ENZYMES

CHEAT SHEET

1. Enzymes as Globular Proteins and Their Role:

⦁ Enzymes are globular proteins that speed up (catalyse) chemical reactions.

⦁ Some enzymes work inside cells (intracellular enzymes), while others are secreted to work
outside cells (extracellular enzymes).

2. Mode of Action of Enzymes:

⦁ Active Site & Enzyme-Substrate Complex:

⦁ Enzymes have a specific active site where a substrate binds, forming an enzyme-
substrate complex.

⦁ Lowering Activation Energy:

⦁ Enzymes reduce the activation energy, making reactions happen faster and at lower
temperatures.

⦁ Enzyme Specificity:

⦁ Each enzyme works on only one specific substrate due to the shape of its active site.

⦁ Theories of Enzyme Action:

⦁ Lock-and-Key Model: The enzyme's active site perfectly matches the substrate, like a
key in a lock.

⦁ Induced-Fit Model: The active site changes shape slightly to fit the substrate better,
improving the reaction.

3. Investigating Enzyme-Catalysed Reactions:

⦁ Catalase (measuring product formation):

⦁ Catalase breaks down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.

⦁ The rate of oxygen production can be measured to study enzyme activity.

⦁ Amylase (measuring substrate disappearance):

⦁ Amylase breaks down starch into maltose.

⦁ The decrease in starch levels over time shows the enzyme's activity.

4. Using a Colorimeter to Measure Enzyme Reactions:

⦁ A colorimeter measures the intensity of light passing through a solution.

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 ⦁ It can track colour changes in reactions involving enzymes, such as:

⦁ Starch breakdown by amylase: The colour fades as starch disappears (tested using
iodine).

⦁ Product formation: Some products create a coloured solution that can be measured.

A colorimeter helps quantify enzyme activity by measuring how much light is absorbed or transmitted
through a solution.

1. Factors Affecting Enzyme-Catalysed Reactions:

⦁ Temperature:

⦁ As temperature increases, enzyme activity increases due to more collisions between

enzymes and substrates.

⦁ Too high a temperature denatures enzymes, changing their active site shape.

⦁ pH (using buffer solutions):

⦁ Each enzyme has an optimum pH where it works best.

⦁ A pH that is too high or too low alters the active site, reducing enzyme activity.

⦁ Enzyme Concentration:

⦁ More enzyme molecules mean more active sites, increasing the reaction rate until the
substrate becomes limiting.

⦁ Substrate Concentration:

⦁ More substrate means more enzyme-substrate complexes, increasing the rate.

⦁ After a certain point, all active sites are occupied, and the rate levels off.

⦁ Inhibitor Concentration:

⦁ Competitive inhibitors bind to the active site, slowing the reaction.

⦁ Non-competitive inhibitors bind elsewhere, changing the enzyme’s shape and reducing
activity.

2. Vmax and Michaelis-Menten Constant (Km):

⦁ Vmax = Maximum rate of reaction when all enzyme active sites are saturated with substrate.

⦁ Km = The substrate concentration needed to reach half of Vmax.

⦁ A lower Km means the enzyme has a higher affinity for the substrate.

3. Effects of Reversible Inhibitors:

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 ⦁ Competitive Inhibitors:

⦁ Compete with the substrate for the active site.

⦁ Can be overcome by increasing substrate concentration.

⦁ Example: Malonate competes with succinate for succinate dehydrogenase.

⦁ Non-Competitive Inhibitors:

⦁ Bind to the enzyme at a different site (allosteric site).

⦁ Change the enzyme's shape, making the active site less effective.

⦁ Cannot be overcome by increasing substrate concentration.

4. Investigating Immobilised vs Free Enzymes & Advantages of Immobilised Enzymes:

⦁ Immobilised Enzymes: Enzymes trapped in alginate beads or attached to a surface.

⦁ Free Enzymes: Enzymes in solution.

Comparison:
⦁ Immobilised enzymes work slower but are more stable.

⦁ Free enzymes work faster but can be denatured easily.

Advantages of Immobilised Enzymes:

⦁ Reusable – Can be used multiple times, reducing costs.

⦁ More Stable – Less likely to be denatured by temperature or pH changes.

⦁ Easier Product Separation – The enzyme does not mix with the product.

⦁ Continuous Production – Used in industrial processes like lactose-free milk production.

In summary, immobilised enzymes are more useful in industries due to their stability and reusability,
while free enzymes act faster but are less stable.

CELL MEMBRANE AND TRANSPORT

CHEAT SHEET

1. Fluid Mosaic Model of Membrane Structure:

⦁ The phospholipid bilayer forms due to hydrophilic heads facing outward (towards water) and
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 hydrophobic tails facing inward (away from water).

⦁ Proteins are scattered throughout the membrane like a mosaic.

⦁ The membrane is fluid, allowing movement of components.

2. Arrangement of Cholesterol, Glycolipids, and Glycoproteins:

⦁ Cholesterol: Embedded between phospholipids, regulating fluidity.

⦁ Glycolipids: Lipids with carbohydrate chains on the outer surface, involved in cell recognition.

⦁ Glycoproteins: Proteins with carbohydrate chains, acting as receptors and for cell signalling.

3. Roles of Membrane Components:

Component Function
Phospholipids Form selectively permeable barrier, allow small/non-polar molecules to pass.
Cholesterol Maintains stability and fluidity, prevents membrane from being too rigid/fluid.
Proteins Transport substances via carrier and channel proteins.
Glycolipids Aid in cell recognition and cell-to-cell communication.
Glycoproteins Act as receptors in cell signalling and serve as antigens for immune recognition.

4. Stages of Cell Signalling:

⦁ Secretion of Ligands – Cells release specific chemical signals (e.g., hormones,

neurotransmitters).

⦁ Transport to Target Cells – Ligands travel through blood or extracellular fluid.

⦁ Binding to Receptors – Ligands bind to specific glycoproteins on the target cell membrane.

⦁ Cell Response – Activation of a signal pathway, leading to changes like gene expression or
enzyme activation.

This process ensures specific and regulated communication between cells.

1. Processes of Transport Across Membranes

Process Description Explanation
Simple Movement of molecules from high to low No energy needed; occurs with small, non-
Diffusion concentration. polar molecules like O₂ and CO₂.
Helps large/polar molecules (e.g., glucose,
Facilitated Movement of molecules from high to low
ions) cross the membrane. No energy
Diffusion concentration using carrier or channel proteins.
required.
Diffusion of water molecules from a region of high
Passive process; important for maintaining
Osmosis water potential to low water potential across a
cell turgor.
selectively permeable membrane.
Active Movement of molecules from low to high Requires energy (ATP), e.g., Na⁺/K⁺
Transport concentration using ATP and carrier proteins. pump in nerve cells.
Used for large molecules like bacteria
Process where the cell engulfs materials by forming
Endocytosis (phagocytosis) or liquids (pinocytosis).
a vesicle around them.
Requires energy.
Process where vesicles fuse with the membrane to Used for secretion of hormones, enzymes,
Exocytosis
release substances outside the cell. or neurotransmitters. Requires energy.

