essay. Answer the questions briefly and substantially. A rubric is provided

for your reference.

Answers the questions using correct, specific details from the 5 points
lessons in a clear, concise, and complete manner.
Answers the questions using the correct, albeit incomplete, 4 points
specific details from the lessons in a clear, concise and cohesive
manner.
Answers the questions with only one related detail from the 3 points
lesson
Answers the questions using specific but unrelated details. 2 points
Answers the questions without using any details from the 1 point
lessons.

1. Discuss the interconnectedness of media and globalization.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______

2. Discuss how media facilitate global integration. Explain how media affect
globalization.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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B. Complete the table below regarding responsible media consumption.

Provide scenarios and provide possible solution to irresponsible media
consumption practices.

Irresponsible Media Consumption Proposed Solution

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Lesson 7
GLOBALIZATION AND RELIGION
Jovanie Camacho Espesor

What Will You Learn?

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. explain how globalization affects religious practices and beliefs; and
2. analyze the relationship between religion, global conflict, and global
peace.

What Is This Lesson About?

In a world woven together by digital connections and intercontinental
networks, globalization acts as a cosmic symphony, harmonizing diverse
cultures, economies, and ideas into a grand tapestry of human
interdependence, where the boundaries of time and space fade, and the chorus
of collaboration resounds across the globe. But, globalization resembling a
double-edged sword of interconnectedness, bears witness to the unintended
consequences of an increasingly interdependent world, as it engenders a
complex web of economic inequality, cultural homogenization, environmental
degradation, and systemic disparities and challenges the delicate equilibrium
of the global ecosystem.

Provided with the status quo, it can be inferred that globalization posts
impact the aspects above and the various aspects of life affected by this
phenomenon. Religion stands as a domain deeply impacted by the forces of
globalization. This leads to profound opportunities and formidable challenges
for religious traditions, catalyzing a dynamic interplay between tradition and
innovation, authenticity and adaptation. Also, globalization asserts the role of
religion on global peace and, conversely, on global conflict—portraying
religion as an agent of peace but as well as an instrument to promote conflict.

Let’s Try This (Activity 7.1)

Prior to the proper class lecture, watch the movie The Kingdom of
Heaven starring Orlando Bloom. The story revolves around the history of the
Crusade, which was about the resolute attempts of Catholic kingdoms and
empires of Europe to reclaim the Holy Land of Israel from the Muslims.

After watching the movie, answer the following questions:

1. Is the crusade a contestation to assert the supremacy of one’s religion?
 69

2. For Muslims, what do you think of the crusade?

3. For Christians, what is your take on the crusade?
4. For non-Christians and non-Muslims, what do you think of the movie?

Globalization Effects On Religious Practices And Beliefs

Globalization has a complex and multifaceted impact on religious
practices and beliefs. It can foster religious pluralism, enable the spread of
religious ideas, facilitate the formation of transnational networks, challenge
traditional authority, and spark resistance in the form of religious
fundamentalism. These effects vary across different religious traditions and
contexts, highlighting the intricate relationship between globalization and
religion.

Cultural Exchange and Religious Pluralism

As a result of globalization, there is a greater exchange of cultural
practices and contact between many religious traditions. This exposure to other
ideas and practices can develop religious pluralism, when individuals may
blend components from multiple religious traditions into their own spiritual
practices (sometimes called syncretism). This phenomenon is especially
noticeable in metropolitan settings and among younger generations.
Globalization, according to Beckford (2003), fosters religious diversity by
exposing individuals to a variety of religious beliefs and practices. This, in turn,
results in the development of new hybrid forms of religious expression.

Spread of Religious Ideas

The propagation of ideas and beliefs about various religions on a global
scale has been made easier. Because of developments in communication
technology, such as the internet and social media, it is now much simpler for
religious groups to disseminate their doctrines to people in other countries and
to recruit new followers. Globalization also affects religious conversions and
missionary work since religious organizations increasingly strive to extend
their sphere of influence across the globe. According to Tomalin (2014),
globalization makes it possible for religious groups to cross geographical
boundaries and communicate with new audiences, ultimately resulting in the
global dissemination of religious concepts.
 70

Transnational Religious Networks

The development of international religious groups and networks has
been aided by globalization. These networks frequently extend across national
boundaries and unite believers from various regions of the world; as a result,
they help to build a feeling of a worldwide religious community. These kinds
of networks make it possible for followers of a specific faith to trade support,
information, and resources. Transnational religious networks are discussed by
Levitt and Jaworsky (2007). These networks enable individuals to maintain
religious affiliations and behaviors across boundaries, ultimately transforming
religious communities and practices.

Challenges to Traditional Authority

The conventional religious power structures and hierarchies face
difficulties. When people get exposed to a wider variety of ideas and
interpretations about religion, they may begin to doubt or challenge the
established religious authorities. As a result, individuals may strive to redefine
their religious beliefs and practices in accordance with their own
understanding, which can result in shifts in the power dynamics within
religious communities. According to Casanova (1994), globalization breaks the
monopoly that religious institutions have over-interpreting religious texts,
giving individuals more freedom to form their own religious beliefs and
behaviors.

Religious Fundamentalism and Resistance

Religious fanaticism and opposition to perceived risks offered by
globalization can both be fueled by globalization. Some religious communities
view globalization as a danger to the long-held principles and convictions that
have guided them throughout their history, leading to a revival of conservative
religious tenets. These groups may fight globalization by advocating for
religious exclusivity and attempting to maintain traditional religious
traditions. According to Huntington (1996), globalization can give rise to a
reaction in the form of religious fundamentalism due to individuals and
communities perceiving a loss of identity and seeking to retain the religious
traditions and practices they have been accustomed to.

Islam
There is a plethora of diverse systems of beliefs in the world that are
widely cascaded and installed among different actors, identity groups, and
states that serve as their guiding principles and moral standards. One of the
most prominent and fastest-growing religions in the world is Islam, which is
followed by more than one billion people called Muslims. As a monotheist
 71

religion, it literally means submission to the only god named Allah. There is no
god but Allah, and Prophet Mohammad is the last messenger.

The practices and laws of Islam are firmly guided by the Qur'an, Hadith
(sayings and practices of the prophet), Qiyas (analogy), and Ijma (consensus).
In addition, the followers of Islam have five major obligatory duties to fulfill:
prayer (salah), alms-giving (zakat), fasting (sawm), pilgrimage (hajj), and
profession of faith (shahada).

It is not too subtle that Islam, like any other religious belief, is painted
with the same diagnosis―there is an imminent and persisting division among
its believers. Islam has seven prevailing sects: Sunni, Shia, Whabbi, Salafi,
Berelvi, Sufi, and Deobandi. Each sect has a structured set of beliefs based on
their analysis and interpretations of Islamic scriptures that often run contrary
to one another, thereby generating waves of conflict and insecurity climate.

The Sunni Muslims submit their faith to Allah, adhere to what is

revealed in the Qur'an, follow the deeds of the Prophet Mohammad (peace be
upon him), and acknowledge that he is the last messenger of Allah. While the
Shia Muslims believe in the oneness of Allah and Mohammad as messengers,
the problem accelerated after the death of Prophet Mohammad; Shi’a Muslims
followed the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law, Ali. Because they are more
concerned with the family lineage of the Prophet, which is now determined
through a series of Imams. Moreover, Wahhabi Islam is the most conservative
and demands strict compliance with what is written in the Qur'an; any
innovations after the death of the Prophet are directly rejected and eliminated.

Meanwhile, Salafi Islam is known for their strong emphasis on

prioritization of the Qur'an and Sunna as the fundamental usul al-fiqh (sources
of Islamic law). They strive to emulate the early pious of Islam. On the other
hand, Berelvi Islam is perceived to be moderate in terms of its practices, and
they also underline their spiritual link to Allah; they consider the Prophet as
someone like Superman, well-rounded and present at all times because he
came not as material or flesh but as nur (light). However, these significant
assertions are rejected by the Deobandis; while they acknowledge the
perfections of the Prophet, they still consider him to be part of humanity and
not a semi-divine creature. Lastly, the Sufi practices are centered on the
purification of souls through spiritual learning, known as tariqa. They also
renounced worldly things and considered them insignificant in establishing
closer relations with Allah.

Challenges on Interplay of Islam and Globalization

 72

The major tectonic shifts in world affairs brought by globalization have

caused a considerable impact on the socio-cultural and religious dynamics of
Islam. Globalization propagates the exchange of ideas, connectivity,
interdependence, cultural life, and other dimensions to bridge territorial
boundaries and almost all aspects of human systemic operation. However, this
kind of reordering is majorly guided by Western dynamics, which may not fit
neatly with Islamic practices, which are known for their rigidity; compromise
is unlikely to be accommodated.

Huge volumes of Islamic believers are hesitant and less tolerant of

attempts to create a global village because, in Islam, moral standards, everyday
practices, and beliefs are guided intricately by Shariah. Islam is further
challenged due to the misrepresentation and interpretation of its culture and
beliefs linked to various terrorist groups and extremist activities. While
globalization hopes to create a global village where the exchange of ideas and
culture is more feasible, Islamic people have difficulties expressing themselves
and being genuinely accommodated by nations because of this manufactured
terrorist identity.

In addition, the rigidity of Islamic beliefs is compromised to some extent

due to globalization. It has been observed that those Islamic believers who
happened to work or study in non-muslim or Western countries tend to adopt
Western cultures and normalized practices that are contrary to the teachings of
Islam. While globalization is good for bridging socio-political and economic
cleavages, however, its implications in terms of culture and beliefs, especially
in the context of Islam, demand closer attention to address any disequilibrium
that it may cause. The challenge right now lies to each ummah (believers) and
leaders of the Islamic faith on how they will strengthen the faith of each Muslim
to withstand any changes in the sociocultural fiber of the world and, in the
same manner, interplay positively in a globalizing world.

Christianity and Globalization

Globalization plays a pivotal part in the spread of Religion. In the
context of the Christian Religion, the Spaniards brought and introduced
Christianity to the Philippines along with their beliefs and quest for the Spice
Island. Christianity has been reformed, reconstructed, and expanded through
power and geographic expansion of European and Western States. It implies
that religion and globalization are interconnected and create specific bonds
prevalent in the history of globalization and religion. Christianity dominates
globally in terms of people that submit to the said religion; this can be justified
by the continuous growth in the population, with 2.56 billion followers as
Christians by the middle of 2022. The concepts of Christianity and Jewish
 73

culture are being shoved over the world through globalization. Therefore,
globalization promotes the growth of Christianity.

Christianity and the Holy Trinity

Spiritual experience in a Christian concept signifies the interaction of
God. In the context of Christianity, the holy trinity has become the core concept
of Christian belief: There is only one God, who is the Son, the Father, and the
Holy Spirit (BBC, n/a). This is an implication that God is one, but it exists in
three different personas; this belief is rooted in the Doctrine of the Trinity. God
the Father signifies the creator and the sustainer of all things. God the Son is
the incarnation of God as a human person in the personification of “Jesus
Christ” on earth. On the other hand, God the Holy Spirit is the power of God,
which is active in the world, drawing people towards God. In the context of
Catholicism, they firmly believed in the Holy Trinity as well as worshiping the
Saints and the Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ who was pure and virgin
as she conceived, Jesus Christ, the human image of God the Son.

The History of Christian Religion

Long before Christianity started as a religion, it was a movement linked
to Judaism, a monotheistic religion among the ancient Hebrews from the 8th
century BCE (Feldman et al., 2023). Christianity started as a movement before
the foreigners dominated the Jews into the state. In the early generation of
Christianity, Apostles by Jesus Christ were missioned to spread the word of
God through the Ten Commandments and his preachings. The Jerusalem
Church was the Mother Church of Christianity. There is a Ministerial Hierarchy
that is present until now in the Catholic Church. The apostolic congregations
were normally served by the elders (priests, bishops), attendants (deacons),
and clergy responsible for baptism and eucharist. Therefore, Christianity was
founded on the life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ, and those
who are his followers are called “Christians”.

The Major Branches of Christianity

There are three major branches of Christianity: Roman Catholicism,
Eastern Orthodoxy, and Protestantism. Traditional Christian beliefs solely lie
in the One and True God, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, and Jesus is
the Messiah who was sent on Earth to save the people from their sins. The Holy
Bible, known as the Old and New Testament, is the most sacred text for
Christianity. The common practices of the different branches of Christianity can
be seen in the practice of gatherings and worship, evangelism, and giving
importance to the words of God.

Roman Catholic
 74

The Roman Catholic faith is one of three major Christian denominations.

The Pope is the head of the Roman Catholic Church, and his official home is in
Vatican City. Roman Catholicism has seven sacraments: baptism, the Eucharist,
confirmation, reconciliation (confession), marriage, anointing of the sick, and
the orders.

Eastern Orthodox
The Eastern Orthodox Church is the legitimate continuation of the
ancient church founded by the Apostles shortly after Jesus Christ's
resurrection. The Orthodox Church shares many beliefs with the other
Christian Churches, including the idea that God revealed himself in Jesus
Christ, as well as the incarnation, crucifixion, and resurrection of Christ.

Protestant Christianity
The Protestant Reformation was a Christian religious movement that
was led by Martin Luther that originated in northern Europe in the early 16th
century in response to medieval Roman Catholic ideas and practices.
Protestants embrace three fundamental concepts. 1) The Bible is the supreme
authority and source of religious truth. 2) Humans can find salvation through
faith in Jesus Christ and God's grace. 3) All Christians are viewed as priests
and, therefore, have a direct relationship with God.

The Global Impact on Hinduism

As one of the world's oldest religions, Hinduism has continuously
evolved and engaged with diverse cultures and ideas, embracing the
challenges and opportunities of globalization. From its ancient scriptures to its
vibrant rituals and philosophical teachings, Hinduism reflects a profound
sense of inclusivity, allowing it to transcend geographical boundaries and
flourish in diverse parts of the world. Through the lens of Hinduism, the
intricate interplay between tradition and modernity, spirituality and
materialism, and the ways in which this ancient religion navigates the forces of
globalization, nurturing dialogue, understanding, and harmony in an
increasingly interconnected world can be examined.

According to van der Veer (2014), globalization has expanded

Hinduism's reach and visibility. He emphasizes that Hinduism has become a
global religion with followers and temples worldwide due to increased
migration and communication networks. One key aspect that van der Veer
points out is the role of increased migration in the global spread of Hinduism.
As people migrate from their countries of origin to different parts of the world,
they carry their religious traditions. This has led to establishing Hindu
communities and temples in diverse regions, far beyond the traditional
boundaries of Hindu-majority countries like India and Nepal. As a result,
 75

Hinduism has gained a global presence, with followers practicing their faith in
various cultural and social contexts. Moreover, van der Veer emphasizes the
significance of communication networks in the globalization of Hinduism. The
advent of modern technologies, particularly the internet and social media, has
facilitated the dissemination of Hindu ideas, teachings, and rituals on a global
scale. On the same note, Sharma (2000) also emphasized that online platforms
provide access to religious texts, discourses, and spiritual guidance, enabling
people from different parts of the world to engage with Hinduism irrespective
of their geographical location. This virtual interconnectedness has contributed
to the growth of a global Hindu community and fostered cross-cultural
exchanges and collaborations.

