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Brief Contents
From the Authors xix
Content and Features xx
What’s New in the Canadian Edition? xxviii
For Instructors xxix
Acknowledgments xxxv

1:: Introducing Psychological Science 1

2:: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research 30
3:: Biological Psychology 74
4:: Sensation and Perception 130
5:: Consciousness 180
6:: Learning 225
7:: Memory 269
8:: Thought and Language 313
9:: Intelligence Testing 351
10:: Lifespan Development 391
11:: Motivation and Emotion 443
12:: Personality 491
13:: Social Psychology 537
14:: Health, Stress, and Coping 585
15:: Psychological Disorders 623
16:: Therapies 669
Answer Key ANS-1
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Credits C-1
Name Index NI-1
Subject Index SI-1

vii
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

From the Authors xix

Content and Features xx 2 READING AND
What’s New in the Canadian Edition? xxviii EVALUATING SCIENTIFIC
For Instructors xxix
Acknowledgments xxxv
RESEARCH 30

Module 2.1 :: Principles

of Scientific Research 31
1 INTRODUCING Five Characteristics of Quality Scientific Research 32
PSYCHOLOGICAL Scientific Measurement: Objectivity, Reliability,
and Validity 32
SCIENCE 1
Generalizability of Results 34
Sources of Bias in Psychological Research 35
Module 1.1 :: The Science
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Demand
of Psychology 2
Characteristics and Participant Behaviour 36
The Scientific Method 3
Techniques That Reduce Bias 38
Hypotheses: Making Predictions 3
Psych @ The Hospital: The Placebo Effect 38
Theories: Explaining Phenomena 4
Sharing the Results 39
The Biopsychosocial Model 5
Replication 40
Quick Quiz 1.1a 5
Quick Quiz 2.1a 40
Building Scientific Literacy 6
Five Characteristics of Poor Research 40
Working the Scientific Literacy Model:
Quick Quiz 2.1b 42
How We Learn and Remember 7
Module Summary 43
Critical Thinking, Curiosity, and a Dose of Healthy Skepticism 9
Myths in Mind: Abducted by Aliens! 10 Module 2.2 :: Scientific Research Designs 44
Quick Quiz 1.1b 10
Descriptive Research 45
Module Summary 11 Case Studies 45
Working the Scientific Literacy Model:
Module 1.2 :: How Psychology Became a Science 12
Case Studies as a Form of Scientific Research 46
Psychology’s Philosophical and Scientific Origins 13
Naturalistic Observation 47
Influences from the Ancients: Philosophical Insights into Behaviour 13
Surveys and Questionnaires 48
Influences from Physics: Experimenting with the Mind 14
Quick Quiz 2.2a 49
Influences from Evolutionary Theory: The
Correlational Research 49
Adaptive Functions of Behaviour 16
Myths in Mind: Beware of Illusory Correlations 50
Influences from Medicine: Diagnoses and Treatments 16
Quick Quiz 2.2b 51
The Influence of Social Sciences: Measuring
and Comparing Humans 18 Experimental Research 51
Quick Quiz 1.2a 19 The Experimental Method 51
The Beginnings of Contemporary Psychology 19 The Quasi-Experimental Method 52
Structuralism and Functionalism: Converging Operations 53
The Beginnings of Psychology 20 Quick Quiz 2.2c 53
The Rise of Behaviourism 21 Module Summary 54
Humanistic Psychology Emerges 22
The Brain and Behaviour 23 Module 2.3 :: Ethics in Psychological Research 55
The Cognitive Revolution 24 Promoting the Welfare of Research Participants 56
Social and Cultural Influences 25 Weighing the Risks and Benefits of Research 56
Quick Quiz 1.2b 27 Obtaining Informed Consent 57
Module Summary 28 The Right to Anonymity and Confidentiality 58
Work the Scientific Literacy Model 29 The Welfare of Animals in Research 58