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2. Investigating Diffusion & Osmosis

⦁ Using plant tissues: Place plant cells in different concentrations of sugar/salt solutions to observe
water movement.

⦁ Using Visking tubing: Acts as a selectively permeable membrane to test diffusion of small
molecules (e.g., glucose) while blocking larger molecules (e.g., starch).

⦁ Using agar gel: Dyes like potassium permanganate diffuse through agar, showing diffusion rates.

3. Surface Area to Volume Ratio (SA:V)

⦁ Smaller objects have a higher SA:V ratio, allowing faster diffusion.

⦁ Larger objects have a lower SA:V ratio, slowing diffusion.

⦁ SA:V ratio is calculated using formulas for surface area and volume of 3D shapes.

4. Investigating Surface Area to Volume Ratio & Diffusion

⦁ Use agar blocks of different sizes stained with an indicator.

⦁ Immerse in acid or dye and measure the time taken for color change.

⦁ Smaller blocks show faster diffusion due to higher SA:V ratio.

5. Investigating the Effect of Water Potential on Plant Tissues

⦁ Place potato/celery strips in different sucrose solutions.

⦁ Measure changes in mass/length to estimate water potential.

⦁ Higher water potential (pure water) → water moves into cells → turgid cells.

⦁ Lower water potential (concentrated solution) → water moves out → flaccid cells.

6. Water Movement Between Cells & Solutions

⦁ In plant cells:

⦁ Hypotonic solution (high water potential) → Water enters → Turgid cell (cell wall
prevents bursting).

⦁ Hypertonic solution (low water potential) → Water leaves → Plasmolysis (cell

membrane pulls away from wall).

⦁ In animal cells:

⦁ Hypotonic solution → Water enters → Lysis (cell bursts) due to lack of a cell wall.

⦁ Hypertonic solution → Water leaves → Crenation (cell shrinks and wrinkles).

These processes help maintain cell function and homeostasis.

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 THE MITOTIC CELL CYCLE

CHEAT SHEET

1. Structure of a Chromosome

⦁ DNA – Long, double-stranded molecule carrying genetic information.

⦁ Histone Proteins – DNA wraps around these proteins to form chromatin, making chromosomes
more compact.

⦁ Sister Chromatids – Two identical copies of a chromosome, formed after DNA replication,
joined together.

⦁ Centromere – The region where sister chromatids are attached; important for chromosome
movement during cell division.

⦁ Telomeres – Protective ends of chromosomes that prevent loss of genetic material during DNA
replication.

2. Importance of Mitosis

Mitosis ensures the production of genetically identical daughter cells and is essential for:

⦁ Growth – Increases the number of cells in multicellular organisms.

⦁ Replacement – Replaces dead or damaged cells, e.g., skin cells.

⦁ Repair – Heals injuries by forming new cells through mitosis.

⦁ Asexual Reproduction – Produces genetically identical offspring in some organisms like bacteria
and plants.

3. The Mitotic Cell Cycle

⦁ Interphase – Cell grows and prepares for division.

⦁ G1 phase – Cell grows, organelles replicate.

⦁ S phase – DNA replication occurs.

⦁ G2 phase – More growth, preparation for mitosis.

⦁ Mitosis – The nucleus divides into two identical nuclei.

⦁ Cytokinesis – The cytoplasm divides, forming two daughter cells.

4. Role of Telomeres

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 ⦁ Telomeres protect chromosome ends from degradation and prevent loss of important genes
during DNA replication.

⦁ Each time a cell divides, telomeres shorten.

⦁ When telomeres become too short, the cell stops dividing (cellular aging).

5. Role of Stem Cells in Cell Replacement & Tissue Repair

⦁ Stem cells can divide by mitosis to produce new specialized cells.

⦁ They help in tissue repair, e.g., replacing skin cells, blood cells, and nerve cells.

⦁ Used in regenerative medicine, such as treating burns or blood disorders.

6. Uncontrolled Cell Division & Tumour Formation

⦁ If mitosis becomes uncontrolled, cells divide excessively, leading to a tumour (mass of abnormal
cells).

⦁ This happens due to mutations in genes controlling the cell cycle (e.g., oncogenes).

⦁ Tumours can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous and invasive).

1. Behaviour of Chromosomes During the Mitotic Cell Cycle

Mitosis consists of four main stages:

1. Prophase
⦁ Chromosomes condense (become shorter and thicker, visible under a microscope).

⦁ Nuclear envelope breaks down.

⦁ Spindle fibers begin to form from centrioles (in animal cells) or other microtubule-organizing
centers (in plants).

2. Metaphase
⦁ Chromosomes align at the equator (middle) of the cell.

⦁ Spindle fibers attach to centromeres of chromosomes.

3. Anaphase
⦁ Sister chromatids separate as spindle fibers pull them to opposite poles.

⦁ The cell starts to elongate.

4. Telophase
⦁ Chromatids reach the poles and decondense back into chromatin.

⦁ Nuclear envelope reforms around each set of chromosomes.

⦁ Spindle fibers break down.

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Cytokinesis (After Mitosis)
⦁ Animal Cells – The cell membrane pinches in (cleavage furrow) to divide the cytoplasm.

⦁ Plant Cells – A cell plate forms, which later develops into a new cell wall.

2. Identifying Stages of Mitosis in Microscopy

⦁ Prophase – Chromosomes are visible as thick strands, and the nuclear envelope disappears.

⦁ Metaphase – Chromosomes are lined up in the middle of the cell.

⦁ Anaphase – Chromatids are moving apart toward opposite ends of the cell.

⦁ Telophase – Two distinct nuclei are forming at each end of the cell.

By analyzing photomicrographs or microscope slides, you can determine the stage of mitosis based on the
position of chromosomes and the presence or absence of the nuclear envelope and spindle fibers.