On the other hand, according to Lorenzen (2004), the transnational

movements of Hindus have resulted in the reinterpretation and adaptation of
religious traditions in response to new cultural contexts, leading to the
emergence of hybrid forms of Hinduism. On a negative note, this hybridization
may dilute or compromise its authenticity and traditional practices. The
incorporation of external elements could erode the core values and integrity of
the religion. Adapting religious traditions to new cultural contexts might lead
to a loss of cultural and religious specificity, and the blending of diverse
cultural influences could result in a superficial or fragmented understanding of
Hinduism, deviating from the orthodox or traditional practices and beliefs. On
similar grounds, increased tourism and the commodification of Hindu rituals
have altered the dynamics of traditional practices. This shift towards
commercialization has resulted in the transformation and standardization of
certain rituals to cater to the demands of a global audience.

Buddhism
They emerged in the fifth century BCE in the sub-national continent of
India or modern Nepal. The teachings of Buddhism are based on the teachings
of Siddhartha Gautama, also known as Buddha. Siddhartha Gautama was a
leader, teacher, and mentor of a sect of wandering ascetics (Sramanas). Such
sects were common and existed all over India at that time. Contrary to the
general misconception of Buddhism, Gautama is Buddha revered in Buddhism,
but he is not a god or a deity, nor did he ever claim to be one. He achieved
enlightenment and displayed aspects of Buddhahood, but stayed to teach and
guide others towards the path of enlightenment. Buddhism, as a religion,
promotes a philosophy of peace, compassion, and mindfulness, emphasizing
the path to enlightenment and liberation from suffering. Rooted in the
teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha, Buddhism has
significantly impacted societies worldwide. While Buddhism is often
associated with non-violence and harmony, it is essential to acknowledge that
conflicts involving Buddhists have occurred throughout history. Thus, treating
 76

this subject sensitively and avoiding broad generalizations is crucial. Like all
other religions, Buddhism has various adherents and interpretations. There
have been instances where people or organizations that identify as Buddhists
have been involved in conflicts or acts of violence, even though many
Buddhists actively work toward peace and engage in humanitarian initiatives.

Buddhism and Globalization

As a global world faith, Buddhism emphasizes the principle of
interdependence (pratitya-samutpada). Buddhism stresses the idea of the state
of profound connectedness as the nature of reality and people all serve as
connections affecting each other. The principle of interdependence from a
spiritual perspective is a positive teaching. Accordingly, people cannot live for
themselves without regard to others who make their lives possible. Thus, when
this concept of interdependence is related to globalization, traversing its
connection towards politics, economy, and international landscape, the
connections are evidently present. In understanding the international political
order through the lens of global economic interdependency, countries in the
world, regardless of distance, relate to each other.

Moreover, the increased movement of people and ideas across borders

has facilitated the exchange of ideas and practices among Buddhist
communities worldwide. This has led to the development of new hybrid forms
of Buddhism, such as Engaged Buddhism, which emphasizes social and
political engagement as an integral part of Buddhist practice. For example, the
spread of consumerism and materialism in many parts of the world has led to
a commodification of Buddhism, with some individuals treating it as a product
to be consumed rather than a spiritual path to be followed. The influence of
consumerism and materialism, often associated with globalization, can
sometimes clash with the emphasis on simplicity and detachment found in
Buddhist teachings. Additionally, the rapid pace of modern life and the
increased connectivity through technology can create distractions and make it
more challenging for individuals to dedicate time to contemplation and
meditation. The borderless economy and political hierarchy cause conflict and
struggle between powerful countries and dependent states. Consequently,
because of the rapid expansion of Western power in the 16’00 dominating the
political realm in most Asian countries, Christianity was also becoming
significantly relevant and weakening the dominance and support of Buddhism.

In conclusion, globalization has positively and negatively affected

Buddhist religious practices. While it has facilitated the spread of Buddhism
and fostered cross-cultural exchange, it has also presented challenges to
maintaining traditional practices in the face of modern influences.
 77

Dependency
The dependency other developing countries towards highly developed
countries are extremely challenging. Sri Lanka for example was became
economically dependent with Chinese loans in restoring their ailing economic
activity, which later resulted to massive inequality and hunger. Furthermore,
Interdependence which enables dependence increases the tendency to
nationalism and ethnic divisions as people look for scapegoats for their
problems. Moreover, the Buddhist concept of dependency could also relate to
the contemporary challenges in globalization. It underscores the
interdependence of nations and the necessity for cooperation and
understanding. The actions and decisions of one country can have far-reaching
consequences for others, highlighting the need for a holistic approach that
considers the interconnectedness of political, economic, and social systems. As
the Dalai Lama states, "We are all connected; to each other, biologically. To the
earth, chemically. To the rest of the universe, atomically." This recognition of
interdependence calls for a shift towards collaborative and compassionate
approaches in addressing global challenges and fostering harmonious relations
among nations. For example, when we recognize that the well-being of one
nation is intimately connected to the well-being of others, we may be more
inclined to engage in cooperative efforts to address global challenges such as
poverty, climate change, and conflict. Additionally, the Buddhist emphasis on
compassion and non-harming can help guide our actions in the international
arena, encouraging us to seek peaceful solutions to conflicts and prioritize the
welfare of all beings. This explains the international cooperations between one
country to another. In the case of the Philippines and United States, the
Enhance Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA) under Mutual Defense
Treaty (MDT) asserts inter-connectedness of two countries in terms of
securitization and global conflict.

Buddhism and Asian Migration

Migration also plays an important role in understanding how
globalization effects Buddhism as religion. In the late 19th century, the spiking
number of migrations from Asia to America especially from Japan and China
helped to spread Buddhism towards western civilization. In 1975 because of
different security issues in some Asian countries the number of refugees
coming from Lao, Vietnam, and Cambodia which is a Buddhist dominated
countries also surged. this global security problem became an avenue for
Buddhism to further spread in countries like United States of America and
Canada. These migratory movements have not only expanded the geographical
reach of Buddhism but have also contributed to its growth and diversification
in Western countries.
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Though prior migration Buddhism was already introduced to western

scholars, in 1879 Sir Edwin Arnold wrote the book “The light of the Asia “which
introduce the western public to Buddhism. Furthermore, in 1980 marks one of
most notable western to Buddhist conversion, Henry Steel Olcott and Helena
Blavatsky the two-founding member of theosophical society. When the
Theosophical Society was founded in 1875, one of its goals was to promote the
study of comparative philosophy, science, and religion. Thus, it successfully
introduced Buddhism and Hinduism to the western world. Due to the massive
changes brought by globalization it became easier for Buddhism spread in
many countries in the world. This is one of the many reasons why despite of
being a minority, still you can find Buddhist temples in countries like US,
Canada, or in Europe.

Let’s Try This (Activity 7.2). Ask at least three students the following
questions:
1. What is your understanding of religious pluralism?
2. What are the common tenets among religious denominations?

RELIGION, CONFLICT AND PEACE

Religion and Global Conflict
The greatest war in history was fuelled primarily by ideological
differences between the Allies and Axis. Thus, in contemporary times,
remarkably the global tides have changed. The accelerating credence and
influence of religion as founding principles of many states and state actors in
the global community have captured the attention of various scholars. Many
political analysts perceived that divisions and conflict in the contemporary time
and years to come will be fuelled by religious and cultural differences.

The world has seven major civilizations, including Western, Confucian,

Japanese, Islamic, Hindu, and Slavic-Orthodox civilizations. Conflicts of the
future might stimulate and agitates in the fault lines of these civilizations due
to cultural and religious differences that separate them apart. The globalizing
world provides an avenue that increases the interaction of the people;
therefore, it also intensifies the people’s consciousness, especially in terms of
differences in cultural and religious beliefs. For example, North African
immigration to France creates animosity with Frenchmen, while American
people react negatively to Japanese investment compared to other investors in
the West.
 79

In addition, in terms of economic and political cooperation, countries

with shared cultures and religions tend to unite to organize themselves and
stretch their ties, like the cooperation between Arab and non-Arab countries.
States with the same or shared identity are more likely to accommodate one
another than alienate each other. On the other hand, differences in terms of
culture and religion complicate policy issues regarding human rights, trade,
and the environment. For state leaders, mobilizing support tends to be more
appealing if it is grounded in common religion and identity.

In sum, the immutable disparities between different civilizations, states,

identity groups,, and actors due to the heterogeneity of culture and religion are
seen as the dominating source of conflicts and disputes that may occur in both
domestic and international spheres.

Religion and Global Peace

In the quest for global harmony, religion may play a role that is not only
difficult but also multifaceted. Throughout the course of history, religion has
been a source of conflict; nevertheless, it also has the capacity to create peace,
understanding, and collaboration among many cultures. Religion can
contribute to global peace by providing moral frameworks, promoting
interfaith dialogue, engaging in peacebuilding efforts, inspiring humanitarian
work, advocating nonviolence, and fostering community engagement.
However, achieving global peace requires the active participation and
collaboration of individuals, communities, religious leaders, and institutions,
working together across religious, cultural, and national boundaries.

Moral and Ethical Frameworks

Religions often provide moral and ethical guidelines that promote
compassion, forgiveness, justice, and respect for others. These principles, when
adhered to sincerely, can foster peaceful coexistence and harmonious
relationships among individuals and communities.

Promoting Interfaith Dialogue

Interfaith dialogue encourages people from different religious
backgrounds to engage in respectful conversations, share perspectives, and
seek common ground. By fostering understanding and appreciation for diverse
beliefs, interfaith dialogue can reduce prejudice, misconceptions, and
stereotypes that can lead to conflict.

Peacebuilding and Reconciliation

Many religious traditions emphasize the importance of peacebuilding
and reconciliation. Religious leaders and institutions can actively engage in
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mediation, conflict resolution, and peacebuilding efforts, promoting dialogue,

forgiveness, and healing among conflicting parties.

Humanitarian and Charitable Work

Religions often inspire their followers to engage in acts of charity,
humanitarian aid, and social justice. These activities can address root causes of
conflict such as poverty, inequality, and injustice, thereby contributing to a
more peaceful and equitable world.

Moral Imperatives for Nonviolence

Several religious teachings emphasize nonviolence and the preservation
of life as sacred. By promoting nonviolent principles and encouraging
followers to seek peaceful solutions to conflicts, religions can contribute to a
culture of nonviolence and conflict resolution.

Bridge-Building and Community Engagement

Religious communities can serve as bridges between diverse groups,
fostering social cohesion and promoting understanding. They can organize
interfaith events, engage in community service, and collaborate with other
religious and secular organizations to address shared challenges and promote
common values.

It is important to note that while religion has the potential to promote

peace, it can also be misused and manipulated to incite violence and conflict.
Religious leaders and followers have a responsibility to interpret and practice
their faiths in ways that uphold peace, respect human rights, and promote the
well-being of all individuals, regardless of their religious or non-religious
beliefs.

Let’s Try This (Activity 7.3). Instruct students to give examples based on their
experiences on the following:
1. Religion promotes peace and reconciliation
2. Religion causes conflict
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Assessments
A. Essay. Write a 1000-word essay by answering the questions:
1. Is contestation among religious denominations over the Holy Land still
relevant in today’s world, and why?
2. What is your recommendation for making religions as institutions of
peace and harmony in the present society?
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Lesson 8
THE GLOBAL CITY
Omairah M. Barangai

What Will You Learn?

Learning Outcomes
At the end of each topic, the students should be able to:
1. define global city;
2. identify different characteristics of a global city;
3. differentiate types of global cities; and
4. formulate policy recommendations.

What Is This Lesson About?

Welcome, everyone! Today, we're going to explore a fascinating and
crucial concept in our increasingly interconnected world: the idea of "global
cities." These are the cities that drive the global economy, culture, and politics.
They are dynamic places where diverse groups of people come together,
creating hubs of activity that influence not just their regions, but the entire
world. In an increasingly interconnected globalization, the concept of global
cities has gained significant prominence. These cities serve as hubs of economic,
cultural, and political activity that is attracting people from all walks of life.

Global cities have become pivotal hubs of economic, cultural, and

political activity in our interconnected world. These cities, described by
Margaret Mead as places where diverse experiences and opportunities are
readily available, play critical roles in the global economy. Characterized by
hosting multinational corporations, robust economic growth, advanced
infrastructure, a well-educated and diverse population, and strong global
political connections, global cities like New York, London, and Tokyo stand
out. Sociologist Saskia Sassen emphasized these cities due to their specialized
financial and producer services. However, many other cities worldwide also
function as significant global economic nodes. Research by James Tyner
highlights the importance of labor mobility, especially in cities like Manila,
showcasing the role of Third World cities as global centers. London serves as a
prime example, with its economically stratified labor market influenced by
immigration. Global cities are essential for driving international trade,
investment, and commerce, contributing significantly to the
interconnectedness and dynamism of the global economy. Understanding
these cities helps us appreciate the complex dynamics shaping our globalized
world.
 85

Let’s Try This (Activity 8.1)

1. What can you see in these photos?
2. What landmarks do you recognize?
3. Why do you think the photographer captured these scenes?
4. Can you tell me the location of these places?

Let’s Think About It (Activity 8.2)

1. What is global city?
2. What are the several key characteristics of a global city?
3. What are the different types of global cities?
4. What policy recommendations can you offer for local governments to
transform their cities to global cities.

Definition of Terms
 86

“A city is a place where there is no need to wait for next week to get the answer
to a question, to taste the food of any country, to find new voices to listen to and
familiar ones to listen again.” -Margaret Mead-

In this context, a global city serves as a major center for specialized financial
and producer services essential for sustaining the globalized economy. While Sassen
focused on New York, London, and Tokyo in her book, it's important to note that there
are numerous other global cities beyond these examples.

A city is considered global city if it is a place of a multinational corporations,

with perfect infrastructure, with a better economic growth, resided by well-educated
and diverse population, with powerful organizations (both private and public), and a
strong political framework that is connected to the rest of the globe in a way that no
other non-global city can match.

Tyner (2000) notes that the concept of the 'global city' has garnered attention
from geographers and other social scientists. Most research has primarily focused on
capital mobility and the significant managerial role played by cities in the 'developed'
world (e.g., New York, London, Tokyo). However, the mobility of labor is equally
important, yet it has not been critically conceptualized or sufficiently analyzed in
existing studies of global cities. Using the Philippine context as a case study, this
research examined two main aspects: 1) how global labor circuits are socially
organized, and 2) the degree to which this social organization is concentrated spatially
in Manila, emphasizing the critical role played by Third World cities as global cities.

Referring to an example, London stands out as a quintessential global city.