ix
 Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The Chemical Messengers: Neurotransmitters and Hormones 97
Animal Models of Disease 59 Types of Neurotransmitters 98
REBS for Animal-Based Research 61 Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Pain and Substance P 100
Quick Quiz 2.3a 61 Drug Effects on Neurotransmission 101
Ethical Collection, Storage, and Reporting of Data 61 Hormones and the Endocrine System 102
Quick Quiz 2.3b 62 Neurons in Context 103
Module Summary 63 Quick Quiz 3.2b 103
Module Summary 104
Module 2.4 :: A Statistical Primer 64
Descriptive Statistics 65 Module 3.3 :: Structure and Organization
Frequency 65 of the Nervous System 105
Central Tendency 65 Divisions of the Nervous System 106
Variability 67 The Central Nervous System 106
Quick Quiz 2.4a 68 The Peripheral Nervous System 106
Hypothesis Testing: Evaluating the Outcome of the Study 69 Quick Quiz 3.3a 108
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Statistical Significance 70 The Brain and Its Structures 108
Quick Quiz 2.4b 71 The Hindbrain: Sustaining the Body 108
Module Summary 72 The Midbrain: Sensation and Action 109
Work the Scientific Literacy Model 73 The Forebrain: Emotion, Memory, and Thought 110
The Cerebral Cortex 111
The Four Lobes 112
3 BIOLOGICAL Psych @ The Gym 114
PSYCHOLOGY 74 Left Brain, Right Brain: Hemispheric Specialization 115
The Changing Brain: Neuroplasticity 116
Module 3.1 :: Genetic and Evolutionary
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Neuroplasticity
Perspectives on Behaviour 75
and Recovery from Brain Injury 117
Heredity and Behaviour 76
Quick Quiz 3.3b 118
The Genetic Code 76
Module Summary 119
Behavioural Genomics: The Molecular Approach 78
Myths in Mind: Single Genes and Behaviour 78 Module 3.4 :: Windows to the Brain: Measuring
Behavioural Genetics: Twin and Adoption Studies 79 and Observing Brain Activity 120
Gene Expression and Behaviour 80 Insights from Brain Damage 121
Quick Quiz 3.1a 82 Lesioning and Brain Stimulation 121

Evolutionary Insights into Human Behaviour 82 Quick Quiz 3.4a 122

Evolutionary Psychology 83 Structural and Functional Neuroimaging 122

Intra- and Intersexual Selection 83 Structural Neuroimaging 123

Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Ruby Red Functional Neuroimaging 124
Lipstick and That Sexy Red Dress 85 Working the Scientific Literacy Model:
Evolution, the Brain, and Behaviour 87 Functional MRI and Behaviour 125

Evolution and Cognition 88 Quick Quiz 3.4b 127

Biopsychosocial Perspectives: Hunters and Gatherers: Module Summary 128

Men,Women, and Spatial Memory 89 Work the Scientific Literacy Model 129
Quick Quiz 3.1b 90
Module Summary 91
4 SENSATION AND
Module 3.2 :: How the Nervous System Works: PERCEPTION 130
Cells and Neurotransmitters 92
Neural Communication 93 Module 4.1 :: Sensation and
The Neuron 93 Perception at a Glance 131
Glial Cells 94 Sensing the World Around Us 132
Myths in Mind: We Are Born with All the Brain Stimulus Thresholds 134
Cells We Will Ever Have 95 Signal Detection 135
The Neuron’s Electrical System: Resting and Action Potentials 95 Myths in Mind: Setting the Record Straight on Subliminal Messaging 136
Quick Quiz 3.2a 97 Quick Quiz 4.1a 137

x :: Contents
 Perceiving the World Around Us 137
5 CONSCIOUSNESS 180
Gestalt Principles of Perception 137
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Module 5.1 :: Biological
Backward Messages in Music 139 Rhythms of Consciousness:
Attention and Perception 140 Wakefulness and Sleep 181
Quick Quiz 4.1b 141 What Is Sleep? 182
Module Summary 142 Biological Rhythms 182
The Stages of Sleep 183
Module 4.2 :: The Visual System 143 Quick Quiz 5.1a 185
The Human Eye 144 Why We Need Sleep 185
How the Eye Gathers Light 144 Theories of Sleep 185
The Structure of the Eye 145 Sleep Deprivation and Sleep Displacement 186
Common Visual Disorders 148 Quick Quiz 5.1b 189
Quick Quiz 4.2a 149 Theories of Dreaming 189
Visual Perception and the Brain 149 The Psychoanalytic Approach 189
The Ventral Stream 150 The Activation–Synthesis Hypothesis 189
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Dreams,
Are Faces Special? 151 REM Sleep, and Learning 190
The Dorsal Stream 153 Quick Quiz 5.1c 192
Depth Perception 154 Disorders and Problems with Sleep 192
Psych @ The Artist’s Studio 156 Insomnia 192
Quick Quiz 4.2b 157 Nightmares and Night Terrors 193
Module Summary 158 Movement Disturbances 193
Sleep Apnea 194
Module 4.3 :: The Auditory System 159
Narcolepsy 195
Sound and the Structures of the Ear 160
Overcoming Sleep Problems 195
Sound 160
Quick Quiz 5.1d 196
The Human Ear 160
Module Summary 197
Quick Quiz 4.3a 162
The Perception of Sound 162 Module 5.2 :: Altered States of Consciousness: Hypnosis,
Sound Localization: Finding the Source 162 Meditation, and Disorders of Consciousness 198
Theories of Pitch Perception 162 Hypnosis 199
Auditory Perception and the Brain 164 Theories of Hypnosis 199
The Perception of Music 164 Applications of Hypnosis 200
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Myths in Mind: Recovering Lost Memories through Hypnosis 201
Music, Emotion, and Advertising 165 Quick Quiz 5.2a 201
Quick Quiz 4.3b 166 Meditation 201
Module Summary 167 Types of Meditation 201
Meditation, Cognition, and Emotion 202
Module 4.4 :: Touch and the Chemical Senses 168
Quick Quiz 5.2b 203
The Sense of Touch 169
Disorders of Consciousness 203
Feeling Pain 170
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Assessing Consciousness
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: in the Vegetative State 205
Empathy and Pain 171
Quick Quiz 5.2c 208
Phantom Limb Pain 172
Module Summary 208
Quick Quiz 4.4a 173
The Chemical Senses: Taste and Smell 173 Module 5.3 :: Drugs and Conscious Experience 209
The Gustatory System: Taste 173 Physical and Psychological Effects of Drugs 210
The Olfactory System: Smell 175 Short-Term Effects 210
Multimodal Integration 175 Long-Term Effects 211
Quick Quiz 4.4b 177 Quick Quiz 5.3a 212
Module Summary 178 Commonly Abused Illegal Drugs 213
Work the Scientific Literacy Model 179 Stimulants 213