NUCLEIC ACIDS AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

CHEAT SHEET

1. Structure of Nucleotides and ATP

Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Each nucleotide consists of three
components:

⦁ A phosphate group (PO₄³⁻)

⦁ A pentose sugar (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA)

⦁ A nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine in DNA; uracil replaces thymine in RNA)

A phosphorylated nucleotide is a nucleotide with one or more phosphate groups attached. ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) is a phosphorylated nucleotide consisting of:

⦁ Adenine (a nitrogenous base)

⦁ Ribose (a five-carbon sugar)

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 ⦁ Three phosphate groups

ATP is the main energy carrier in cells. It releases energy when the third phosphate group is removed,
forming ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and inorganic phosphate (Pi).

2. Purines and Pyrimidines

Nitrogenous bases in nucleotides are classified into purines and pyrimidines based on their structure:

🔹 Purines (Double-ring structure):

⦁ Adenine (A)

⦁ Guanine (G)

🔹 Pyrimidines (Single-ring structure):

⦁ Cytosine (C)

⦁ Thymine (T) (found in DNA only)

⦁ Uracil (U) (found in RNA instead of thymine)

3. Structure of DNA as a Double Helix

DNA is a double-stranded molecule arranged in a double helix. Each strand consists of a sugar-
phosphate backbone with nitrogenous bases extending inward.
Key Features of DNA Structure:
⦁ Complementary Base Pairing:

⦁ A pairs with T (A–T) via two hydrogen bonds

⦁ C pairs with G (C–G) via three hydrogen bonds

⦁ This ensures accurate DNA replication and stability.

⦁ Antiparallel Strands:

⦁ DNA strands run in opposite directions:

⦁ One strand runs 5′ to 3′

⦁ The other runs 3′ to 5′

⦁ This is important for DNA replication and enzyme activity.

⦁ Phosphodiester Bonds:

⦁ Nucleotides in a strand are linked by phosphodiester bonds between the phosphate

group of one nucleotide and the sugar of the next.

⦁ This forms the sugar-phosphate backbone, giving DNA structural stability.

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4. Semi-Conservative Replication of DNA

DNA replication occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle and follows the semi-conservative model,
meaning each new DNA molecule has one original strand and one new strand.
Steps of DNA Replication:
⦁ Unwinding of DNA:

⦁ The enzyme DNA helicase breaks hydrogen bonds, separating the two strands and
forming a replication fork.

⦁ Base Pairing:

⦁ Free nucleotides in the nucleus pair with complementary bases on the template
strands.

⦁ Role of DNA Polymerase:

⦁ DNA polymerase adds new nucleotides in the 5′ to 3′ direction (can only add to the 3′
end).

⦁ The leading strand is synthesized continuously.

⦁ The lagging strand is synthesized in short fragments (Okazaki fragments), which are
later joined together.

⦁ Role of DNA Ligase:

⦁ DNA ligase seals the Okazaki fragments, forming a continuous strand.

Why is replication called "semi-conservative"?

⦁ Each new DNA molecule consists of one original parent strand and one newly synthesized
strand.

5. Structure of RNA (mRNA)

RNA is single-stranded and plays a key role in protein synthesis. Messenger RNA (mRNA) is an example
of RNA that carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes.
Structure of mRNA:
⦁ Single-stranded

⦁ Contains ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose

⦁ Uses uracil (U) instead of thymine (T)

⦁ Synthesized during transcription in the nucleus

⦁ Leaves the nucleus and binds to ribosomes for translation

1. Genes and Polypeptides

A gene is a sequence of nucleotides in DNA that carries the instructions for making a polypeptide (a chain

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of amino acids). The sequence of bases in a gene determines the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide,
which then folds into a functional protein.

2. The Universal Genetic Code

The genetic code is a set of rules by which information in DNA is translated into proteins. It has the
following properties:

⦁ Triplet Code: Each set of three DNA bases (triplet) codes for one amino acid.

⦁ Universal: The same code is used in almost all living organisms.

⦁ Degenerate: More than one triplet can code for the same amino acid.

⦁ Start and Stop Codons:

⦁ Start codon (AUG): Signals the beginning of translation; codes for methionine.

⦁ Stop codons (UAA, UAG, UGA): Do not code for any amino acid; signal the end of
translation.

3. Transcription and Translation (Protein Synthesis)

The process of making a polypeptide from DNA involves two main stages:

⦁ Transcription (DNA → mRNA)

⦁ Translation (mRNA → Polypeptide)

Transcription (DNA → mRNA)

Occurs in the nucleus. The enzyme RNA polymerase plays a key role.

⦁ Step 1: RNA polymerase binds to DNA and unwinds the double helix.

⦁ Step 2: RNA polymerase reads the template strand of DNA and adds complementary RNA
nucleotides (A → U, T → A, C → G, G → C).

⦁ Step 3: A strand of mRNA (messenger RNA) is synthesized.

⦁ Step 4: Once transcription is complete, the mRNA detaches and leaves the nucleus for
translation.

Key Molecules in Transcription:

⦁ RNA Polymerase: Enzyme that synthesizes mRNA from DNA.

⦁ Messenger RNA (mRNA): Carries the genetic code from DNA to ribosomes.

⦁ Codons: Triplets of bases on mRNA that specify amino acids.

Translation (mRNA → Polypeptide)

Occurs at the ribosome in the cytoplasm.

⦁ Step 1: mRNA attaches to the ribosome.

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 ⦁ Step 2: Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules bring amino acids to the ribosome.

⦁ Step 3: The anticodon on tRNA pairs with the complementary codon on mRNA.

⦁ Step 4: The ribosome links amino acids together to form a polypeptide.

⦁ Step 5: The process continues until a stop codon is reached.

Key Molecules in Translation:

⦁ tRNA (transfer RNA): Has an anticodon that matches the mRNA codon and carries the
corresponding amino acid.

⦁ Ribosome: The site where translation occurs and amino acids are joined together.

4. Transcribed vs. Non-Transcribed Strand

⦁ Template (Transcribed) Strand: The strand of DNA that is used to create mRNA.

⦁ Non-Template (Non-Transcribed) Strand: The complementary strand that is not used.

5. RNA Processing in Eukaryotes

Before mRNA can be translated, it undergoes modification in eukaryotic cells:

⦁ Introns (non-coding sequences) are removed.

⦁ Exons (coding sequences) are spliced together to form mature mRNA.

⦁ This process ensures only useful genetic information is translated.

6. Gene Mutations

A gene mutation is a change in the DNA sequence that may alter the polypeptide produced.

7. Types of Gene Mutations and Their Effects

Type of Mutation Description Effect on Protein

One base is replaced by

Substitution May cause silent, missense, or nonsense mutation.
another

Causes a frameshift, altering all amino acids after the

Insertion Extra base is added
mutation.

Deletion A base is removed Also causes a frameshift and disrupts protein structure.