Building on Sassen's (1991) work, scholars focusing on global cities generally concur
that these cities' labor markets are economically stratified, comprising highly paid
professional elites and low-wage unskilled service workers. The book "Global Cities
at Work" provides a detailed examination of employment characteristics in low-

Global city is a highly competitive and influential urban center that acts as
a center hub in the global economic system. This term originated from
studies conducted in the past 1980s, which aimed to identify the common
shared characteristics among the most significant cities worldwide.
Global cities according to Sassen (2005), a central site for advanced
telecommunication services and facilities is a location that plays a crucial
role in carrying out and managing global economic activities. These sites
often attract corporate headquarters, especially those companies that
operate in multiple countries.
World city is a well-established urban area that actively participates in
international trade. These cities have strong connections and networks with
other nations.
City can be described as a well-established and efficiently structured hub of
people, which is larger or more significant than a town or village.
 87

income occupations and investigates the impact of immigration on London's labor

market. It highlights how the neoliberal economy has established the supply and
demand dynamics that influence the migrant division of labor in the British capital
city.

In this context, a "global city" refers to a pivotal center, where specialized

financial and producer services are highly concentrated. These services are essential
for driving the operations of the globalized economy, facilitating international trade,
investment, and commerce. The term encompasses cities that play significant roles in
shaping global economic trends and influencing international affairs.

Sassen's book focuses specifically on New York, London, and Tokyo,

highlighting their prominence as leading global cities. However, it's crucial to
recognize that there are many other cities worldwide that also function as important
nodes in the global economy. These cities may have varying degrees of influence and
specialization but contribute significantly to the interconnectedness and dynamism of
the global economic system. Thus, while some cities are prominently featured in
discussions about global cities, there is a diverse array of urban centers worldwide that
play vital roles in the globalized economy.

Conceptualizing Global Cities

Global cities are considered "strategic locations" responsible for
overseeing and directing the operations of the global economy. Many of these
cities were already centers for international trade and banking. Saskia Sassen,
a sociologist from Columbia University and prominent scholar in the field of
global cities. Several of these cities had already established themselves as hubs
for global trade and finance.

Sassen's concept highlights that global cities prioritize the movement of

information and capital, serving as pivotal points within interconnected
networks of money and information flow. Moreover, the wealth generated by
these flows supports financial institutions, consulting firms, accounting firms,
law firms, and media organizations.

In 2008, the magazine "Foreign Policy" conducted research assessing the

primary cities worldwide across five distinct categories. These categories
included business activity, human capital, exchange of information, cultural
activity, and political engagement.

Based on this data, there were 65 cities identified as potential global

hubs.In 2010, an updated version of this research was released under the name
"The Global City Index." The more widely recognized GaWC study from
Loughborough University, conducted in 1999, employed its own methodology
to establish the criteria for assessing a city's global significance.
 88

Characteristics of a Global City According to Longhorn (2015)

For a city to be classified as global, it must possess an economic
dimension, indicating that it cannot be recognized as such unless it serves as a
significant center for finance, commerce, manufacturing, or business services.
Meaning global cities are economic powerhouses and home to major
corporations and financial institutions that serve as hubs for international
trade, finance and investment.

Here is a list of the top 10 Global Power Cities 2022:

Rank City
1 London
2 New York
3 Tokyo
4 Paris
5 Singapore
6 Amsterdam
7 Berlin
8 Seoul
9 Madrid
10 Shanghai
Population size is a crucial factor in determining a global city, with all
global cities having populations of three million or more. According to World
City Populations 2023, the top ten most populated cities in the world are Tokyo,
with a population of 37,435,191; Delhi, with a population of 29,399,141;
Shanghai, with a population of 26,317,104; Sao Paulo, with a population of
21,846,507; Mexico City, with a population of 21,671,908; Cairo, with a
population of 20,484,965; Dhaka, with a population of 20,283,552; Mumbai,
with a population of 20,185,064; Beijing, with a population of 20,035,455; and
Osaka, with a population of 19,222,665.

A global city should also have a large human capital base, which means
a substantial pool of talented, educated, and creative individuals. The
possession of in-demand capabilities and skills by individuals is a key driver
of economic growth and productivity. When talent is effectively utilized,
national development follows. The World Economic Forum publishes the
Human Capital Index, which evaluates employment outcomes in each country
using a scale from 0 to 100, where 0 represents the poorest score and 100
 89

indicates the highest score. Based on the 2017 report, the table below provides
information on how each country scores on the Human Capital Index.

It should prioritize culture, signifying that a robust economy should be

capable of funding the museums, universities, orchestras, and theaters that
elevate a city beyond merely being a workforce pool. Cultural amenities that
appeal to individuals from around the globe. Cities that will increase cultural
understanding that can offer a wide range of cultural amenities that
showcasing varieties of their culture.

The city should also be able to attract a large number of tourists, global
cities should be large, energetic, and entertaining. Tourism represents a
significant export industry as visitors from various parts of the world come to
purchase the offerings of a city. In order to qualify as a global city, connectivity
is indispensable, encompassing both air and digital connections to the rest of
the world. If global cities serve as meeting points for international residents,
possessing a large airport with a comprehensive schedule of nonstop flights to
other global cities is essential.

"While 2022 was a positive year for the travel sector, the road to full post-
pandemic recovery is long, and government support remains critical across all
regions," said Euromonitor. The Euromonitor Top 10 City Destinations Index
for 2022 ranks the following cities: Paris, Dubai, Amsterdam, Madrid, Rome,
London, Munich, Berlin, Barcelona, and New York.

For individuals who enjoy traveling or frequently find themselves

needing to travel to various countries on short notice, staying informed
about the visa or electronic travel authorization (eTA) requirements for
each destination is crucial. Passport Indexes gauge the comparative
influence of citizens' travel documents based on the number of countries
that permit visa-free entry or offer visas on demand. They indicate the
number of countries that are most receptive or least receptive to visitors.

Arton emphasizes that the benefits of countries worldwide embracing an

open travel approach are evident: "The advantages include exchange,
tourism, and trade development, outweighing the minimal income
generated from visas.

The Ranking of Most Welcoming Countries for 2022 categorizes

nations based on their openness to visitors. The most open countries
include Angola, Djibouti, Guinea, Maldives, Comoros, Somalia, Bolivia,
East Timor, Malawi, Qatar, Micronesia, Burundi, Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria,
Tuvalu, Samoa, Gabon, Cote d’Ivoire, South Sudan, Democratic Republic
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of Congo, Rwanda, Cambodia, and Ethiopia. Following closely are

Seychelles, Togo, Uganda, Cape Verde, Mauritania, and Suriname.
 91

Here is a list of the top twenty high scores on Human Capital Index:

Rank Country Score

1 Norway 77.12

2 Finland 77.07

3 Switzerland 76.48

4 United States of America 74.84

5 Denmark 74.4

6 Germany 74.3

7 New Zealand 74.14

8 Sweden 73.95

9 Slovenia 73.33

10 Austria 73.29

11 Singapore 73.28

12 Estonia 73.13

13 Netherlands 73.07

14 Canada 73.06

15 Belgium 72.46
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Palau, Dominica, and Madagascar also rank high in openness, with

Malaysia and Lesotho completing the list of more welcoming nations.
Conversely, the least open countries are North Korea, Turkmenistan,
and Afghanistan, followed by Macao, Libya, Eritrea, and Bhutan.
Equatorial Guinea, Sudan, Algeria, Myanmar, and Cameroon also fall
into the least open category.

An excellent quality of life can draw and retain top talent,

encompassing factors such as housing, education, public services,
transportation, natural surroundings, recreational opportunities, and the
political and social atmosphere. The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU)
releases an annual Global Liveability Ranking, evaluating 140 cities for
their urban quality of life through assessments of stability, healthcare,
cultural amenities, environmental conditions, education, and
infrastructure.

Here are the top 10 EIU's Global Liveability

Ranking 2022
Rank City Country/Region

1 Vienna Austria

2 Copenhagen Denmark

3 Zurich Switzerland

4 Calgary Canada

5 VVancouver Canada

6 Geneva Switzerland

7 Frankfurt Germany

8 Toronto Canada

9 Amsterdam Netherlands

10 Melbourne Australia

10 Osaka Japan
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93

Types of Cities
Every few years, the Globalization and World Rankings Research
Institute evaluates significant global economic cities, establishing itself as the
foremost authority in ranking the world's urban centers. Cities are classified into
Alpha, Beta, or Gamma categories depending on their level of connectivity to
the global network.

First, the Alpha cities are deeply connected to major economic states or
regions and extensively integrated into the global economy. These cities are
categorized into four tiers: Alpha ++, Alpha +, Alpha, and Alpha −. Alpha cities
possess significant economic, political, and social influence, serving as primary
centers for global industries and cultural activities. Alpha cities refer to major
global cities that play critical roles in the world economy, culture, and politics.
These cities are often considered to be at the top of the global hierarchy and exert
significant influence on regional, national, and international affairs. They serve
as hubs for finance, commerce, innovation, and cultural exchange, attracting
talent, investment, and ideas from around the world. Examples of alpha cities
include New York, London, Tokyo, Paris, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Shanghai,
among others

Second is the Beta cities, as defined by the GaWC study, are urban
centers that have not yet gathered the necessary critical mass to emerge as axes
of regional or international influence within the globalized landscape. However,
they are not negligible in an evaluation of it. This indicates that they are in the
process of transitioning into globalization, yet they remain highly industrialized
cities with substantial populations and a significant presence at the state or
national level. 9 points we have San Francisco, Sydney, Toronto and Zürich; 8
points we have Brussels, Madrid, Mexico City and São Paulo; 7 points we have
Moscow and Seoul.

Third, Gamma cities are rooted in economic, financial, and

sociocultural dynamics characteristic of the 20th century or the onset of
modernity. Gamma cities are urban areas that, while not reaching the status of
Alpha or Beta cities, still play crucial roles in regional and national economies.
They often serve as important centers for trade, commerce, and cultural
exchange within their respective regions. They are generally capitals of the so-
called Third World. While they hold significance as urban centers, they are not
central components of the global economy, nor are they heavily involved in
events of international importance, or possess a prominent cultural influence
on the region. 6points we have Amsterdam, Boston, Caracas, Dallas,
Düsseldorf Geneva and others. 5 points we have Bangkok, Beijing, Montreal,
Rome Stockholm and Warsaw. 4 points we have Atlanta, Barcelona, Berlin,
Budapest, Buenos Aires and others.
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94

Summary
Global cities are pivotal centers in the global economic system,
characterized by their competitiveness and influence. They originated from
studies in the 1980s aiming to identify shared characteristics among significant
cities worldwide. These cities prioritize the movement of information and
capital, serving as hubs within interconnected networks.

The major characteristics of global cities include economic prowess,

large populations, significant human capital, cultural amenities, tourism
appeal, and connectivity. They offer superior quality of life factors such as
public transportation, environmental standards, and healthcare. Global cities
are ranked into Alpha, Beta, or Gamma categories based on their connectivity
to the global network.

Top global cities include London, New York, Tokyo, and Paris. They
play critical roles in the world economy, culture, and politics, exerting
significant influence regionally, nationally, and internationally. The success of
global cities is attributed to globalization, which facilitates the flow of capital,
information, and talent across borders.

The presentation highlighted the importance of global cities in driving

the global economy and shaping international affairs. Understanding the
characteristics and classifications of global cities provides insights into their
significance and impact on globalization. The role of globalization in enhancing
the connectivity and influence of global cities underscores the
interconnectedness of the modern world and the opportunities it presents for
economic growth and cultural exchange.
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Assessments
A. As a group consisting of 5 members, do the following:
1. Choose your global city.
2. Create a 30-minute video presentation exploring and detailing the various
measures of indicators that placed them on those ranks (Alpha, Beta, and
Gamma.)
3. Bring the class to your chosen city by playing your video presentation tour.
4. Explain globalization’s contribution to the success of your chosen city.

Write your conclusion below after the presentation.

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B. Policy Proposal Workshop

1. Students will draft policy recommendations for their Local
Government on how to become a global city.
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2. Collaborate in groups to develop comprehensive policy proposals

covering economic development, infrastructure, education, social
inclusion, and environmental sustainability.
3. Outcome: Present their policy proposals to the class, followed by a peer
review session.

Rubric for Policy Recommendations

Criteria Description Weight

Policy recommendations cover economic
development, infrastructure, education, social
Comprehensiveness 30
inclusion, and environmental sustainability
comprehensively.
Recommendations are clear, logically presented,
Clarity and
and feasible within the context of local 30
Feasibility
governance and resources.
Proposals demonstrate innovative and creative
Innovation and
approaches to city transformation into a global 20
Creativity
hub.
Research and Recommendations are supported by relevant
20
Evidence data, examples, and credible sources.
Total 100
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Lesson 9
GLOBAL DEMOGRAPHY
Colt Ian U. del Castillo

What Will You Learn?

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. explain the importance of studying global demography;
2. discuss the basic concepts in demography and their implications; and
3. determine the relationship of population with the economy and food
security.

What is This Lesson About?

This lesson will introduce you to the basic concepts of demography. You
will learn the importance of demography and its relations to economy and food
security of a country. Moreover, as population’s rise and fall varies greatly to
each country and so are the challenges it poses.

Affluent or not you will realize that global population has an impact on
both the advanced and developing countries. This calls the attention of national
leaders for strategic policy-making to maximize advantages and mitigate
problems related to global demography.

Definition of Terms
Global Demography - refers to the statistical study of the human population
on a global scale involving size, density, and vital statistics.

Population Density - refers to the concentration of humans in an area

measured in kilometer square.

Birth Rate - refers to the ratio of live-born births per 1,000 population per
year.

Death rate - refers to the number of deaths in a year per 1000 population.

Let’s Try This! (Activity 9.1)

Your professor will provide you link for a Google form for a mini
demographic survey of the class. The survey shall contain basic questions such
as sex, age, civil status, home town/city, number of persons in a household, etc.
The results will be projected in a screen.

Let’s Think About It! (Activity 9.2)

GEC 103. The Contemporary World
98

1. What are the prevailing demographic characteristics in terms of sex, age,

civil status, number of persons in a household, and place of origin (hometown)?
2. How do the figures reflect your class as group?
3. What do these figures mean to you?

Importance of Studying Global Demography

The human population in 2024 stands at over eight billion (wordometer,
2024). It will be 9.8 billion in 2050 and 11.2 billion in 2100 (United Nations, n.d.).
The Philippine population is at 118 million as of January 2024. It is 1.49% of the
world's population and is in the 13th rank (World Population Review, 2024).
The numbers are astounding, and imagining how billions of people thrive in a
world with finite resources is fascinating. Later on, the relationship of the
world's population with the global economy will be discussed.

