1 Introduction to

Distribution Systems

The major components of an electric power system are shown in Figure 1.1.
Of these components, the distribution system has traditionally been characterized
as the most unglamorous component. In the last half of the twentieth century, the
design and operation of the generation and transmission components presented many
challenges to practicing engineers and researchers. Power plants became larger and
larger; transmission lines crisscrossed the land forming large, interconnected net-
works. The operation of the large, interconnected networks required the development
of new analysis and operational techniques. Meanwhile, the distribution systems
continued to deliver power to the end user’s meter with little or no analysis. As a
direct result, distribution systems were typically overdesigned.
Times have changed. It has become very important and necessary to operate a
distribution system at its maximum capacity, distributed energy resources such as
solar power and energy storage are becoming more common, and new loads such as
electric vehicles continue to reshape distribution systems. Some of the questions that
need to be answered are as follows:

1. What is the maximum capacity?

2. How do we determine this capacity?
3. What are the operating limits that must be satisfied?
4. What can be done to operate the distribution system within the operating
limits?
5. What can be done to make the distribution system operate more efficiently?

All of these questions can be answered only if the distribution system can be mod-
eled very accurately.
The purpose of this text is to develop accurate models for the major components
of a distribution system. Once the models have been developed, analysis techniques
for steady-state and short-circuit conditions will be developed.

FIGURE 1.1 Major power system components.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003261094-1 1
2 Distribution System Modeling and Analysis

1.1 THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The distribution system typically starts with the distribution substation that is fed by
one or more subtransmission lines. In some cases, the distribution substation is fed
directly from a high voltage transmission line, in which case, most likely, there is
not a subtransmission system. This varies from company to company. Each distribu-
tion substation will serve one or more primary feeders. With the exception of dense
metropolitan areas, the feeders are radial, which means that there is only one path for
power to flow from the distribution substation to the user.

1.2 DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATIONS
A one-line diagram of a very simple distribution substation is shown in Figure 1.2.
Although Figure 1.2 displays the simplest of distribution substations, it does illus-
trate the major components that will be found in all substations.

1. High side and low side switching: In Figure 1.2, the high voltage switching
is done with a simple switch. More extensive substations may use high volt-
age circuit breakers in a variety of high voltage bus designs. The low volt-
age switching in Figure 1.2 is accomplished with relay-controlled circuit
breakers. In many cases, reclosers will be used in place of the relay/circuit
breaker combination. Some substation designs will include a low voltage
bus circuit breaker in addition to the circuit breakers for each feeder. As is
the case with the high voltage bus, the low voltage bus can take on a variety
of designs.
2. Voltage transformation: The primary function of a distribution substation
is to reduce the voltage down to the distribution voltage level. In Figure
1.2, only one transformer is shown. Other substation designs will call for
two or more three-phase transformers. The substation transformers can be

FIGURE 1.2 Simple distribution substation.

Introduction to Distribution Systems 3

three-phase units or three single-phase units connected in a standard con-

nection. There are many “standard” distribution voltage levels. Some of the
common ones are 34.5 kV, 23.9 kV, 14.4 kV, 13.2 kV, 12.47 kV, and in older
systems 4.16 kV.
3. Voltage regulation: As the load on the feeders varies, the voltage drop
between the substation and the user will vary. To maintain the user’s volt-
ages within an acceptable range, the voltage at the substation needs to vary
as the load varies. In Figure 1.2, the voltage is regulated by a “step-type”
regulator that will vary the voltage plus or minus 10% on the low side bus.
Sometimes this function is accomplished with a “load tap changing” (LTC)
transformer. The LTC changes the taps on the low voltage windings of the
transformer as the load varies. Many substation transformers will have
“fixed taps” on the high voltage winding. These are used when the source
voltage is always either above or below the nominal voltage. The fixed tap
settings can vary the voltage plus or minus 5%. Many times, instead of a bus
regulator, each feeder will have its own regulator. This can be in the form of
a three-phase, gang-operated regulator or individual-phase regulators that
operate independently.
4. Protection: The substation must be protected against the occurrence of
short circuits. In the simple design of Figure 1.2, the only automatic protec-
tion against short circuits inside the substation is by way of the high side
fuses on the transformer. As the substation designs become more complex,
more extensive protective schemes will be employed to protect the trans-
former, the high and low voltage buses, and any other piece of equipment.
Individual feeder circuit breakers or reclosers are used to provide interrup-
tion of short circuits that occur outside the substation. Protection has gotten
more difficult due to distributed energy resources. Classic means of protec-
tion in many cases do not work for low fault currents supplied by these
devices. One task for smart grid solutions is to employ alternative protection
schemes [1].
5. Metering: Every substation has some form of metering. This may be as sim-
ple as an analog ammeter displaying the present value of substation current,
as well as the minimum and maximum currents that have occurred over a
specific period. Digital recording meters are becoming very common. These
meters record the minimum, average, and maximum values of current, volt-
age, power, power factor, etc., over a specified time range. Typical time ranges
are 15 minutes, 30 minutes, and one hour. The digital meters may monitor the
output of each substation transformer and/or the output of each feeder.

A more comprehensive substation layout is shown in Figure 1.3.

The substation of Figure 1.3 has two LTC transformers, serves four distribution
feeders, and is fed from two substransmission lines. Under normal conditions, the
circuit breakers are in the following positions:

Circuit Breakers Closed: X, Y, 1, 3, 4, 6

Circuit Breakers Open: Z, 2, 5
4 Distribution System Modeling and Analysis

FIGURE 1.3 Two transformer substation with breaker-and-a-half scheme.