Mutation Effects:

⦁ Silent Mutation: No effect on the protein (e.g., UCU and UCC both code for serine).

⦁ Missense Mutation: Changes one amino acid (e.g., sickle cell anemia).

⦁ Nonsense Mutation: Introduces a stop codon, making the protein shorter and non-functional.

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 TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

CHEAT SHEET
1. Transport of Mineral Ions and Organic Compounds in Plants

Some mineral ions (e.g., potassium, nitrate) and organic compounds (e.g., sucrose, amino acids) are
transported within plants dissolved in water. These substances are moved through the plant's vascular
system, either in the xylem or phloem, to ensure proper growth, metabolism, and development.

2. Transport of Water from Soil to Xylem

Water moves from the soil into the plant and through the vascular system, particularly through the xylem,
by two main pathways:
Apoplast Pathway:
⦁ Movement: Water moves through the cell walls and intercellular spaces without entering the
cells.

⦁ Lignin and Cellulose: In the apoplast pathway, water travels through the cell wall, which is
reinforced by cellulose (a structural carbohydrate) and lignin (a woody substance), making the
wall strong and hydrophilic. Water moves through the non-living parts of the cell.

⦁ Advantages: This pathway allows quick movement of water over long distances within the plant.

Symplast Pathway:
⦁ Movement: Water enters the plant cells through the plasma membrane and moves from one

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 cell to the next through plasmodesmata (tiny channels between plant cells).

⦁ Endodermis and Casparian Strip: In the endodermis (a layer of cells surrounding the vascular
tissue), the Casparian strip (a band of suberin in the cell wall) forces water to pass through the
cell membranes rather than the cell walls. This selective process regulates what enters the
vascular system.

⦁ Suberin: Suberin is a waxy, hydrophobic substance in the Casparian strip, ensuring that water
and solutes pass through the cell membranes rather than the cell wall, allowing selective uptake.

3. Transpiration

⦁ Evaporation of Water: Transpiration is the process of water evaporating from the internal
surfaces of the leaf, particularly from the mesophyll cells.

⦁ Diffusion to Atmosphere: The water vapour is then diffused through stomata (tiny pores on the
leaf surface) into the atmosphere. This process helps to maintain the flow of water from the
roots to the leaves and is a key part of plant water regulation.

4. Cohesion-Tension and Adhesion in Water Movement

⦁ Cohesion: Water molecules have hydrogen bonds between them, which causes them to stick
together. This cohesion helps water to move up the xylem vessels in a continuous column.

⦁ Transpiration Pull: The evaporation of water from the leaves creates a negative pressure
(tension), which pulls more water upwards from the roots to replace the lost water. This is known
as transpiration pull.

⦁ Adhesion to Cellulose: Water molecules also exhibit adhesion, where they stick to the cellulose
in the walls of the xylem vessels, assisting in upward water movement and preventing the water
column from breaking.

5. Adaptations of Xerophytic Plants to Reduce Water Loss

Xerophytes are plants that are adapted to dry environments. Here are some adaptations to reduce water
loss by transpiration:

⦁ Thick Cuticle: A waxy cuticle on the surface of leaves reduces water loss by evaporation.

⦁ Stomatal Adaptations: Stomata may be fewer in number, sunken, or covered with hairs to
reduce the surface area for water loss. Stomata may also close during the hottest part of the day.

⦁ Leaf Modifications: Leaves may be reduced to spines (e.g., cacti), minimizing the surface area for
transpiration.

⦁ Succulent Tissue: Some xerophytes store water in specialized tissues to survive periods of
drought.

(Annotated drawings can be added here showing adaptations like thick cuticles, reduced leaf area, and
stomatal arrangement.)

6. Movement of Assimilates in Phloem

Assimilates, such as sucrose and amino acids, are transported in phloem sieve tubes. These substances

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move from areas of high concentration (sources) to areas of low concentration (sinks), like roots, fruits,
and flowers.

7. Companion Cells and Assimilate Transport

Companion cells are closely associated with phloem sieve tubes and play an important role in the transport
of assimilates. Here's how they work:

⦁ Proton Pumps: Proton pumps in the companion cell membrane actively pump protons (H⁺ ions)
out of the cell, creating a proton gradient.

⦁ Cotransporter Proteins: These proteins use the energy from the proton gradient to co-transport
sucrose (and other assimilates) into the sieve tube cells by facilitated diffusion.

8. Mass Flow in Phloem

Mass flow refers to the movement of sucrose and other assimilates in the phloem down a hydrostatic
pressure gradient from source to sink:

⦁ Source: In regions where assimilates are produced or stored (like leaves), water from the xylem
moves into the phloem by osmosis, increasing the hydrostatic pressure.

⦁ Sink: At the sink, where assimilates are used or stored (like roots), assimilates are removed,
lowering the hydrostatic pressure.

⦁ This pressure difference causes the mass flow of sap (containing sugars and other nutrients) from
areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.

TRANSPORT IN MAMMALS
CHEAT SHEET

1. The Mammalian Circulatory System

The mammalian circulatory system is a closed double circulation system, meaning:

⦁ Closed: Blood is contained within blood vessels and does not leave the circulatory system.

⦁ Double Circulation: Blood passes through the heart twice per complete circuit—once through

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 the pulmonary circulation (lungs) and once through the systemic circulation (rest of the body).

⦁ The system includes the heart, blood, and blood vessels, which are:

⦁ Arteries (carry blood away from the heart)

⦁ Arterioles (small arteries regulating blood flow into capillaries)

⦁ Capillaries (site of exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste)

⦁ Venules (small veins collecting blood from capillaries)

⦁ Veins (carry blood back to the heart)

2. Main Blood Vessels of Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation

The circulatory system consists of two circuits:

Pulmonary Circulation (Lungs)
⦁ Pulmonary Artery: Carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs for
oxygenation.

⦁ Pulmonary Vein: Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the left atrium of the heart.

Systemic Circulation (Rest of the Body)

⦁ Aorta: The largest artery, carrying oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to all parts of the
body.

⦁ Vena Cava: A large vein that carries deoxygenated blood from the body back to the right atrium
of the heart.

⦁ Superior vena cava: Brings blood from the upper body.

⦁ Inferior vena cava: Brings blood from the lower body.

3. Recognizing Blood Vessels from Microscopy

⦁ Arteries: Thick-walled, with a narrow lumen and prominent muscular layer.

⦁ Veins: Thin-walled, with a wide lumen and valves to prevent backflow.

⦁ Capillaries: Extremely thin walls (one-cell thick) for gas and nutrient exchange.