Then, what is the impact of these numbers on our everyday life? It does
have a tremendous effect on each one of us. The huge population of today poses
serious health and food security concerns. Moreover, a ballooning population
would mean that more might be added to the 701 million living in extreme
poverty based on the $1.90 and $2.15 international poverty lines set by the
World Bank and the United Nations (Hasell et al., 2022). For global poverty, see
Fig. 1 in the next page for the poverty rate in each country.
Fig. 1 Cartogram of poverty rate of countries in the world

Source: Hasell et al. (2022)

Global demography is at the center of the development discussion
because of its impact on our economic and political lives. The succeeding
sections will introduce the basic concepts of demography and how
demography affects the economy and political landscape of the world in
general and a country in particular. Fig. 2 below shows the population
distribution of inhabited continents and regions worldwide.
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99

Fig. 2 Distribution of population in 2024 by continent/region

Source: Populationstat.com (2024)

The most populated continent remains Asia. It is home to two of the

most populous countries in the world—China and India. Africa ranks second,
and Europe is third. Interestingly, the male population is greater than the
female population in Asia. This is attributed to the "boy preference" of parents
in the 1980s, which has led to the male surplus (Burn-Murdoch, 2017).

Population density refers to the concentration of humans in an area

measured in kilometers squared. Given that Asia is three times bigger in
population size than the second most populous continent, Africa, its
population density is 149 compared to 48. This means that more people are
living in Asia than in Africa. The UN projected that by the end of the 21st
century, eight out of ten people will live in Asia or Africa (Ritchie, 2019).

Let’s Try This! (Activity 9.3)

1. Why studying demography is important?
2. What continent is projected to be most populous by the end of 21st century?
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
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Basic Concepts in Demography

It is important to have an understanding on the basic concepts of
demography such as birth rate, death rate, and life expectancy. These have
impact on the size and characteristics of population.

Birth rate
Looking at Fig. 3, one can see a downward trend in the birth rate in
regions or continents in 2024, which will continue in 2050. Birth rate is the ratio
of live-born births per 1,000 population per year. It is an important indicator of
population growth that will impact state policies on health, education, and the
economy (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2023). Fertility rate,
closely associated with birth rate, on the other hand, is the total number of
births per woman in childbearing years that are usually until age 50 (World
Bank, 2024).

Fig. 3 Birth rate in 2024 by continent/region

Source: Populationstat.com (2024)

Is the downward trend in the birth rate a bad thing? It depends on the
country. Others need control, while others are struggling to increase their
population growth. In Africa, about 431 million people have income below the
extreme poverty line of US$ 1.90/day in 2022. Nigeria and the Democratic
Republic of Congo account for 12% and 10% of the world's population living in
extreme poverty, respectively (Galal, 2019). The African continent's population
today is at 1.4 billion, but in 2100, it is expected to be nearing 4 billion or 38%
of the population by that time (Ritchie, 2019). It can be attributed to its birth
rate. For instance, this 2024, it stands at 31.255 births/1000 people based on UN
data and is the highest in the world, albeit in decline (Macrotrends, 2024).
Europe, in contrast, has only 9.1 births/1000 people in 2021. France, for instance,
had 678,000 babies born in 2023, which is the lowest in the region (Cordier,
2024).
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
101

Death rate
Fig. 4 Death rate across regions

Source: Populationstat.com (2024)

Death rate refers to the number of deaths in a year per 1000 population
(World Bank, 2024). In the past decades, the death rate has been declining
across regions. The infant death rate, in particular, has been in decline due to a
number of factors. These include better hygiene, water quality, and living
conditions that diminish the spread of infections (Drevenstedt et al., 2008).
Thus, it increased population growth across regions in the past decades.
Diseases, as a significant factor for deaths in the post-World War II era, have
been studied thoroughly, leading to the invention of vaccines that would
prevent disease-related fatalities.

However, the COVID-19 Pandemic has caught the world by surprise. It

is a novel strand of virus that has never infected humans before. Hence, no
vaccine was available at the onset of the pandemic, which has claimed more
than three million lives (World Health Organization, 2024). Densely populated
areas were at higher risk of transmission of COVID-19 (Iderus et al., 2022).

Life expectancy
The world flourished. Over the past decades and centuries, inventions,
discoveries, and consequent sound policies have improved the quality of life
and standard of living. Improving health systems, better living conditions, and
fewer wars mean higher life expectancy. This is more observable in the post-
World War II era. More than 37 million people have died worldwide since 1800
due to wars, but interstate wars have declined over the century (Herre et al.,
2023).
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
102

Fig. 5 Life Expectancy in continents and the world

Source: Statistica.com (2024)

It can be observed that Western countries (Ociana, Europe, and
Northern America) are in the top tier when it comes to life expectancy. One
would ask: Is it because they are relatively wealthy? The answer is yes.
Typically, wealthier states have better-funded social programs. Hence, many
social scientists predict life expectancy based on the per capita income of the
country (measured by GNP/population). However, the study of Freeman et al.
(2020) provided interesting insights as the United States "punched below its
weight" while other non-Western states "punch above their weights."

The United States is 2.9 years below its weight (per capita income)
probably because of its neoliberal economics, limited social security, limited
public health regulation, significant income inequality increase, lower political
participation levels, and market-based healthcare. The US could have scored
better if it was as generous in welfare as the other wealthy countries. Ethiopia
has an extra three years, and Brazil has two because of community-based health
strategies, improving access to safe water, health care coverage, and reduced
inequality are some of the possible reasons (Freeman et al., 2020).

While the global life expectancy is 71 years, African countries have the
lowest life expectancy globally, below the global average. Reasons can be
gleaned from the apparent economic and social inequality in most African
states.
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
103

Median age
Fig. 6 below offers a fascinating story related to the global economy.
Looking at the age structure, the regions with the most aging population are
Europe, North America, and Oceania. These regions have a higher age median
because they have an older population overall and typically have a low fertility
rate. This is the opposite of Central America and Africa, whose population is
relatively younger (Ritchie, 2019).

Fig. 6 Median Age Across Regions

Source: Populationstat.com (2024

Policies in Europe on population have taken a bite starting in 2008 as the
number of children born is in a downward trend. The total fertility rate in the
EU was only 1.53 live births in 2021 (Eurostat, 2023). What does this mean for
their economy? It will be discussed in the latter section.

Let’s Try This! (Activity 9.4)

1. What are the basic concepts in demography?
2. How does life expectancy affect population size?
3. Why life expectancy in Africa is below global average?

Demography and the Global Economy

Due to globalization, the world has become integrated economically.
The fundamental concepts of demand and supply are central to economists'
analyses. Moreover, labor supply is a critical aspect of demographics (Mester,
2018). Recall that Western countries face challenges in their aging population
because of low fertility rates. This will directly impact the number of workforce
needed by the economy as issues of adequacy of labor supply are at the fore. If
their population cannot meet the labor demand at present, they have to
augment it through immigration.

Policies to increase fertility rate and migration are the usual strategy.
Western countries introduced policies to increase the fertility rate. Denmark's
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
104

education system, for instance, taught schoolchildren to have more babies.

While others even promote sex in TV ads as an act of patriotism. In Sweden,
fertility is encouraged by paying either the mother or father to stay at home for
their newborn for 480 days, and they are entitled to 80% of their previous salary
(Noack, 2015). These are desperate measures to increase the fertility rate to
address future labor shortage problems.

International migration from countries with labor surpluses can help fill
the labor shortages in many developed countries (World Bank, 2017). Some
countries needing foreign workers are Germany, South Korea, New Zealand,
and Canada, to name a few. While receiving states can benefit from
immigration, sending states can likewise benefit from emigration. The
Philippines is one of the active countries sending skilled workers to the
mentioned countries as part of its labor export program. Every year, at least
one million overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) were either newly deployed or
redeployed from 2006 to 2019, sending billions of dollars to the country
(Opiniano & Ang, 2024). The dollars sent have macro- and microeconomic
impacts on the Philippines, which account for 8.9% and 8.4% of GDP and GNP,
respectively (Business World, 2023).

Relationship Between Demography and Food Security

English economist and demographer Thomas Malthus is best known for
his theory about population growth and food security, also called
Malthusianism. In his work, An Essay on the Principle of Population, he argued
that the human population grows more rapidly than food production can cope;
thus, premature death in some forms must come to check (or reduce) the
population (MacRae, 2023). His thoughts influenced government policies in the
past.

However, scholars have debunked Malthusianism. His assumption that

the Earth cannot produce enough food for people is proven wrong because of
scientific and technological advancements in food production (Smith, 2014). In
2050, the Earth will be capable of feeding 9 or 10 billion. Thus, Malthus may
have underestimated the power of science and innovation during his time.

If food production is not a problem, why is the population tied to food

security? Food supply may be sufficient, but hundreds of millions of people
need access to food. They need to have economic power or means to purchase
sufficient food for proper nutrition. World Health Organization (2022) reported
that global hunger is at a staggering 828 million in 2021, with 46 million added
since 2020, while 2.3 billion people were severely or moderately food insecure
in 2021, affecting their health, especially children. Thus, poverty aggravates
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
105

food insecurity. The World Food Programme (2021) reported that 9 million
people die yearly from hunger. This happens in a prosperous world!

Least-developed countries (LDCs) would need to craft policies that

address the economic challenges while addressing the problem of
demographic structures.

Let’s Try This! (Activity 9.5)

1. How does demography affect food security?
2. Why do people die of hunger?

Summary
Demographic characteristics vary from country to country and region to
region of the world. Demography has an impact on global economy and food
security. However, while it may be true that globalization brought material
prosperity to the world, there is inequality in wealth distribution affecting the
millions who are considered food poor.

According to the International Monetary Fund (2022), the gap between

rich and poor countries is widening. Less developed countries (LDCs) with
higher populations are likely to suffer from the challenges of allocating
minimal resources to their population, especially those living in destitution or
extreme poverty. It then becomes imperative to manage the population along
with improving the economy so that it can positively contribute to the country's
development goals, such as poverty reduction and elimination of hunger (refer
to SDG 1 and SDG 2 of the United Nations).

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Assessments

Write an analytical essay about global demography by answering the following

guide questions: (20 points)

1. What is the importance of studying global demography?

GEC 103. The Contemporary World
106

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2. How do birth rate, death rate, and life expectancy affect global
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GEC 103. The Contemporary World
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Lesson 10
GLOBAL MIGRATION
Anderson V. Villa

What Will You Learn?

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. define global migration;
2. display first-hand knowledge of the experiences of migrant workers in
the context of Asia and the Philippine experience;
3. examine the sustainability of return and reintegration policies for
migrant workers to their home communities and families; and
4. create a video on the experiences of Filipino migrants abroad.

What Is This Lesson About?

This chapter introduces the reader to the interdisciplinary nature of
studying global migration. It analyzes the nature and consequences of global
mobility and demographic changes in Asian countries from a comparative and
interdisciplinary perspective by citing the specific experience of the
Philippines. The topic will cover three major issues and concerns: 1) Global
migration and development, 2) Labor migration policies in Asia, and 3) Return
and reintegration of migration workers.

How many mothers had to leave their children behind? How many
more children had to stay and contend with parental absence? Such a question
is a small fraction of the various types of migration in the world. If you are
taking a flight from the Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA) – very long
queues of immigrants are a usual scene for most travelers to and from the
capital city of Manila. It is said that thousands leave NAIA while thousands
more are left behind.

Let’s Try This (Activity 10.1)

The class will be divided into groups of 3 members. Then, they will watch and
play this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fj7jm9-xWlI. At the end
of the video, they will answer the questions below.

1. What were the scenes in the video?

2. What do you think were the feelings of the parents?
3. Why must Filipino parents leave their children and work abroad?
4. How do children feel when their parents leave to work abroad?
5. How do you feel about the scenes in the video?
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
109

Let’s Think About It (Activity 10.2)

1. What is global migration?
2. Who is a migrant?
3. Why does migration matter?
4. What are the underlying factors behind the global movements of the
people?
5. How does migration affect your life or the community you have seen?

Conceptualizing Global Migration

Scholars have argued that global migration is one of the strongest agents
of global change in the contemporary world. It can be defined as the “act of
moving across international boundaries from a country of origin (emigration)
to take up residence in a country of destination (immigration).” Migrants, on
the other hand, as per UN definition, are “someone living outside their country
for a year or more.” Migrants are usually categorized as temporary, permanent,
and irregular. Migration could either be voluntary or involuntary (Samers &
Collyer, 2017). Many argue that migration brings good outcomes to the
recipient society as migrants send home vast sums of money and make other
contributions from abroad, too, and when they return, they can bring home
new skills, experiences, and contacts (Koser, 2007).

In 2013, the UN Population Division reported that Asians represented

the largest share of migrants (diaspora) residing outside their countries of birth
origin. They account for about 19 million foreign-born living in Europe. The
International Organization for Migration (IOM) further stated that there were
31.5 million international migrants in Asia and the Pacific region in 2010 (IOM,
2010). The phenomenon of migration has been around for centuries, as
numerous scholars claim. Still, it has never been so intense and more profound
than before, as most countries of this contemporary world are in one way or
another connected to it.

Most of these fledgling developing economies implemented a labor

export policy and benefited from it through the remittances migrants sent from
abroad. Indonesia and the Philippines are the largest labor-sending countries
in Southeast Asia (mostly unskilled and low-skilled workers), while Malaysia
and Singapore are basically recipient countries. Indeed, it is not only the flow
of people that is ever present in globalization. We must also consider the
significant role played by the flow of money or remittances from the source to
their recipient countries. In fact, the top three remittance-receiving countries in
2004 were Mexico (US$16 billion), India (US$9.9 billion), and the Philippines
(US$8.5 billion).
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
110

The big question is, why are Filipinos continuously deployed for
employment abroad? What accounts for the increasing number of women
leaving the Philippines? Where do they go abroad? What kind of jobs do they
get while working abroad? In 2008, the Philippine government reported that
about 2,000 to 3,000 Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) are deployed daily for
employment abroad on a contractual basis (Asis, 2008; Tyner, 2004, 2009).
Sadly, the statistics have not changed. Fast forward to the present, such a
crowded vignette creates an impression that Filipinos are seemingly desperate
to leave the Philippines. According to the 2018 PSA Survey on Overseas
Filipinos (SOF), the majority (about 80 percent) of Filipino migrant workers are
deployed in Asia (with Europe as the second majority, comprising 7.8 percent
of the total). More than 50 percent of the OFWs are working in the Middle East,
while around 25 percent are based in Saudi Arabia. In terms of gender, 55.6
percent of the OFWs working abroad are women (1,284,000), the majority of
whom are in their reproductive age (between 24 and 35 years old). More than
50 percent of the female OFWs are working in elementary occupations. The
International Labour Organization (ILO, 2017) defines elementary occupations
as those that “consist of simple and routine tasks which mainly require the use
of hand-held tools and often some physical effort.” This may refer to what
migration scholars call “dirty, difficult, and dangerous” jobs (otherwise known
as 3D), including domestic helpers, cleaners, and launderers (ILO, 2017).