With the breakers in their normal positions, each transformer is served from a differ-
ent subtransmission line and serves two feeders. Should one of the subtransmission
lines go out of service, then breaker X or Y is opened and breaker Z is closed. Now
both transformers are served from the same subtransmission line. The transformers
are sized such that each transformer can supply all four feeders under an emergency
operating condition. For example, if Transformer T-1 is out of service, then breakers
X, 1, and 4 are opened and breakers 2 and 5 are closed. With that breaker arrange-
ment, all four feeders are served by transformer T-2. The low voltage bus arrange-
ment is referred to as a “breaker-and-a-half scheme” since three breakers are required
to serve two feeders.
There are an unlimited number of substation configurations possible. It is up to
the substation design engineer to create a design that provides the five basic functions
and provides the most reliable service economically possible.

1.3 RADIAL FEEDERS
Radial distribution feeders are characterized by having only one path for power to
flow from the source (“distribution substation”) to each customer. A typical distribu-
tion system will consist of one or more distribution substations consisting of one or
more “feeders”. Components of the feeder may consist of the following:

1. Three-phase primary “main” feeder

2. Three-phase, two-phase (“V” phase) and single-phase laterals
3. Step-type voltage regulators
4. In-line transformers
5. Shunt capacitor banks
6. Distribution transformers
Introduction to Distribution Systems 5

7. Secondaries
8. Three-phase, two-phase, and single-phase loads

The loading of a distribution feeder is inherently unbalanced because of the large

number of unequal single-phase loads that must be served. An additional unbalance
is introduced by the non-equilateral conductor spacings of the three-phase overhead
and underground line segments.
Because of the nature of the distribution system, conventional power-flow and short-
circuit programs used for transmission system studies are not adequate. Such programs
display poor convergence characteristics for radial systems. The programs also assume
a perfectly balanced system so that a single-phase equivalent system is used.
If a distribution engineer is to be able to perform accurate power-flow and short-
circuit studies, it is imperative that the distribution feeder be modeled as accurately
as possible. This means that three-phase models of the major components must be
utilized. Three-phase models for the major components will be developed in the fol-
lowing chapters. The models will be developed in the “phase frame” rather than
applying the method of symmetrical components.
Figure 1.4 shows a simple “one-line” diagram of a three-phase feeder.
Figure 1.4 illustrates the major components of a distribution system. The connect-
ing points of the components will be referred to as “nodes”. Note in the figure that
the phasing of the line segments is shown. This is important if the most accurate
models are to be developed.

FIGURE 1.4 Simple distribution feeder.

6 Distribution System Modeling and Analysis

1.4 DISTRIBUTION FEEDER MAP

The analysis of a distribution feeder is important to an engineer in order to determine
the existing operating conditions of a feeder and to be able to play the “what if” sce-
narios of future changes to the feeder. Before the engineer can perform the analysis
of a feeder, a detailed map of the feeder must be available. A sample of such a map
is shown in Figure 1.5.
The map of Figure 1.5 contains most of the following information:

1. Lines (overhead and underground)

a. Where
b. Distances
c. Details
i. Conductor sizes (not on this map)
ii. Phasing
2. Distribution transformers
a. Location
b. kVA rating
c. Phase connection
3. In-line transformers
a. Location
b. kVA rating
c. Connection
4. Shunt capacitors
a. Location
b. kvar rating
c. Phase connection
5. Voltage regulators
a. Location
b. Phase connection
c. Type (not shown on this map)
i. Single phase
ii. Three phase
6. Switches
a. Location
b. Normal open/close status

1.5 DISTRIBUTION FEEDER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Information from the map will define the physical location of the various devices.
Electrical characteristics for each device will have to be determined before the analy-
sis of the feeder can commence. In order to determine the electrical characteristics,
the following data must be available:

1. Overhead and underground spacings

2. Conductor tables
Introduction to Distribution Systems 7

FIGURE 1.5 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 123 node test feeder.

a. Geometric Mean Radius (GMR) (feet)

b. Diameter (inches)
c. Resistance (Ω/mile)
8 Distribution System Modeling and Analysis

3. Voltage regulators
a. Potential transformer ratios
b. Current transformer ratios
c. Compensator settings
i. Voltage level
ii. Bandwidth
iii. R and X settings in volts
4. Transformers
a. kVA rating
b. Voltage ratings
c. Impedance (R and X)
d. No-load power loss

1.6 SUMMARY
As the smart grid [2] becomes a reality, it becomes increasingly more important to be
able to accurately model and analyze each component of a distribution system. There
are many different substation designs possible but, for the most part, the substation
serves one or more radial feeders. Each component of a feeder must be modeled as
accurately as possible for the analysis to have meaning. Sometimes the most difficult
task for the engineer is to acquire all the necessary data. Feeder maps will contain
most of the needed data. Additional data such as standard pole configurations, specific
conductors used on each line segment, phasing, three-phase transformer connections,
and voltage regulator settings must come from stored records. The remaining bits of
information are the values of the loads. Chapter 2 will address the loads in a general
sense. Again, as the smart grid, along with smart meters, become a reality, the load
values will become much more accurate, which in turn will make the analysis more
accurate. Once all the data has been acquired, the analysis can commence utilizing
system models of the various devices that will be developed in later chapters.

REFERENCES
1. Carnovale, N., Fault Detection in Inverter-Based Microgrids Utilizing a Nonlinear
Observer. Master’s Thesis, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 2021.
2. Thomas, M.S. and McDonald, J. D., Power System SCADA and Smart Grids, CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2015.