Drawings should show:

⦁ Transverse Section (TS): A cross-section of arteries and veins, showing the thickness of the
muscle layer and lumen size.

⦁ Longitudinal Section (LS): A lengthwise view showing the inner lining and structure of the vessel
wall.

4. Structure and Function of Blood Vessels

Muscular Arteries

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 ⦁ Thick muscular walls to control blood flow by vasoconstriction and vasodilation.

⦁ Carry blood at high pressure from the heart to smaller arterioles.

Elastic Arteries
⦁ Contain elastic fibers to allow expansion and recoil as blood is pumped from the heart.

⦁ Example: Aorta, which helps maintain blood pressure.

Veins
⦁ Thinner walls than arteries as blood pressure is lower.

⦁ Have valves to prevent backflow, as blood moves slowly under low pressure.

Capillaries
⦁ One-cell thick walls (endothelium) for efficient diffusion of gases, nutrients, and waste.

⦁ Large surface area and slow blood flow for maximum exchange.

5. Recognizing and Drawing Blood Cells

⦁ Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes): Biconcave, no nucleus, packed with hemoglobin for oxygen
transport.

⦁ Monocytes: Large, kidney-shaped nucleus, part of the immune system.

⦁ Neutrophils: Multi-lobed nucleus, involved in phagocytosis (engulfing pathogens).

⦁ Lymphocytes: Small, round nucleus, responsible for producing antibodies.

6. Properties of Water and its Role in Transport

⦁ Main Component: Water makes up plasma, tissue fluid, and lymph, serving as a transport
medium.

⦁ Solvent Action: Water dissolves substances (e.g., glucose, oxygen, ions), allowing transport in
blood.

⦁ High Specific Heat Capacity: Water helps maintain body temperature by absorbing heat without
rapid temperature changes.

7. Tissue Fluid and its Formation

Functions of Tissue Fluid
⦁ Surrounds cells, allowing for the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste.

⦁ Provides a constant environment for cells.

Formation of Tissue Fluid

⦁ At the Arterial End of Capillaries:

⦁ High hydrostatic pressure forces water, oxygen, and nutrients out of the blood into the

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 intercellular spaces.

⦁ Large proteins and cells remain in the capillaries due to their size.

⦁ At the Venous End of Capillaries:

⦁ Lower hydrostatic pressure and higher osmotic pressure cause water to return into the
capillaries by osmosis.

⦁ Waste products (e.g., CO₂) enter the capillaries for removal.

Some tissue fluid enters lymphatic vessels, forming lymph, which eventually drains back into the blood.

1. Role of Red Blood Cells in Transporting Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

Oxygen Transport
⦁ Red blood cells (RBCs) transport oxygen using haemoglobin (Hb), a protein with four polypeptide
chains, each containing an iron-containing haem group that binds to oxygen.

⦁ In the lungs, oxygen binds to haemoglobin, forming oxyhaemoglobin (HbO₂): Hb+4O2

→Hb(O2)4Hb + 4O₂ \rightarrow Hb(O₂)₄

⦁ In respiring tissues, where oxygen levels are low, oxyhaemoglobin dissociates, releasing oxygen
for cellular respiration.

Carbon Dioxide Transport

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is transported in three ways:

⦁ As Hydrogen Carbonate Ions (HCO₃⁻) (~70%)

⦁ In RBCs, carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the reaction between CO₂ and water, forming
carbonic acid (H₂CO₃): CO2+H2O→carbonic anhydraseH2CO3CO₂ + H₂O
\xrightarrow{\text{carbonic anhydrase}} H₂CO₃

⦁ Carbonic acid quickly dissociates into hydrogen ions (H⁺) and hydrogen carbonate ions
(HCO₃⁻): H2CO3→H++HCO3−H₂CO₃ \rightarrow H⁺ + HCO₃⁻

⦁ The HCO₃⁻ ions diffuse out into the plasma, while H⁺ ions bind to haemoglobin to form
haemoglobinic acid (HHb), preventing changes in pH.

⦁ As Carbaminohaemoglobin (~20%)

⦁ Some CO₂ binds directly to haemoglobin, forming carbaminohaemoglobin (HbCO₂).

⦁ This helps transport CO₂ to the lungs, where it is released.

⦁ Dissolved in Plasma (~10%)

⦁ A small percentage of CO₂ dissolves directly in plasma and is carried to the lungs.

2. The Chloride Shift and its Importance

⦁ When HCO₃⁻ ions leave RBCs to enter the plasma, chloride ions (Cl⁻) move into RBCs to maintain

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 electrical neutrality.

⦁ This is called the chloride shift and helps prevent pH changes in the blood.

Importance of the Chloride Shift:

✔ Maintains ionic balance in RBCs.
✔ Prevents excess build-up of HCO₃⁻ in plasma, which could alter blood pH.
✔ Ensures efficient CO₂ transport in the blood.

3. Role of Plasma in Transporting CO₂

⦁ Plasma carries dissolved CO₂ (10%).

⦁ It also transports HCO₃⁻ ions, which are formed inside RBCs and diffuse into plasma.

⦁ This helps regulate blood pH and CO₂ levels.

4. Oxygen Dissociation Curve of Adult Haemoglobin

The oxygen dissociation curve shows the relationship between partial pressure of oxygen (pO₂) and the
percentage saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen.

⦁ At high pO₂ (lungs) → Haemoglobin is almost fully saturated with oxygen.

⦁ At low pO₂ (respiring tissues) → Haemoglobin releases oxygen for cellular respiration.

⦁ The curve has a sigmoidal (S-shape) due to cooperative binding:

⦁ When one oxygen molecule binds to haemoglobin, it changes the haemoglobin's shape,
making it easier for more oxygen to bind.

5. Importance of the Oxygen Dissociation Curve

In the Lungs (High pO₂ ~100mmHg)
✔ Haemoglobin has high affinity for oxygen → Almost fully saturated.

In Respiring Tissues (Low pO₂ ~20-40mmHg)

✔ Haemoglobin has low affinity for oxygen → Releases oxygen where needed.

✔ This ensures efficient oxygen uptake in the lungs and oxygen delivery to tissues.

6. The Bohr Shift and its Importance

Bohr Shift
⦁ In active tissues, where CO₂ levels are high, haemoglobin's affinity for oxygen decreases, causing
more oxygen to be released.

⦁ The oxygen dissociation curve shifts to the right, meaning at the same pO₂, haemoglobin releases
more oxygen.

Importance of the Bohr Shift

✔ Ensures that more oxygen is delivered to respiring tissues where it is needed most.
✔ Helps remove CO₂ efficiently, as haemoglobin binds to CO₂ after releasing oxygen.