Labor Migration Policies in Asia

Various external and internal factors fuel emigration from the
Philippines. In the post-World War era, industrialized capitalist countries
pushed for open trade and free markets worldwide, which was then
popularized as globalization. In the middle of the 20th century, the Philippines’
labor migration was closely tied up with the US needs and demands. The first
wave of immigration started during the American occupation in 1898 until
World War II. In the 1920s, there was a massive labor recruitment to work on
farms in Hawaii and California.
The second period was PERMANENT TEMPORARINESS
encouraged by the US “Permanent temporariness” is fostered by
Immigration Act of 1965, which migration regimes which treat migrant workers
opened the door for selected as disposable labor governed through ‘revolving
educated professionals, such as door’ policies rather than socio-political subjects
doctors, nurses, and engineers, with rights to family formation and integration
(Yeoh, 2019).
to fill the labor shortages in the
United States. The third wave,
much more facilitated by the Marcos administration in the 1970s, has been seen
as a policy choice of the government and drew on labor migration to pool all
the needed resources for foreign currency in the Philippines. This primarily
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
111

consisted of exporting low-skilled labor to the Middle East (Gulf countries).

Initially, the program started as a temporary stop-gap measure, as a matter of
policy; however, with the growing contribution of remittances sent by migrants
back home, which definitely kept the stagnant economy afloat, the government
institutionalized out-migration and encouraged them to stay abroad and send
their remittances to help the ailing economy (Bultron, 2006; Camacho, 2010).

Migration scholars claim that the factors driving migration cannot just
be more simplistic than those mentioned above. Proponents of world systems
theory and the dual labor market theory argue that migrant workers are
admitted to the receiving regions and countries to work in industries and jobs
that locals shun, and hence, employers turn to migrants. The basic assumption
of the world system is that the migration process (within a single system) is set
in motion by integrating new areas into the capitalist world system, creating
core-periphery relations between the labor recipient and labor-sending
countries. What constitutes “bridges for migrants” are the material, cultural,
and ideological links that arise between these countries. Citing Bartram (1998),
Debrah (2002) further asserts:
In the core countries, economic and technological changes create new high-paid
jobs that locals are willing to take, leaving migrants to pick up those low wages,
low status, and insecure jobs because of the lack of employment opportunities
in their home countries…the global expansion of capitalism simultaneously
creates potential migrants in peripheral areas. It generates jobs in core areas
that citizens do not want because of the low wages, but migrant workers are
willing to accept (p. 12).

Therefore, two arguments are highlighted here. On the one hand, at the
macro-structural level, the globalization processes echo the dynamism behind
the surge of international labor migration in Asia after the 1970s. The vibrant
and emerging core and semi-periphery-industrialized economies of Taiwan,
Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, South Korea, Hong Kong, and Japan are now
firmly integrated into the global capitalist economy, and China is seemingly
following the footsteps of these countries. As such, some studies would
conclude that migrant workers are then considered peripheral employees that
employers can hire and fire depending on the state of the economy and the
need for workers (Debrah, 2002; Kaye, 2010).

On the other hand, individuals at the household level and potential

migrants alike are now more anxious than perhaps decades ago. As referred to
earlier, the huge income gap between developed and developing countries and
higher poverty incidence in the latter has led many poor families to take extra
measures into their own hands instead of relying on their government’s
support. These “structures” from above often failed them, leaving their families
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
112

hungry and impoverished. Thus, to countermand the effects of the inequities

and economic difficulties brought about by “globalization from above,”
globalization from below, or what some others call “globalization of the poor,”
serves as their last beacon of hope where labor migration and the remittances
become the migrants (individual) true economic adjustments program
regardless whether their government cares for them or not (Portes & DeWind,
2007; Asis, 2008).

Return and Reintegration of Migrant Workers

The work of Cassarino (2014), as adapted by Haase and Honerath (2016),
offers a foundational understanding of the concept of return preparedness and
helps classify the types of returnees in terms of their “willingness” and
“readiness” to return – two basic elements in return migrants’ preparedness.
Thus, return preparedness is about “preparing to return” and " having the
ability, though not always the opportunity, to gather the tangible and
intangible resources needed to secure one’s own return.” Cassarino (2014, p.
159) further stressed the twofold question for return preparedness: 1) Why do
some migrants have a stronger degree of preparedness than others? 2) How is
the issue of return preparedness dealt with or taken into consideration in the
framework of contemporary migration management policies? Hence, this
concept factors into the picture that “returnees’ preparedness is shaped by
circumstances in host and home countries (i.e., pre- and post-return
conditions)” (p. 161).

Furthermore, the ILO, in adapting Cassarino’s (2014) framework on the

correlation of these factors, has identified three types of migration cycle: 1)
complete migration cycle, 2) incomplete migration cycle, and 3) interrupted
migration cycle. Cassarino reiterated that those who completed the migration
cycle had a higher return preparedness level than the two other cycles.
However, Wickramasekara (2019, p. 6) argued that return preparedness is also
driven by pre-departure conditions and incorporated such factors that help
facilitate complete migration cycle (e.g., fair migration conditions) and that
“…those who are subjected to high migration costs and heavy indebtedness
before departure are more likely to end up in forced labor situations and would
find it difficult to save adequately and achieve a high level of return
preparedness” and thus came up with a modified framework as shown in the
figure below.

Complete Incomplete Interrupted Migration

Migration Cycle Migration Cycle Cycle
(High Level of Return (Low Level of Return (No Return
Preparedness) Preparedness) Preparedness)
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
113

▪ Persons have ▪ High indebtedness ▪ Non-renewal of

migrated under in making the residence permits
regular and fair migration journey in the destination
recruitment situations coupled with low country.
involving minimum wages at destination. ▪ Expulsion/readm
costs and debts, and ▪ Job precariousness ission/removal.
have been well- in the destination ▪ Administrative/
informed. country. financial hurdles.
▪ To run a business ▪ Family and personal ▪ Loss of job.
concern or return to problems. ▪ Serious health
employment in the ▪ Adverse social and problems.
country of origin. cultural ▪ Family
▪ Termination of job environment/ racism constraints/
contract. To complete and faced pressures.
training/studies at discrimination ▪ Forced marriage.
home. abroad. ▪ Crises: natural
▪ Achieved migration ▪ Migration objectives disasters; armed
objective (e.g., not achieved (e.g., conflict.
achieved target unmet anticipated
savings or successful earnings; incomplete
completion of studies).
studies).
▪ Situation in the
country of origin has
improved.
Figure 1: Return Preparedness and the Migration Cycles

Haase and Honerath (2016) further expanded the framework above by

distinguishing the following types of return migrants:
1. Involuntary return migrants.
2. Return migrants whose return is “voluntary but unavoidable”.
3. Voluntary return migrants;
4. Second-generation “quasi-returnees.”

Haase and Honerath also conclude that “these individual factors for
return and reintegration are central to a migrant's personal situation in terms
of their willingness and readiness to return, personal networks in the country
of origin, motivation, and successful labor market integration” (2016, p. 7).
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
114

Likewise, Bernas (2016, pp. 41-44) came up with the following typologies
of returning OFWs that correspond to their level of preparedness: 1) M1 or
“Struggling to be reintegrated” are “those whose contract were abruptly
terminated, unfinished contract, breach of contract, or experienced labor
exploitation” and that “these workers most likely returned with low level of
preparedness to go back home”; 2) M2 or “Disengaged to be reintegrated” are
“those who had finished their contract and had a consciousness to the time and
mode of their return” though their level of preparedness may be “insufficient
and may not necessarily had achieved the level to which plans for employment
or sustaining of income upon return are mapped out”; 3) M3 or “Undecided to
be reintegrated” are returnees who also “have a certain level of preparedness
to return although it is clear that they only intend to stay temporarily in the
Philippines”; and 4) M4 or “Engaging to be reintegrated” are those returning
migrant workers who “intend to stay permanently in the Philippines.”

Upon review, the arguments above seem to coincide with the research
conducted a decade ago by Stella Go (2012) on the rapid appraisal of the return
and reintegration program of the Philippines. Go’s findings revealed two sides
of the same coin about the country's realities of return and remigration. The
reason for those who eventually returned for good was “because their goal was
clear to them, they worked hard, saved, and returned to the Philippines,
according to their plan,” while others “expressed the desire to go overseas
again if it were at all possible” and that the reason for their remigration “was
the health benefits provided by the (host) state and the desire to escape from
the pressures and problems of their family” (2012, p. 22). Similarly, Asis (2001),
as cited by Go, 2012) in a survey of 100 migrant women who returned, found
that the primary reasons for their return are the following: end of the contract
(38%), family reasons, including family problems (32%) and work-related
problems (10%). What is more striking is that 76 percent of the women in the
study wanted to work abroad again (re-migrate), and only 6 percent said that
they had achieved their goals as a reason for their return.

Bernas’s (2016) findings also cited “payment of debts, building a house,

and educational expenses” as the top 3 declared achievements among OFWs
while they were still working abroad and that the majority (59%) of the OFW
respondents have incurred debts prior to their decision to work abroad.
Corollary to that, as in my earlier study, findings revealed that “most OFWs
prolonged their stay in the host country due to huge debts to be paid back home
and for the education of their children/siblings.” Deported migrants also
expressed that they “would rather look for another job in other countries, or
worse as an unexpected consequence, would rather take the risk of returning
to the same host country by having their passports forged or through illegal
channels” (Villa, 2015, pp. 109-110). Sadly, as presented in many studies and
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
115

concluded in my research, reintegration programs do not always address long-

term and sustainable employment as well as economic livelihood for returning
migrants.

Financial assistance is just mere short-term cash incentives – a

temporary stop-gap measure. This quickly disappears in a matter of weeks
after receiving them. Seeing returnees distraught, especially during the
pandemic crisis, with limited programs for reintegration, only encourages
them to seek other employment abroad and might make risky decisions. True
enough, OWWA offers a “repatriation plan” that provides “quick assistance,
attention and remedy for individuals both before and after they have made a
comeback.

Evidently, given the above premises, return preparedness is only fully

realized when an attendant migrant worker is fully informed of what he/she is
about to embark on – a key element for safe migration. Hence, pre-departure
orientation seminars (PDOS) play a huge part in ensuring that migrants are
prepared and protected through information dissemination. There is a dearth
of studies conducted so far related to this area - the works of Jorge Tigno (2013)
and Development Action for Women Network (DAWN, in Nuqui et al., 2002)
stand out. These only intensively covered the PDOS program of the Philippine
government with emphasis on women migrants and, to some extent, its
implications for reintegration. Tigno (2013) expansively covered the program
and pointed out institutional lapses that leave more room for policy
improvement.

Nevertheless, his study recognizes the importance of PDOS in

protecting migrants from illegal recruitment and human trafficking and
preventing possible abuses by preparing migrants for their work experiences
abroad through awareness building and information dissemination (Tigno,
2013, p. 157). On the other hand, a study conducted by DAWN, an advocacy
NGO, highlighted the lack of reintegration programs that specifically cater to
the needs of overseas performing artists (OPAs), emphasizing the vulnerability
of Filipina entertainers from Japan. Hence, assistance is needed during the
entire migration process, from pre-departure to on-site to their return and
reintegration (Nuqui et al., 2002).

Access to Reintegration Programs

Clearly, though, the reintegration policy in the Philippines primarily
addresses two major components: psychosocial needs and economic needs. In
reality, the economic aspect of the migration cycle is more than wanting, as it
is said that reintegration can only be considered successful when returnees
have reached certain levels of economic self-sufficiency within their
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
116

communities. The same indication was evident in the Productive Migrant

Workers Village (Desmigratif) program in Indonesia. Consequently, home
villages substantially improved the services for families and returned workers
in the process (Damastuti, 2019; Rahayu, 2018). Conversely, the study of
Garabiles and Asis (2022) in the Philippines reveals that one of the many
reasons why returnees would rather choose to re-migrate is because of the
unattractive low pay they can generate when they opt for local employment. In
other countries, obvious reasons cited for non-return are natural disasters,
armed conflict, and economic crises in their home countries.

Livelihood opportunities are pursued with the primary goal of

sustaining the economic living conditions. Kapur (2019) emphasized that
individuals belonging to all categories and backgrounds, regardless of factors
such as class, caste, race, ethnicity, religion, gender, and socio-economic
background, are required to look for livelihood opportunities. This study
meant that a livelihood includes the abilities, material and social resources, and
activities required for sustainable living. This supports the idea of Cassarino
(2014) that migrant workers who are planning to return may encourage
investment in new businesses and are more likely to be self-employed. They
intend to stay in their own country with mixed characteristics and diverse
needs.

Indeed, overseas workers who want to return home may need more
information regarding the economic and social policies of the government, as
well as investment opportunities. Bernas’s (2016, p. 33) findings also revealed
that “OFWs have low awareness of government assistance or support for
returning OFWs.” Nevertheless, the same study also showed that “amongst
OFWs who had a certain level of awareness of these government initiatives,
there is a higher rate of availment (62%).” Thus, the reintegration program
offers services in response to the needs of these returning overseas workers. As
recommended by the study of PIDS, “…greater efforts of disseminating and
promoting government and other initiatives related to return and reintegration
are urgent because an overwhelming proportion of returnees were not aware
of these initiatives, particularly the networking mechanisms” (Tabuga, Baiño,
& Vargas, 2021, p. 22). On the other hand, what is more particularly challenging
is that at the domestic level, as Garabiles and Asis (2022) concluded, policies at
the national level may not be widely replicated in the regions and local
governments. Thus, there is a need for LGUs to organize information drives on
business opportunities and livelihood programs especially planned for OFWs
(see also Villa, 2020).

Moreover, economic opportunities do not solely drive reintegration, but

rather psychosocial too, which is barely given focus in most reintegration
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
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programs. Aside from economic conditions, the reintegration program also

contributes to the psychosocial well-being of overseas workers. Sri Lanka,
which established the National Labor Migration Policy (2008), offers services
for returning migrant workers, including social and economic assistance and
physical and psychological interventions. A study of Fonseca, Hart & Klink
(2015) on access to counseling is more likely to cope with the impact on
psychosocial well-being of overseas workers. Having this helped develop their
attitudes toward a sustainable lifestyle in their home country.

Overseas workers' psychosocial well-being is based on a sense of safety,

security, and the availability of counseling and mental health care services. The
psychosocial interventions for returned overseas workers are efficient in
dealing with one’s life and resilience upon return to the home country. These
are manifested through their improved attitude on the importance of one’s life,
facilitated normal recovery from their distressed situation, improved their
personal well-being, stabilized community life, strengthened abilities to live a
good life, made them well-rounded person in their respective local
communities, prepared in dealing with their emotional difficulties, spiritually
guided in dealing with social issues and provided them with resilience in
continuing life until the present (see also Salam, 2022).

The study by Kohrt & Song (2018) asserted that psychosocial support
can have an important role in protecting against negative outcomes and
promoting well-being. Purgato and colleagues in 2018 found a significant
impact of psychosocial support for the improvement in psychosocial outcomes:
functioning, hope, coping, and social support. Highlighting the impact is
similar in Cabo Verde (Africa), a practical approach of promoting systematic
mobility through a partnership of Cabo Verde and the European Union (E.U.).
It provides psychosocial services to people who want to relocate to the E.U.
(IOM, 2018). Thus, Bernas (2016, p. 3) noted return may be for everyone, but
not all returnees may be ready for reintegration. Reintegration has to consider
three (3) identified dimensions: economic stability, social networks and
psychosocial well-being.