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✔ Crucial during exercise, when muscles need more oxygen for respiration.

1. External and Internal Structure of the Mammalian Heart

External Structure
⦁ The heart is a muscular, cone-shaped organ located in the thoracic cavity, slightly towards the
left.

⦁ It is enclosed in a double-layered pericardium, which protects the heart and reduces friction.

⦁ The major blood vessels attached to the heart include:

⦁ Aorta – carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the body.

⦁ Pulmonary artery – carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.

⦁ Pulmonary veins – bring oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.

⦁ Vena cava (superior and inferior) – bring deoxygenated blood from the body to the
heart.

Internal Structure
⦁ The heart has four chambers:

⦁ Right atrium – receives deoxygenated blood from the vena cava.

⦁ Right ventricle – pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs via the pulmonary artery.

⦁ Left atrium – receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins.

⦁ Left ventricle – pumps oxygenated blood to the body via the aorta.

⦁ Valves prevent backflow of blood:

⦁ Atrioventricular (AV) valves:

⦁ Tricuspid valve (right side)

⦁ Bicuspid/Mitral valve (left side)

⦁ Semilunar valves:

⦁ Pulmonary valve – between right ventricle and pulmonary artery

⦁ Aortic valve – between left ventricle and aorta

2. Differences in Thickness of Heart Walls

⦁ Atria vs. Ventricles

⦁ The atria have thinner walls because they only receive blood and pump it to the
ventricles, which are close by.

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 ⦁ The ventricles have thicker walls because they need to pump blood out of the heart
with more force.

⦁ Left Ventricle vs. Right Ventricle

⦁ The left ventricle has the thickest wall because it pumps oxygenated blood to the
entire body, requiring high pressure.

⦁ The right ventricle has a thinner wall because it only pumps blood to the lungs, which
are nearby and require lower pressure.

3. The Cardiac Cycle

The cardiac cycle consists of three main phases:

⦁ Atrial Systole (0.1s)

⦁ The atria contract, increasing pressure and pushing blood into the ventricles.

⦁ The AV valves (tricuspid & bicuspid) remain open, while the semilunar valves are
closed.

⦁ Ventricular Systole (0.3s)

⦁ The ventricles contract, increasing pressure.

⦁ The AV valves close to prevent backflow into the atria.

⦁ The semilunar valves open, allowing blood to flow into the pulmonary artery (right)
and aorta (left).

⦁ Diastole (0.4s)

⦁ The atria and ventricles relax.

⦁ The semilunar valves close to prevent backflow.

⦁ Blood from the vena cava and pulmonary veins flows into the atria, preparing for the
next cycle.

Blood Pressure Changes:

⦁ Systole (contraction) increases blood pressure.

⦁ Diastole (relaxation) decreases blood pressure.

4. Roles of the Sinoatrial Node (SAN), Atrioventricular Node (AVN), and Purkyne Tissue

⦁ Sinoatrial Node (SAN) – "The Pacemaker"

⦁ Located in the right atrium.

⦁ Generates electrical impulses, causing the atria to contract (atrial systole).

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 ⦁ Sets the heart rate.

⦁ Atrioventricular Node (AVN)

⦁ Located at the junction between the atria and ventricles.

⦁ Delays the impulse slightly to allow complete atrial contraction before ventricular
contraction.

⦁ Purkyne Tissue (Purkinje Fibers)

⦁ Found in the walls of the ventricles.

⦁ Conducts the impulse from the AVN to the ventricles, causing ventricular systole.

These structures ensure that the heart contracts in a coordinated manner, maintaining efficient blood
flow.

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 GAS EXCHANGE
CHEAT SHEET
1. Structure of the Human Gas Exchange System

The human gas exchange system is specialized for efficient exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. It
consists of:
Lungs
⦁ A pair of spongy, elastic organs located in the thoracic cavity.

⦁ Protected by the ribcage and separated from the abdomen by the diaphragm.

⦁ Each lung contains millions of alveoli, providing a large surface area for gas exchange.

Trachea
⦁ Also known as the windpipe.

⦁ A tube-like structure made of C-shaped cartilage rings to keep it open and prevent collapse.

⦁ Lined with ciliated epithelium and goblet cells, which help trap and remove dust and
microorganisms.

Bronchi (Singular: Bronchus)

⦁ The trachea divides into two bronchi, one leading to each lung.

⦁ Similar structure to the trachea, but smaller in diameter.

⦁ Supported by cartilage, and lined with ciliated epithelium and goblet cells.

Bronchioles

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 ⦁ Smaller branches of the bronchi that continue branching into finer tubes.

⦁ No cartilage, but contain smooth muscle that controls airflow.

⦁ Lined with ciliated epithelium, which helps in clearing mucus.

Alveoli (Singular: Alveolus)

⦁ Tiny air sacs at the end of bronchioles, where gas exchange occurs.

⦁ Surrounded by a dense capillary network for diffusion of gases.

⦁ Walls made of single-layer squamous epithelium, allowing efficient diffusion of gases.

Capillary Network
⦁ Each alveolus is surrounded by a dense capillary network carrying deoxygenated blood.

⦁ Gas exchange occurs across the thin alveolar and capillary walls by diffusion.

2. Distribution of Tissue Types in the Gas Exchange System

Tissue Location Function

Cartilage Trachea, Bronchi Provides support, prevents collapse

Trachea, Bronchi, Large Moves mucus upwards to remove trapped dust and
Ciliated Epithelium
Bronchioles microbes

Trachea, Bronchi, Large

Goblet Cells Secrete mucus to trap dust and pathogens
Bronchioles

Squamous
Alveoli Provides a thin surface for rapid gas exchange
Epithelium

Smooth Muscle Bronchi, Bronchioles Controls airway diameter

Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide between alveoli

Capillaries Surrounding Alveoli
and blood

3. Identification of Tissue Structures in Microscopy

⦁ Cartilage: Appears as a firm, pale-stained structure in rings or patches.

⦁ Ciliated Epithelium: Tiny hair-like projections on the lining of the airways.

⦁ Goblet Cells: Appear as pale, mucus-filled cells in the epithelium.

⦁ Squamous Epithelium: Flattened, thin cells forming the alveolar walls.

⦁ Smooth Muscle: Elongated, spindle-shaped cells in the walls of bronchi and bronchioles.

⦁ Capillaries: Thin-walled, small blood vessels around alveoli.

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4. Recognizing and Drawing Structures of the Gas Exchange System

⦁ Trachea: Circular shape with C-shaped cartilage rings and ciliated epithelium.