Summary
Koser (2007) discussed the overlapping categories for the term
“international migrants.” A common distinction is made between “voluntary
and forced migrants.” Another category is that between people who move for
“political reasons and those who move for economic reasons.” Those that move
for economic reasons are usually described as “labor migrants” – people who
move to find work, or better job opportunities and working conditions. They
in turn are often further classified as low skilled and highly skilled. In Europe,
the former Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) operated the
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
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Gastarbeiter scheme under which workers were recruited according to a two-

year rotation principle. After recruitment ceased in the early 1970s, this labor
migration turned into permanent immigration (Marshall, 2006).

In Asia, when the Philippine government launched the overseas

employment program in the 1970s, the Marcos administration deemed it was
necessary to offer a temporary solution to the domestic unemployment and
problems on balance of payments, as well as trade deficits. The stop-gap
measure was carried out by sending migrants abroad on a contractual basis due
to the growing demand for workers in the construction sector in the Middle
East. However, the short-term mechanism inadvertently became a recurring
measure until this time. Both state and non-state entities, including the
migration industry and recruitment agencies, that gradually discovered this
potential lucrative source of income abroad started jumping into the
bandwagon. Asis reiterated that “the current policy regarding overseas
employment no longer sees it as a temporary and frames it instead as part of
globalization and as a development strategy” (2008, 2). Thus, there is a huge
challenge towards a sustainable return and reintegration of migrant workers to
their home countries.

Today, migrant reintegration is mitigated by myriad social factors

within two major dimensions or corridors: 1) on one hand, the integration
policies of host countries/cities, the acceptance rate and attitudes towards
migrants, and their living and working conditions, and 2) on the other hand,
the attendant return migration policies of sending countries for effective
reintegration of migrant workers to their families and local communities. Thus,
given the social and political dimension of labor migration, as suggested by
Yaw Debrah, “it is important that an attempt to understand the origins of labor
migration should include an analysis of state policy” (2002, p. 13). Simply put,
on one hand, the currency of related literature and studies in the Philippines
are fairly recent such as those of Garabiles and Asis (2022), IOM (2019) and ILO
(in Wickramasekara, 2019) which offers a general picture of return migration
in the country. On the other hand, these studies also recognize the limitations
of their research which gives emphasis on the economic aspect as a major driver
of reintegration and that “analysis does not contain variables that would allow
exploring other aspects of reintegration” (Garabiles and Asis, 2022). Likewise,
the descriptive study of Marwisa Salam (2022) is a novel attempt to explore
sustainability of the reintegration program for overseas workers in the
Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM) but fell
short to explore the relationship between return preparedness and its
implications to the reintegration program in the region.
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
119

Overall, the chapter highlighted the importance of an effective return

and reintegration program for migrant workers and their families.
International organizations such as ILO and IOM reiterated the definitive role
to be played by state actors for sustainable and effective implementation of
return and reintegration policies. However, there is a gap in literature and the
need to address return preparedness of migrant workers, as well as the
importance of a holistic approach in looking at the multi-dimensional nature of
migration cycle from pre-deployment phase to return.
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
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Assessments
A. Class Debate. Organize a class debate and choose from any of the following
topics:
1. How can migration help the economy?
2. Do immigrants steal the jobs of native workers?
3. Does immigration contribute to a better world?

B. Interview. In a group of five members, the students will interview an OFW

or a Filipino migrant. The interview will cover the following topics.
⮚ Brief background and migration history: pre-departure,
onsite/employment abroad, and/or return.
⮚ Reasons for migration and the factors that influence their choice of
destinations.
⮚ Challenges and opportunities of the Filipino migrants and feelings of a
migrant.
⮚ Reflections of the Filipino migrant from his/her experiences.

C. Video Making. In a group of five members, the students will create a short
video clip about the interview results conducted with an OFW or a Filipino
migrant. The videos should be 4-6 minutes long. Below is the rubric for the
video-making.

Rubrics for Video Making

Criteria Description Weight
Content The video satisfactorily covers and 30
presents the content of the interview.
Concept and discussion The video incorporates the concepts 30
and theories of global migration.
Design The quality and materials in the 15
video are very well organized and
understandable.
Participation All members demonstrate an active 10
role in the process through
appearance in the video.
Final Product The final product looks professional, 15
and the concepts were visibly
demonstrated.
Total 100
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
121

Lesson 11
THE ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS AND OTHER CHALLENGES: MOVING
TOWARD SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Joy C. Calva

What Will You Learn?

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:
1. define environmental crisis, and related concepts;
2. describe the issues of the environmental crisis and its link to
globalization and sustainable development; and
3. analyze the sustainable development initiatives to address
environmental crisis and other challenges.

What Is This Lesson About?

A better understanding of the environmental crisis and the link between
globalization, environment, and sustainability helps us understand the
different facets of sustainable development as a powerful tool in balancing
growth, sustainability, and society. Moreover, the concept became imperative
and ubiquitous in various development-related undertakings.

In this lesson, we delve into the environmental crisis and other

challenges and how globalization, whether directly or indirectly, affects human
conditions and the planet's ecological balance. We also highlight the significant
role of sustainable development in mitigating these impacts, offering hope and
empowerment in the face of these challenges.

Let’s Try This (Activity 11.1). Instruct the students to examine the images.
Allow them a maximum of five minutes. Then, have them answer the following
questions through recitation.
1. What elements capture your attention in this image?
2. What do you think is the main subject of this image?
3. Why did the artist make this image?
4. How do you feel about this image?
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
122

Source: © 2024 Copyright Conservation news Source: United Nations | Climate Action,
2024

Let’s Think About It

1. What is an environmental crisis?
2. Why do we need to address the environmental crisis?
3. How can we address the environmental crisis through sustainable
development?

Definition of Terms
Environmental Crisis - is a condition of ecological damage that impacts the planet
and humanity and is often challenging to address.
Other challenges - are those critical problems that are also prioritized by sustainable
development in addition to the environment.
Sustainability is a condition with minimal or no damage to humankind and the
world for the present and future generations to continue.
Sustainable development is a development process that focuses on attaining the
needs of today's generation without sacrificing the conditions and abilities of the
following generations.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provide for a sustainable development
framework adopted in 2015 by the United Nations, which calls for universal action
to protect the planet, end poverty, and enjoy peace and prosperity by 2030. SDGs are
also known as Global Goals.

The Environmental Crisis, and Related Concepts

Despite the global campaign to address the environmental crisis, and the
significance of sustainability and the myriad of sustainable development
initiatives, the world is facing difficulties in achieving sustainable development
goals due to the several crises that threaten it consistently. The environmental
crisis, which causes ecological damage that impacts the planet and humanity,
is just one of these challenges. Based on the UN data (2023), there are other
challenges that the world has experienced, such as a severe food crisis due to
the inflation of food and energy prices in 2008, the global financial crisis in 2009,
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
123

and the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. These crises have led to a decrease in
growth rates, an increase in unemployment, a global health emergency, and a
rise in the level of hunger and malnutrition that deepened poverty around the
globe. Some of these challenges are in the past, but some are still persistent. If
the global North has difficulties, how much more is the global South? Now and
then, the world faces demanding challenges such as environmental crises,
finances, energy, health, food, and global recession. These problems undermine
the realization of the long-term goals of sustainable development. Hence, while
integrated and broadly participatory approaches to sustainable development
have been adopted to attain global transformation, the crises remain. This
underscores the need for continuous and concerted efforts to address these
challenges.

Let’s Try This (Activity 11.2). After discussing the definition of the
environmental crisis and related concepts, ask the students the following
questions:
1. Which definition caught your attention the most?
2. What is your interpretation of the mentioned definition?

The Issues of the Environmental Crisis and Its Link to Globalization

and Sustainable Development
One of the main reasons why environmental crises persist is the increase
in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, which are caused by drastic climate
changes. Moreover, the Environmental Protection Agency (2023) stated that
CO2 is mainly emitted from fossil fuel, which refers to the organic materials
formed into coal, natural gas, heavy oils, or crude oil due to heat exposure and
pressure from decayed plants and animals. Fossil fuels are non-renewable
energy that supplies an average of 80% of the world's energy. In addition, CO2
emissions can be derived from man-made impacts on land use, like
deforestation and other artificial practices.

Consequently, CO2 emissions are critical since they generally impact the
planet through greenhouse gasses, contributing to climate change and global
warming, disturbing the delicate Earth's balance. From NASA's data (2023),
greenhouse gasses are part of the natural atmosphere makeup that describes
the Earth as a "Goldilocks" planet in which its average temperature is at 15
degrees Celsius (59 degrees Fahrenheit). The temperature is just right to allow
any life to thrive. Nevertheless, in modern times, there is an increased human
intervention primarily due to burning fossil fuels, which adds carbon dioxide
to the air. Burning fossil fuels causes the temperature to rise because it traps
extra heat near the Earth's surface. That is why the planet is experiencing rapid
melting of glaciers, increased occurrences of wildfires, extreme rainfall from
tropical cyclones, wind intensity, and drought. The IPCC of the United Nations
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
124

assessed that these drastic global changes have never been seen or experienced.
Sadly, some changes will be irreversible over the next century or millennium.
Thus, due to rapid globalization, human activities affect the environment, and
a sustainable development framework is critical to combat its impact.

Legend:
Solar Irradiance - descending line
Temperature - ascending line
Is the Sun causing global warming? No. The warming is too rapid
We are and
in extensive
a globalization era by
to be caused where
Earth’sfast-paced movement
orbit and solar activity. and
technological advancement affect the environment unprecedentedly.
Globalization is generally associated with development, growth, an increase in
wealth and industry, and closer economic, political, and cultural partnerships
among countries. However, if we look closely, Aldama (2018) argued that
globalization could be viewed either as positive or negative since globalization,
at one point, can bring progress, growth, and integration but, on the other hand,
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
125

can bring harm and regression. As mentioned by Cheng-Feng et al. (2022),

globalization has benefited economic growth since it helps advance any
country's economic, social, and political development. Hence, globalization's
link to sustainability and sustainable development cannot be separated since
there is a need for unified development initiatives to be universally and actively
pursued because even though globalization can benefit development, it can
also damage the environment and deprive other rights, more so on its impact
on the future generation.

Moreover, sustainability and sustainable development are concepts

often used interchangeably, but to distinguish the two: sustainability is the
long-term goal, while sustainable development is the framework, processes,
and pathways to achieve sustainability (SpringerLink, 2023). Furthermore,
sustainability is associated with the quality that the present and future
generations can continue for a long time, with little or no environmental
damage (Cambridge Dictionary, 2023). On the other hand, Gasimili et al. (2022)
stated that sustainable development (SD) first originated as a concept of
sustainable forest management in balancing the ecological, economic, and
culture during the 18th century. Meanwhile, the modern concept of SD was
famously derived from the 1987 Brundtland Commission Report of the United
Nations defined it as a development process whose focus is on meeting the
needs of today's generation without sacrificing or harming the needs and the
ability of the future generation. It included the three main aspects of sustainable
development: (a) economic, which covers both the present and future abilities
and needs of generations; (b) ecological, which limits parts of the environment
that should not be crossed; and (c) social, which is to act and address social
issues as well as integrating an inclusive development process.

Furthermore, looking at the priorities of the United Nations, its member-

states, concerned international organizations, and civil societies, the two
concepts became integral parts of their development plans and initiatives.
However, when the key components of globalization, such as liberalization
(free movement of goods, services, and capital due to limitation or abolition of
restrictions), privatization (government assets are transferred, owned, or
managed by the private industries), and deregulation (minimal government
regulation over a specific private business) increased its activities for the sake
of growth, it brought many hosts of destruction to the ecological balance of the
world in a dramatic manner that also affected the other areas of development.
Hence, the realization that in any related development issue, sustainability and
sustainable development should also be included in the prioritization areas to
counterbalance the impact of globalization.
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
126

Let’s Try This (Activity 11.3). Ask the students to evaluate the environmental
crisis and its link to globalization and sustainable development.

1. What are the reasons for the persistence of environmental crises?

2. What is the relationship between the environmental crisis,
globalization, and sustainable development?

Addressing Environmental Crisis and Other Challenges Through

Sustainable Development Initiatives
As discussed earlier, the rapid movements of human activities in
achieving growth resulted in environmental hazards that affect the planet's
health. Therefore, to achieve healing and recovery brought by climate change,
reduce inequality, pursue economic growth, and sustain the needs of the future
generation, sustainable development initiatives are provided to attain its long-
term goals.

One of the most prominent sustainable development actions was

initiated in 2015 and continuously advocated by the United Nations member-
states, both developed and developing. As mentioned in the UN data, the
blueprint is the Agenda for Sustainable Development 2030, adopted during the
United Nations Development Summit in September 2015, covering the 17
sustainable development goals (SDGs). The agenda pushes for peace and
prosperity, present and future, both for humanity and the planet. The SDGs, or
the Global Goals, are the universal framework for the member-states policies
and agendas within the next 15 years. All countries with a shared vision and
advocacy recognized the importance of the agenda that poverty and other
deprivations must be addressed together by building alliances with other
countries through global partnerships. Leave No One Behind guided the 193
countries to address the most pressing problems nowadays.

Moreover, the adoption of the 17 SDGs was realized due to the many
years of efforts of the UN member-states and the UNDESA. This blueprint was
finalized as inspiration from Agenda 21, established during the Earth Summit
in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
in New York in 2000 during the Millennium Summit. Agenda 21 was an action
plan that comprehensively covered the sustainable development of global
partnerships for environmental protection and improving human conditions.
On the other hand, the MDGs, where the 17 SDGs were built, pushed for
extreme poverty and hunger eradication together with the other issue-areas
such as universal primary education, gender equality and empowerment of
women, child mortality reduction, improve maternal health, combating
diseases such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, environmental sustainability, and a
development partnership (UNDESA 2023 & SDGF 2023). Therefore, the Global
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
127

Goals is a more ambitious framework than its predecessor, which adopts the
17 SDGs from the previous eight MDGs.

Notably, the 17 Sustainable Development Goals serve as the tenet of the

2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, to wit:
4. No Poverty
5. Zero Hunger
6. Good Health and Well-Being
7. Quality Education
8. Gender Equality
9. Clean Water and Sanitation
10. Affordable and Clean Energy
11. Decent Work and Economic Growth
12. Industry Innovation and Infrastructure
13. Reduced Inequalities
14. Sustainable Cities and Communities
15. Responsible Consumption and Production
16. Climate Action
17. Life below Water
18. Life on Land
19. Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
20. Partnerships for the Goals

As the UN's central office that oversees the SDGs, the division of the UN
Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) that is responsible for the
support and capacity-building of the SDGs and other issue-related themes such
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
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as climate, oceans, water, energy, science and technology, transport,

urbanization, partnerships, Small Island Developing States, and the Global
Sustainable Development Report (GSDR) is under the jurisdiction of the Division
for Sustainable Goals (DSDG). The DSDG of the UNDESA plays a critical role in
realizing sustainable development goals that work with the UN members
hand-in-hand. For example, the SDG Progress report is produced by the UN
system based on a global indicator framework and information from the
national statistics and regional-level data that is presented by the UN Secretary-
General yearly, which started in 2016. Moreover, the implementation of the
Global Sustainable Development Report is produced once every four years and
deliberated during the SDG Summit at the UN General Assembly. The GSDR
is written by the 15 experts or scientists appointed by the UN Secretary-
General. The first GSDR report was released last 2019. The second GSDR report
was released in September 2023.