⦁ Bronchi: Similar to trachea but smaller; also contain cartilage and cilia.

⦁ Bronchioles: Smaller branches without cartilage, but with smooth muscle.

⦁ Alveoli: Small, round, thin-walled air sacs, clustered like grapes.

Plan Diagrams:

⦁ Trachea (TS): Shows cartilage rings, ciliated epithelium, goblet cells, and muscle layers.

⦁ Bronchus (TS): Similar to trachea but with less cartilage and smaller lumen.

5. Functions of Ciliated Epithelial Cells, Goblet Cells, and Mucous Glands

⦁ Ciliated Epithelial Cells:

⦁ Have hair-like cilia that move mucus upwards towards the throat, preventing lung
infections.

⦁ Goblet Cells:

⦁ Secrete mucus, which traps dust, pathogens, and particles.

⦁ Mucous Glands:

⦁ Found in the trachea and bronchi, produce mucus to keep the airways moist and trap
harmful particles.

6. Functions of Cartilage, Smooth Muscle, Elastic Fibres, and Squamous Epithelium

Structure Function

Cartilage Prevents collapse of airways by keeping them open

Smooth Muscle Controls the diameter of airways, regulating airflow

Elastic Fibres Allow alveoli to stretch during inhalation and recoil during exhalation

Squamous Epithelium Provides a thin barrier for efficient diffusion of gases

7. Gas Exchange Between Air in Alveoli and Blood in Capillaries

⦁ Oxygen Diffusion

⦁ Air in alveoli is rich in oxygen.

⦁ Oxygen diffuses across the alveolar wall into the blood in the capillaries, where it binds
to haemoglobin in red blood cells.

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 ⦁ Carbon Dioxide Diffusion

⦁ Blood arriving at the alveoli has a high concentration of carbon dioxide from
respiration.

⦁ Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into the alveoli and is exhaled.

Key Features Enabling Efficient Gas Exchange:

✅ Thin walls (single layer of squamous epithelium) – short diffusion distance.
✅ Large surface area – millions of alveoli increase gas exchange efficiency.
✅ Moist surface – gases dissolve in moisture, making diffusion easier.
✅ Dense capillary network – maintains a high concentration gradient.

INFECTIOUS DISEASE
CHEAT SHEET
Infectious Diseases: Causes, Transmission, Prevention, and Control
1. Infectious Diseases and Their Causes
⦁ Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens (microorganisms that cause disease) and are
transmissible (can spread from one host to another).

⦁ Types of pathogens include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protoctists.

2. Pathogens Causing Specific Diseases

Type of
Disease Pathogen Name
Pathogen

26
Cholera Vibrio cholerae Bacterium

Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium ovale,

Malaria Protoctist
Plasmodium vivax

Tuberculosis (TB) Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium bovis Bacterium

HIV/AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Virus

3. Transmission of Diseases
⦁ Cholera

⦁ Transmitted through contaminated water or food containing Vibrio cholerae.

⦁ Poor sanitation and lack of clean drinking water facilitate its spread.

⦁ The bacterium produces a toxin that causes severe watery diarrhea, leading to
dehydration.

⦁ Malaria

⦁ Transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes, which act as vectors.

⦁ The Plasmodium protoctist enters the human bloodstream when the mosquito bites.

⦁ The parasite multiplies in red blood cells and liver cells, causing fever and other
symptoms.

⦁ Tuberculosis (TB)

⦁ Spread via airborne droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes.

⦁ Mycobacterium tuberculosis infects the lungs, leading to persistent cough, weight loss,
and fever.

⦁ Overcrowding and poor ventilation increase the risk of transmission.

⦁ HIV/AIDS

⦁ Spread through body fluids (blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk).

⦁ Transmission methods include:

⦁ Unprotected sexual contact

⦁ Sharing contaminated needles

⦁ From mother to baby during childbirth or breastfeeding

⦁ The virus attacks the immune system (T-helper cells), leading to immune deficiency
(AIDS).

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4. Prevention and Control of Diseases
The control of infectious diseases involves biological, social, and economic factors:
Disease Prevention Methods Control Measures

- Access to clean drinking water - Proper

- Oral rehydration therapy - Antibiotics in
Cholera sanitation and hygiene - Cooking food
severe cases - Public health education
thoroughly

- Spraying insecticides - Providing antimalarial

- Mosquito nets - Insect repellents - Draining
Malaria treatments - Controlling mosquito
stagnant water - Antimalarial drugs
populations

- Antibiotic treatment (long course) - Isolation

Tuberculosis - BCG vaccine - Good ventilation - Screening
of infectious patients - Public health
(TB) programs
campaigns

- Safe sex practices (use of condoms) - Needle - Antiretroviral therapy (ART) - Counseling
HIV/AIDS exchange programs - HIV testing - Education and support services - Reducing stigma and
and awareness discrimination

Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance

1. How Penicillin Works on Bacteria
⦁ Penicillin is an antibiotic that kills bacteria by inhibiting the synthesis of peptidoglycan in
bacterial cell walls.

⦁ This weakens the cell wall, causing the bacteria to burst (lysis) due to osmotic pressure.

⦁ Viruses are not affected by antibiotics because:

⦁ They do not have cell walls.

⦁ They reproduce inside host cells, making them inaccessible to antibiotics.

2. Antibiotic Resistance: Causes and Solutions

Causes of Antibiotic Resistance
⦁ Overuse or misuse of antibiotics.

⦁ Not completing the full course of antibiotics.

⦁ Use of antibiotics in livestock farming, leading to resistant strains.

⦁ Mutation of bacteria, allowing them to survive and multiply despite antibiotics.

Consequences of Antibiotic Resistance

⦁ Development of superbugs (e.g., MRSA – Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus).

⦁ Increased mortality rates from previously treatable infections.

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 ⦁ Need for stronger, more expensive antibiotics.

⦁ Longer hospital stays and increased healthcare costs.

Steps to Reduce Antibiotic Resistance

✅ Only use antibiotics when prescribed by a doctor.
✅ Complete the full course of antibiotics to prevent surviving bacteria from developing resistance.
✅ Limit the use of antibiotics in agriculture.
✅ Develop new antibiotics through research and drug discovery.
✅ Improve hygiene and infection control to reduce the need for antibiotics.

IMMUNITY
CHEAT SHEET
The Immune System and Immunity in Detail
1. Mode of Action of Phagocytes (Macrophages and Neutrophils)

Phagocytes are white blood cells that engulf and destroy pathogens through phagocytosis. The main
phagocytes include neutrophils and macrophages.
Steps of Phagocytosis:
⦁ Chemotaxis:

⦁ Pathogens release chemicals (e.g., toxins) that attract phagocytes.