Furthermore, the 2019 GSDR report entitled The Future is Now: Science
for Achieving Sustainable Development entails that the current framework needs
more sustainability. The efforts made for the last two decades may be affected
and irreversible if not given more attention and commitment among states
because social inequalities and environmental hazards worsen.

Scientists believe attaining a sustainable future is still possible but only

through the dramatic change of sustainable initiatives and policies and
concerted efforts of all - regional and international organizations, governments,
academia, and civil societies. The call is not just for the need to achieve an
incremental change but a deep, bold, and decisive systemic global
transformation.

The concrete call for action of the 2019 Global Sustainable Development
Report (GSDR) are:
4. Enhancing human capabilities and well-being
5. Moving towards economies that are just and sustainable
6. Sustainability of food systems and nutrition patterns that are
healthy
7. Achieving energy decarbonization (e.g., renewable energy) with
universal
access to energy
8. Promoting sustainable urban and peri-urban (e.g., town)
development
9. Securing the global environmental commons
10. Science and technology for sustainable development
11. Not incremental change (gradual improvement) but
transformation
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
129

It is noted that the much-awaited favorable result of achieving a

sustainable world using the SDGs framework has yet to be realized because,
despite the collaboration and prioritization of several countries, it is insufficient
in attaining the desired outcome, which is still a continuing goal and aspiration
of the member-states until 2030. Therefore, more serious implementation of the
SDGs, as well as the solid multilateral support and commitment of the
international organizations, state governments (national and local), and civil
societies, are crucial in balancing the critical factors of development because if
not then the human conditions, the health of the planet and its delicate balance
may be harmed more instead of being healed and sustained in general.

Meanwhile, the Kyoto Protocol is a sustainable development initiative of

several countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gasses in combating
climate change and global warming. Based on the UNFCCC data, it came into
force last December 11, 1997, and was ratified on February 16, 2005. Since the
developed countries are primarily responsible for the high levels of GHG
emissions in the atmosphere through massive industrialization, it binds these
countries to reduce and limit the emissions according to the agreed targets.
Hence, Kyoto Protocol that operationalizes the UN Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) binds countries to commit to its goals and report
periodically. According to the first commitment (2008-2012), 37 industrialized
economies committed up to 5 percent average emissions compared to the 1990
GHG levels. The second commitment held in Doha, Qatar, last December 8,
2012, covered the period between January 1, 2013, to December 31, 2020,
involving 147 parties that committed to reducing GHG emissions by 18% on
average. Still, the composition of the parties from the first and second
commitments is different. Unfortunately, the Kyoto Protocol results were
unsuccessful due to the lack of global support. As a result, it did not reduce
greenhouse gas emissions, but on the other hand, it increased since 1997.
However, despite the failure to meet its target level, this initiative is significant
because it's the first step in reducing GHG emissions to combat global
warming.

Another landmark sustainable development initiative is the Paris

Agreement. The agreement was adopted by 196 countries at the UN Climate
Change Conference (COP21). The treaty commenced last November 4, 2016.
According to UNFCCC (2023), the target goal is to minimize to 1.5 degrees
Celsius the Earth's temperature. The goal is critical to be achieved because,
based on the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), beyond
the 1.5 degrees Celsius threshold would unleash more drastic and severe
impacts on climate change, such as heatwaves, rainfall, and droughts.
Therefore, the temperature limit must peak before 2025 and reduce by 43% by
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
130

2030. In addition, it encourages parties to submit their nationally determined

contributions (NDCs) or their national climate action plan regarding their
move to reduce greenhouse emissions. Though this is still a continuous
movement until 2030, many countries are already adopting carbon neutrality
targets or low to zero carbon solutions, specifically in the transport and power
sectors. Hence, some countries are already gearing towards GHG reduction by
adopting the said carbon solution.
Sustainable Development Initiatives: Philippine Experience

The Philippines, as one of the original members of the United Nations since 1945, is an active supporter of
its programs, being a signatory member-state. State commitment and political will are the significant determinants of
realizing a specific goal. As of today, these are still part of our country's challenges. From the time when globalization,
together with its essential elements, privatization and deregulation, increased its prioritization in the various aspects
of state policies, particularly in the development plans and actions, the country realized how it impacted the country's
environment; hence, the Philippines adopted significant initiatives of sustainable development.

The discussion of Lazo (2011) iterated that the 1980s and 1990s were the era of rapid globalization that
pushed for the advancement of urbanization and industrialization. During these times, a privatization framework
with minimal government regulation is pushed as a priority area of the country's public administration and
development policies. Many government utilities were privatized, such as the non-performing government assets
(e.g., some Government-Owned and Controlled Corporations or GOCCs) in the 1980s, the power sector and Build-
Transfer-Operate-Scheme in the 1990s, and public-private
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
131

Sustainable Development Initiatives: Philippine Experience

partnership in health, housing, postal services and among others in 2000s. The DENR adopted the program for
sustainable development in the 1990s as part of the framework of Good Governance in all government agencies,
including the local government units (LGUs). These are due to the ecological damages and social indifference that
beset the country for years. The DENR mandated environmental protection policies and provided penalties to its
violators. Nowadays, environmental issues have become an integral priority of the government in Philippine
Development Plan in addition to economic growth. Multi-sectoral planning, formulation, and implementation are
mandated, including the participation of state and non-state (e.g., NGOs, voluntary organizations) actors.

Moreover, the Philippine government was also an active participant in United Nations Agenda 21, the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), and the most recent Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Based on the
article of Angeles (2022), the DILG is the principal agency responsible for SDGs' localization with its active partnership
with the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) and Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA). Since
March 2018, they have conducted a series of workshops to strengthen the local government units (LGUs) role and
increase awareness for the Ambisyon Natin 2040 (long-term aspiration and vision of the Filipino people in the next 25
years) and SDGs to be integrated into each locality's plans and programs. They came up with the assessment criteria
for the Seal of Good Local Governance (SGLG) related to sustainable development goals (SDGs) that are awarded to local
government units (LGUs) with best practices. In November 2018, the DILG and NEDA signed a memorandum
entitled "Guidelines on the Localization of the Philippine Development Plan (PDP) 2017- 2022 Results Matrices and the
Development Goals".

Some of the best practices on sustainable development per region (SDG-NEDA, 2022) are:

Emergency Employment (Region I)

Project Classhome (Region II)
1 Million Trees for 1 Bataan (1M41B) Challenge (Region III)
Voluntary Local Review (VLR) of SDGs in Naga City (Region V)
Family Planning Mobile Application (Region VII)
Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Management Program
(Region VIII)
Marine Protected Area (MPA) Management, Strengthening and
Networking under CMEMP (Region X)
National Greening Program (Region XI)
Plantation Establishment (Region XII)
The Philippine government is actively integrating sustainable development into its programs by adopting
decentralized sustainable practices through multi-stakeholders involvement. As mentioned earlier, several best
practices are already produced per region that help for sustainability, but much more is still needed to do. These
landmarks are the first steps in attaining sustainable development goals through nationalization and localization
processes. The government is continuously working on the sustainable development transformation of the 17 SDGs
through concerted efforts as stipulated under the Ambisyon Natin 2040 and Philippine Development Plan.

Let’s Try This (Activity 11.4). Analyze and evaluate the following sustainable
development initiatives aimed at addressing the environmental crisis and
other challenges (oral participation).
1. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
2. Kyoto Protocol
3. Paris Agreement

Summary
In summary, globalization has advanced over the years by moving into
its various development processes. Countries around the globe benefit from the
critical components of globalization that bring growth. However, it also brings
harm, specifically to the environment that led to crisis. By examining the
sustainable development frameworks to combat the effects of rapid
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
132

globalization on the environment and other areas of concern, we identify how

the states and multi-sectoral organizations move forward to its long-term goals
through empirical research. Different sustainable development frameworks
evolve over time and how it changes depending on the outcomes. And so forth,
there are incremental changes for sustainable development, but what is most
needed is a profound and bold global transformation to ascertain the present
and future generations.
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
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Assessments
A. Draw your ideas about the environmental crisis and related concepts
inside the box. Below the box, discuss your ideas. Provide only two brief (2)
ideas.ef (2) ideas.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________.

B. Description. Write a 50-word essay on your description of the link of

globalization and sustainable development to environmental crises.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
134

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.

C.Analysis of sustainable development initiatives (international or local

perspectives)
C.1. Two (2) most effective sustainable development goals
1. _______________________________________________
Why effective (brief answer only)?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
___________.
2. _______________________________________________
Why effective (brief answer only)?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
___________.
C.2. Two (2) most ineffective sustainable development goals
1. _______________________________________________
Why ineffective (brief answer only)?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
135

_______________________________________________________________
___________.
2. ________________________________________________
Why ineffective (brief answer only)?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
___________.
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
136

Lesson 12
THE GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY
Jun Rex H. Halique

What Will You Learn?

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:
1. define global food security;
2. describe the levels of food insecurity; and
3. analyze the key factors that shape global food security.

What Is This Lesson About?

Achieving zero hunger in 2030 is the second Sustainable Development
Goal (SDG) of the United Nations. Closely related to this are the SDGs to end
poverty and achieve good health and well-being for the people. However,
based on the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), as of 2021, an average
of 770 million people were still affected by hunger. It is 46 million people more
from a year and 150 million more from 2019. This underscores the urgency and
relevance of understanding global food security and its impact on our world.

In this lesson, you will study the concept and elements of food security.
You will describe the different levels of food insecurity, discuss the status of
the global food system and analyze the causes of food insecurity. Importantly,
you will learn about the significant role of home or community gardens in
improving access to fruits and vegetables and how these projects can be a
beacon of hope in the fight against food insecurity.

Let’s Try This (Activity 12.1). Instruct the students to examine the photos. Give
them at least five minutes. After that, let them answer the following questions
through an individual recitation.
1. What can you see in the photos?
2. What are the subject matters of the photos?
3. Why did the photographers capture the scenes?
4. How do you feel about the photos?
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
137

https://scalingupnutrition.org/news/philippines-creates- https://rarehistoricalphotos.com/vulture-little-girl/
task-force-address-hunger

Let’s Think About It

1. What is global food security?
2. Why do millions of people worldwide suffer from food insecurity?
3. How can we address food insecurity?

Definition of Terms
Food availability is when there is a sufficient supply of food of appropriate
quality from domestic production or imports, including food aid.
Food access entails individuals having the necessary resources to buy food for
a healthy life. In other words, there are available foods, and people have the
financial capacity to buy these foods.
Food utilization is the ability of people to intelligently decide what food to
consume to ensure their nutritional well-being and psychological state. It
includes drinking clean water, maintaining sanitation, and providing necessary
health care.
Food stability requires that the people in the community have an enduring
food supply despite any natural disasters such as typhoons, earthquakes,
floods, landslides, and other social disruptions such as the pandemic.
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
138

Global Food Security

FAO reported that around 2.3 billion people worldwide (29.3%) had
experienced a day without a meal or reduced the number of their meals in
2021—the pandemic exacerbated this situation. It is interesting to note that
while most of the undernourished people live in Asia, Africa has the highest
prevalence of undernourishment. In every continent, the prevalence of
moderate or severe food insecurity is slightly higher for women than for men,
with the most considerable differences found in Latin America and the
Caribbean.

Moreover, the FAO estimated that almost 50 million children under five
have low weights due to their height (wasting). As a form of malnutrition, it is
considered deadly and increases children's death by up to 12 times. Notably,
food insecurity has also led to increased cases of stunting to 149 million. Despite
the abundance of resources in this world, it is ironic that many people still
suffer from hunger and malnutrition.

Food security is a flexible and evolving concept. Scholars and social

scientists have spent much time formulating its definition, recognizing the
urgency and significance of clear definitions in policy-making. The continuous
effort to define food security as an operational concept in public policy has
reflected the broader recognition of the complexities of the technical and policy
issues involved. Food security must be clearly defined to ensure that sound and
effective policies are enacted to address its issues. To fully understand the
concept, let us examine its definitions below.

Source Definitions of Food Security

1974 World Availability at all times of adequate world food supplies of
Food Summit basic foodstuffs to sustain a steady expansion of food
consumption and to offset fluctuations in production and
prices.
Food and Ensuring that all people at all times have both physical and
Agriculture economic access to the basic food that they need.
Office, 1983
World Bank, access of all people at all times to enough food for an active,
1986 healthy life”
1996 World Food security, at the individual, household, national, regional
Food Summit and global levels [is achieved] when all people, at all times,
have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and
nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food
preferences for an active and healthy life
The State of Food security [is] a situation that exists when all people, at all
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
139

Food times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient,

Insecurity 2001 safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and
food preferences for an active and healthy life.

Let’s Try This (Activity 12.2). After you have presented the various definitions
of global food security, ask the students the following questions:
1. Which is the most precise and complete definition of global food
security?
2. Based on the chosen definition, what have you understood about global
food insecurity?

Levels of Food Insecurity

Food insecurity, a significant issue, exists when people cannot regularly
access sufficient, safe, and nutritious food for average growth and development
and an active and healthy life. It may occur due to the unavailability of food or
lack of economic means to buy food. The report of the Philippine Food Security
Monitoring in October 2022 revealed that 1 out of 10 Filipino households are
food insecure, constituting 11% of the total population of the Philippines. The
top three food-insecure regions in the Philippines are the BARMM, with food
level insecurity at 34%, Region VIII (21%), and Region XII (21%). Notably, food
insecurity varies among different parts of the society. Households with heads
with only a primary/elementary education are more likely to be food insecure.
Food insecurity differs significantly by level of education attainment. Since less
educated households tend to have more unstable employment, they are also
more food insecure. This underscores the urgent need for policy changes and
interventions to address food insecurity in the Philippines.

A significant portion of the population's households with reduced

incomes experience worse food security outcomes. The impact of income
reduction on food security is stark, with two out of ten households whose
incomes decreased now facing food insecurity.

The agricultural sector was much more affected by food insecurity.

About a quarter of farming households have food insecurity issues. These
households report a higher frequency of income loss, which means they have
less money to spend on food. Coupled with the tendency of agricultural
households in the Philippines to be net food buyers, this exacerbates their food
insecurity.
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
140

Source: World Food Program

People may experience food insecurity at different severity levels. The

tool used to measure food insecurity severity levels is the Food Insecurity
Experience Scale (FIES). It is an experience-based measure of household or
individual food security. It consists of eight questions regarding people's access
to adequate food.