⦁ Phagocytes detect these chemicals and move towards the pathogen.

⦁ Recognition and Attachment:

⦁ Phagocytes have receptors on their membranes that recognize antigens on the surface
of pathogens.

⦁ The pathogen binds to the phagocyte.

⦁ Engulfment (Endocytosis):

⦁ The phagocyte extends its membrane around the pathogen, enclosing it in a phagosome
(a membrane-bound vesicle).

⦁ Digestion (Lysosomal Action):

⦁ The phagosome fuses with a lysosome, forming a phagolysosome.

⦁ The lysosome contains digestive enzymes (e.g., lysozyme) that break down the
pathogen.

⦁ Exocytosis:

⦁ The debris from the destroyed pathogen is expelled from the cell.

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 ⦁ Antigen Presentation (Macrophages Only):

⦁ Macrophages process pathogen fragments and display them on their surface using MHC
(Major Histocompatibility Complex) proteins.

⦁ This signals T-helper cells to activate the immune response.

2. Antigens and the Difference Between Self and Non-Self Antigens

⦁ Antigens are molecules (usually proteins or polysaccharides) found on the surface of cells and
pathogens that trigger an immune response.

⦁ Self-antigens:

⦁ Found on the body’s own cells.

⦁ The immune system recognizes them as non-threatening.

⦁ Non-self antigens:

⦁ Found on foreign substances (e.g., bacteria, viruses).

⦁ The immune system detects and attacks them.

3. The Primary Immune Response

When a pathogen infects the body for the first time, the primary immune response occurs. This involves
macrophages, B-lymphocytes, and T-lymphocytes.
Steps in the Primary Immune Response:
1. Antigen Presentation by Macrophages

⦁ Macrophages engulf pathogens and digest them.

⦁ They present non-self antigens on their surface using MHC proteins.

⦁ This activates T-helper cells.

2. Activation of T-Lymphocytes

⦁ T-helper cells bind to the antigen-presenting macrophage.

⦁ They release cytokines, which activate B-lymphocytes and T-killer cells.

⦁ T-killer cells (cytotoxic T cells) destroy infected cells by releasing perforins that create holes in
the cell membrane.

3. Activation of B-Lymphocytes and Antibody Production

⦁ B-lymphocytes recognize the antigen and are activated by T-helper cells.

⦁ B-lymphocytes differentiate into plasma cells.

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 ⦁ Plasma cells produce specific antibodies that bind to the antigen, neutralizing the pathogen.

4. Pathogen Destruction

⦁ Antibodies mark pathogens for destruction.

⦁ Phagocytes engulf antibody-coated pathogens.

⦁ Complement proteins create pores in the pathogen's membrane, causing lysis (bursting).

4. Role of Memory Cells in Secondary Immune Response

After an infection, some B and T cells become memory cells, which remain in the body for a long time.

⦁ If the same pathogen enters again, memory cells recognize it immediately.

⦁ The immune system produces a faster and stronger response.

⦁ More antibodies are produced in a shorter time, preventing symptoms of the disease.

This is called long-term immunity.

5. Structure and Function of Antibodies

Antibodies (immunoglobulins) are Y-shaped proteins produced by plasma cells.

Structure of Antibodies:
⦁ Two heavy chains and two light chains held together by disulfide bonds.

⦁ Variable region: The antigen-binding site, which is specific to each antigen.

⦁ Constant region: Interacts with other immune cells.

Functions of Antibodies:
✅ Neutralization – Bind to toxins or viruses to prevent them from entering cells.
✅ Agglutination – Clump pathogens together for easier phagocytosis.
✅ Opsonization – Mark pathogens for destruction by phagocytes.
✅ Complement Activation – Triggers a response that lyses bacterial cells.

6. The Hybridoma Method for Producing Monoclonal Antibodies

Monoclonal antibodies are identical antibodies produced in large quantities for medical use.
Steps in the Hybridoma Technique:
⦁ A mouse is injected with an antigen.

⦁ The mouse produces B-lymphocytes that generate antibodies against the antigen.

⦁ These B-cells are fused with cancer cells (myeloma cells) to form hybridoma cells.

⦁ Hybridoma cells divide indefinitely, producing large amounts of antibodies.

31
 ⦁ These monoclonal antibodies are purified and used for medical applications.

7. Uses of Monoclonal Antibodies

✅ Diagnosis of Disease

⦁ Used in pregnancy tests (detect hCG hormone).

⦁ Used in detecting cancer and infections.

✅ Treatment of Disease

⦁ Cancer therapy – Monoclonal antibodies bind to cancer cells and deliver drugs directly to them.

⦁ Autoimmune diseases – Used to block specific immune responses (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis).

8. Active vs. Passive Immunity & Natural vs. Artificial Immunity

Type Definition Examples

The immune system produces its own

Active Immunity Infection (natural) or vaccination (artificial)
antibodies

Antibodies are given from an external Breastfeeding (natural) or antibody injections

Passive Immunity
source (artificial)

Immunity gained through natural Getting a disease or receiving maternal

Natural Immunity
exposure antibodies

Artificial Immunity gained through medical

Vaccination or antibody injections
Immunity intervention

9. Vaccination and Long-Term Immunity

⦁ Vaccines contain antigens that stimulate an immune response.

⦁ This triggers the production of memory cells, providing long-term immunity.

⦁ Booster vaccines may be required to maintain immunity.

10. Vaccination Programs and Disease Control

✅ Herd Immunity:

⦁ When a large percentage of a population is vaccinated, the spread of disease is reduced.

⦁ This protects unvaccinated individuals, such as newborns and immunocompromised people.

✅ Eradication of Diseases:

⦁ Smallpox has been eradicated due to widespread vaccination.

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 ⦁ Other diseases like polio and measles are controlled through immunization programs.

✅ Challenges of Vaccination Programs:

⦁ Some diseases (e.g., flu) mutate frequently, requiring new vaccines annually.

⦁ Misinformation and vaccine hesitancy reduce coverage and increase outbreaks.

Summary
Topic Key Points

Phagocytes Engulf and destroy pathogens via phagocytosis

Antigens Distinguish between self and non-self

Primary Immune Response Involves macrophages, T cells, B cells, and antibodies

Memory Cells Provide faster response in future infections

Antibodies Y-shaped proteins that neutralize pathogens

Monoclonal Antibodies Produced using hybridoma cells for medical use

Immunity Types Active vs. Passive & Natural vs. Artificial

Vaccines Stimulate immune response for long-term immunity

Herd Immunity Reduces disease spread and protects unvaccinated people

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