Figure 1: The Food Insecurity Experience Scale. Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

A. Mild Food Insecurity

Mild food insecurity occurs when a person has occasional concerns
about running out of food but does not lead to significant reductions in food
intake or changes in eating patterns. However, it is essential to note that this
level of insecurity can be a starting point for change. Mild food insecurity can
cause stress and anxiety but can be alleviated with the proper support and
resources.
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
141

B. Moderate Food Insecurity

A person is moderately food insecure when they have insufficient
money for a healthy diet, are uncertain about the ability to obtain food, and
probably skip meals and occasionally run out of food. This level of insecurity
can significantly impact daily life, as seen when a student practices brunch
instead of a regular meal or settles for a cup of noodles to manage his limited
allowance. Here, one chooses readily available food and the cheapest but may
need to be more nutritious. There is a compromise on the quality and quantity
of food. Moderate food insecurity may also happen when a household
prioritizes other basic needs over food, especially when inflation strikes.

C. Severe Food Insecure

Severe food insecurity is a situation of extreme concern. Someone is
severely food insecure when they have no food and may have not eaten for a
day or more in a year. This situation contemplates an extreme case of food
insecurity, where a person most likely experiences hunger. Common examples
of severely food insecure people are homeless, unemployed beggars dependent
on the alms. This level of insecurity is a stark reminder of the urgent need for
food security initiatives and the importance of addressing this issue.

Have we experienced hunger? How do we feel when we are hungry?

Hunger is a painful physical sensation caused by insufficient consumption of
dietary energy. Hunger leads to headaches and dizziness. A person who suffers
from hunger may not live an everyday life and tends to be unproductive.
Hunger is associated with undernourishment. People experience
undernourishment when they cannot secure sufficient food for their daily
dietary needs. It is measured through the Prevalence of Undernourishment
(PoU), an indicator utilized by the FAO to monitor world hunger cases. PoU
measures the proportion of the population whose food intake is insufficient to
meet their dietary energy requirements. It is based on the data provided by the
countries on food availability, food consumption, and energy needs.

Let’s Try This (Activity 12.3). Ask the students to assess the levels of food
insecurity of the following conditions of the people. Then, through a recitation,
randomly call their names to give and explain their answers.

Conditions Levels of Food Insecurity

1. A laborer is temporarily laid off;
consequently, experience skips meals for
a day due to lack of income.

2. A seafarer who worries that his contract

with the shipping company might not be
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
142

renewed and that he may not send

allotment to his family, which is solely
dependent on him.

3. A mother, to save, cook a can of sardines

for the breakfast of her five children.

Key Factors Shaping Global Food Security

Various key factors shape global food security, which can be classified
as political, economic, social, or environmental. Understanding what, who,
where, how, and for whom foods are produced and distributed globally is
imperative in explaining the causes of food insecurity.

The global food system refers to how we grow, process, pack, distribute,
buy, and eat food (Monbiot, 2023). The system is complex, interconnected, and
multifaceted. It involves various actors and forces. These food system activities,
outcomes, and interactions at the local, national, and regional levels have, over
the past, become increasingly tied up in a complex global network of relations
(McDonald, 2010). In the age of globalization, foods are produced not only for
local consumption but for a global market. Food production is shifting from
small farmers to multinational corporations, from natural and organic to highly
instant and commercialized methods. Hence, the growing preoccupation is not
to feed the population but to earn profits.

In the Philippines, for example, the price of rice, a staple food for
Filipinos, is determined not only by farm input but also by other factors such
as climate change, forces of demand and supply, and government policies.
Farmers spend a considerable amount on fertilizers primarily imported from
China, 75.79% of complete fertilizers (Mula & Coronado, 2022). Fertilizers'
prices depend on international trade, making them highly volatile.

Moreover, severe droughts or erratic rainfalls caused by climate change

disrupt rice planting, growing, and harvest and may affect yields. In 2019, the
Rice Tariffication Law exacerbated the situation of Filipino farmers (Dela Pena,
2022). While the purpose of the law is noble, it failed to stabilize rice prices and
adversely affected local farmers. The law increased the volume of imported rice
in the local market and threatened local farmers. Consequently, it leads to the
arbitrary conversion of well-irrigated farmlands. Importantly, local traders are
essential in trading and distributing rice and its market price. When prices of
essential commodities increase, food insecurity also increases. These are just
some of the factors that we have to consider in analyzing food insecurity.
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
143

The political factor is primarily directed at the structural issues; the

blame is on the corporate food regime. Political economist Phillip McMichael
developed the concept. The corporate food regime is a component of neoliberal
globalization, a historical phase in the political economy of food and
agriculture from the late 1980s onward. It is characterized by first, the
liberalization of agricultural markets, second, the mechanism of corporate
globalization of accumulation by global dispossession and displacement of
global peasant cultures of provision by dumping, the supermarket revolution,
and the conversion of land for agro-exports and third, the destruction of
ecology by the industrialization of agricultural production.

States become subservient to global capital and follow the rules imposed
by the ideology of the market: a set of rules institutionalizing corporate power
in the world food system' (McMichael, 2009). Recent global food price spikes
have occurred in the context of the 'artificial cheapening of traded food'
(McMichael & Schneider, 2011). Lower-cost and heavily subsidized food from
developed countries has overwhelmed the markets of developing countries.
Small farmers find agriculture an increasingly unviable source of livelihood,
and large agribusinesses have been expanding their control over agricultural
resources. This is true in the case of the Philippines, an agricultural country that
keeps importing food. Is the operation of DOLE Philippines a reflection of the
corporate food regime?

In this view, lower food prices have 'contributed to the stagnation in the
food supply over the past quarter century, undermining small farmer capacity
to respond to agflation by increasing food production' and thus paving the way
for the global food price crises that occurred in the earlier part of the twenty-
first century (McMichael & Schneider, 2011). Agflation is the rising food prices
caused by increased demand for agricultural commodities. The
'financialization' of food, as reflected in growing financial speculation in the
agricultural commodities futures markets, is also emphasized (Clapp, 2012).
Financialization is when financial markets, institutions, and businesspeople
gain more significant influence over economic policy and outcomes (Palley,
2007). Ideally, economic and agricultural policies are meant to ensure food
security, but with financialization, financial institutions influence these policies
to ensure a profit, sometimes at the expense of the people.

Burgeoning biofuel production in the United States and the European

Union (EU) pushes global food prices. Alternative voices on food security,
however, point to the structural adjustment policies introduced by the World
Bank and International Monetary Fund as culprits in turning countries once
self-sufficient in staple crops, for example, Mexico, into countries now heavily
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
144

dependent on food imports and highly vulnerable to the broader negative

consequences of biofuel production on food security.

In her article, Barthwal-Data identified economic and social factors that

shape global food security. She claimed that people suffer hunger and
malnutrition due to rising food prices and poverty.

In 2022, food prices rose sharply and peaked in 1990(De La Hamaide,

2023). Based on the (FAO) food price index, which measures international
prices of the most globally traded food commodities, global food prices
averaged 43.7 points in 2022, up 14.3% from 2021. When food prices increase,
the ability of people experiencing poverty to access food is affected. People
suffer hunger and malnutrition since they cannot afford to buy food. The
increase in food prices, under the circumstances of poverty, exacerbates
hunger.

Experts attribute the increase in food prices to complex and

interconnected factors such as world population growth, rising demand for
food, and rising incomes. While an increase in population may not be the main
reason for the food price increase, it is consequential to the food system. An
increase in population entails a higher demand for food, and failure to meet the
demand may affect the price.

On the supply side are the rising costs of fuel and agricultural inputs.
Oil price hikes increase the price of essential commodities, including food. In
developing countries, agricultural yields drop due to dropping levels of public
investment in agricultural infrastructure and research and development,
adverse weather events, government export bans in the face of perceived food
shortages, and financial speculation in agricultural commodities futures
markets.

Let’s Try This (Activity 12.4). Analyze and classify the following key factors of
food insecurity as political, economic, social, or environmental (10 pts.).

Key Factors of Food Insecurity Classification

1. Inflation
______________________
2. Population growth
______________________
3. Corporate food regime
______________________
4. Rising prices of agricultural inputs
______________________
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
145

Summary
Food security exists when people have adequate and nutritious food
that allows them to live active and healthy lives. Food security's four
dimensions are availability, access, utilization, and stability.

Food insecurity happens when people cannot regularly access sufficient,

safe, and nutritious food for average growth and development and an active
and healthy life. A person may experience mild, moderate, or severe food
insecurity.

The key factors shaping food security are political, economic, social, or
environmental. Rising food prices and poverty are some factors behind food
insecurity. The cause can also be structural, attributed to the global food system
and the corporate food regime.
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
146

Assessments

A. Concept Map. Design a concept map of food security. Below the map,
briefly discuss ideas about food security. Provide at least five ideas. (20 pts)

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
147

B. Description of the Level of Food Insecurity. Based on your experiences or

observations, recall and describe at least one condition for each level of food
insecurity in the society (15 pts.).

Levels of Food Insecurity Conditions

Mild food insecurity 1.

Moderate food insecurity 2.

Severe food insecurity 3.

C. Analysis of the Factors of Food Insecurity. Analyze and classify the

following key factors of food insecurity as political, economic, social, or
environmental.

Key Factors of Food Insecurity Classification

1. Erratic rainfall
______________________
2. Liberalization
______________________
3. Poverty
______________________
4. Financialization
______________________
5. Industrialization of agricultural production
______________________
6. Land conversion
______________________
7. Climate change
______________________
8. Corporate globalization
______________________
9. Structural Adjustment Program
______________________
10. Typhoons
______________________
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
148
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
149

Lesson 13
GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP
Jovanie Camacho Espesor

What Will You Learn?

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. articulate a definition of global citizenship and
2. explain the ethical value of global citizenship.

What Is This Lesson About?

Globalization has made our world more integrated, breaking down
geographical boundaries and intensifying interactions. Every country's policies
have far-reaching implications for the rest of the world, creating both positive
and negative impacts. In a borderless world where problems are shared, a call
for collective effort to solve problems is echoing.

As individuals who are a part of a bigger world, our actions will help
sustain collective efforts. Our consciousness as individuals in a globalized
world is essential to mitigate the problems brought by globalization. We live in
a more connected world today, and our actions affect other people's lives, not
just those of our immediate family and community. Our actions ripple to others
directly and indirectly.

Let’s Try This (Activity 13.1)

Write one word for each picture that immediately comes to your mind?
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
150

Let’s Think About It (Activity 13.2)

Answer the following questions:
1. Which of the photos characterizes the modern world?
2. Do you think diversity is good or bad in society?

Global Citizenship
Globalization provided negative impacts on humanity – inequality,
injustice, global warming, and social unrest, to name a few. Scholars contend
that the ethics of global citizenship will help to solve the problems brought
about by the borderless world.

Global citizenship is loosely defined as the idea that every human has
an interconnected life, meaning that our actions will affect others. It suggests
holistic thinking for the whole world with the objective of creating and
improving a sustainable environment. It is a way of life that recognizes that our
world is increasingly becoming complex, however, interconnected with each
other.

Global citizenship promotes cultural diversity. It celebrates various

races and communities, empathizes with the plight of others, and takes
responsibility not only for one's actions but for the feelings of other people. A
global citizen considers himself part of the bigger world, transcending
territorial boundaries in a continuum with others.
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
151

Figure 18.4. Components of UNESCO's Global Citizenship Education. (Source:

https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000232993, p. 29.)

The ethics of global citizenship encompass principles that will help

overcome the problems brought by globalization as it promotes socially
appropriate behaviors towards the establishment of sustainable social
relationships.

Inculcating the ethics of global citizenship in students will help them

develop their cognitive and emotive abilities. Global citizenship will encourage
young people to take action on social problems and inspire them to think
critically about what is just and humane. Students will be able to be critical of
social issues and innovatively look for possible solutions to pressing issues in
a globalized world.
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
152

Global citizenship encourages young people to become conscious of the

world around them and consider the importance of their values. It challenges
ignorance and intolerance and promotes civic engagement in local, national,
and global communities. It empowers young people to act and influence the
world.

However, global citizenship remains elusive and needs to be given its

real value, especially in education. It is largely absent in public discourse. This
may be due to a need for more knowledge of its relevance in society.

Let’s Think About It (Activity 13.3). Ask at least 5 students to identify a

defining principle related to global citizenship and explain it matters.

Global Citizen
A global citizen identifies with being a part of the world and is conscious
of actions that may contribute to the foundation of the community's practices
and values. A global citizen understands and is aware of the larger world.

A global citizen behaves empathetically, believes that cooperation and

unity are basic foundations in a borderless world, respects multiculturalism,
and is aware of the impacts of one's actions.

A global citizen is someone who helps other people, appreciates the

value of cooperation, takes responsibility for one's actions, and knows one's
responsibility in the broader world.

A global citizen is someone who acts as an active member of society,

intends to contribute towards the improvement of the world, and understands
that the world is interconnected.

The Secretary-General of the United Nations, Ban-ki Moon, also

emphasized the essence of fostering global citizenship. Education must not be
limited to the classroom walls and go beyond the academe. Students must take
an active role in forging a just, peaceful, and tolerant society. The following are
the ethical obligations and the role of education in global citizenship:

1. Global citizens must be equipped with values towards the challenges of

the real world – mindfulness of rights and duties and active involvement
in the sphere of influence.
2. Global citizens must be involved with global issues by being
knowledgeable and exercising critical thinking. This also consists of the
ability to promote tolerance and respect amidst diversity.
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
153

3. Global citizens must participate in solutions and make a difference

through responsible actions and win-win solutions. This also involves
the capacity to view oneself as the catalyst for change.

Let’s Think About It (Activity 13.4). Ask at least three students to name a
familiar person who exhibits the characteristics of being a global citizen and
why.

Summary
Globalization's problems are inevitable. There is now a growing call for
global citizens to take immediate action to solve the issues brought on by a
borderless world. Global citizenship catalyzes young people's consciousness of
being involved in the community. However, strengthening global citizenship
remains elusive.

Globalization has made our world more integrated breaking down

geographical boundaries which resulted to the intensification of interactions.
Every country’s policies have a far reaching implication to the rest of the world
creating both positive and negative impacts. In a borderless world where
problems are shared, a call for collective effort to solve problems is echoing.

As an individual who is a part of a bigger world, our actions will help to

sustain collective efforts. Our consciousness as individual in a globalized world
is essential to mitigate the problems brought by globalization. We live in a more
connected world today and our actions affect the lives of other people not just
within our immediate family and community. Our actions ripple to others
directly and indirectly.

Assessments
A. Essay. Answer the following questions briefly and substantially.
1. How does global citizenship affect our world? Why is global citizenship
important?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________

2. Do you consider yourself as a global citizen? If so, what makes you a global
citizen?
GEC 103. The Contemporary World
154

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________