Contents :: xi
 Hallucinogens 214 Applications of Operant Conditioning 251
Biopsychosocial Perspectives: Recreational and Shaping 251
Spiritual Uses of Salvia divinorum 215 Psych @ The Special Needs Classroom 251
Marijuana 216 Schedules of Reinforcement 251
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Marijuana, Working the Scientific Literacy Model:
Memory, and Cognition 217 Reinforcement and Superstition 253
Quick Quiz 5.3b 219 Applying Punishment 255
Legal Drugs and Their Effects on Consciousness 219 Are Classical and Operant Learning Distinct Events? 256
Sedatives 219 Quick Quiz 6.2b 256
Prescription Drug Abuse 219 Module Summary 257
Alcohol 221
Psych @ University Parties 221 Module 6.3 :: Cognitive and Observational
Why Are Some Drugs Legal and Others Illegal? 222 Learning 258

Quick Quiz 5.3c 222 Cognitive Perspectives on Learning 259

Module Summary 223 Latent Learning 259

Work the Scientific Literacy Model 224 S-O-R Theory of Learning 260
Quick Quiz 6.3a 260
Observational Learning 260
6 LEARNING 225 Processes Supporting Observational Learning 261
Myths in Mind:Teaching Is Uniquely Human 262
Module 6.1 :: Classical Conditioning:
Imitation and Observational Learning 263
Learning by Association 226
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Linking
Pavlov’s Dogs: Classical Conditioning
Media Exposure to Behaviour 263
of Salivation 227
Mirror Neurons 266
Classical Conditioning and the Brain 229
Biopsychosocial Perspectives:Violence,
Quick Quiz 6.1a 230
Video Games, and Culture 266
Processes of Classical Conditioning 230
Quick Quiz 6.3b 267
Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery 230
Module Summary 267
Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination 231
Work the Scientific Literacy Model 268
Quick Quiz 6.1b 232
Applications of Classical Conditioning 232
Conditioned Emotional Responses 232
7 MEMORY 269
Evolutionary Role for Fear Conditioning 234
Conditioned Taste Aversions 235 Module 7.1 :: Memory Systems 270
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Conditioning The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model 271
and Negative Political Advertising 236 Sensory Memory 272
Quick Quiz 6.1c 239 Short-Term Memory and the
Learning without Awareness 239 Magical Number 7 273
Drug Use and Tolerance 239 Long-Term Memory 274
Sexual Arousal 240 Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Distinguishing
The Paradox of “Diet” Beverages 240 Short-Term from Long-Term Memory Stores 275

Quick Quiz 6.1d 241 Quick Quiz 7.1a 277

Module Summary 242 The Working Memory Model:

An Active STM System 278
Module 6.2 :: Operant Conditioning: Learning The Phonological Loop 278
through Consequences 243 The Visuospatial Sketchpad 278
Processes of Operant Conditioning 244 The Episodic Buffer 279
Reinforcement and Punishment 244 The Central Executive 279
Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment 246 Quick Quiz 7.1b 280
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers 247 Long-Term Memory Systems: Declarative and
Discrimination and Generalization 249 Nondeclarative Memories 280
Delayed Reinforcement and Extinction 249 Declarative Memory 280
Reward Devaluation 249 Nondeclarative Memory 281
Quick Quiz 6.2a 250 Quick Quiz 7.1c 282

xii :: Contents
 The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory 282 Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Categories and the Brain 317
Memory at the Neural Level 282 Categorization and Experience 319
Memory, the Brain, and Amnesia 283 Quick Quiz 8.1a 320
Quick Quiz 7.1d 285 Culture and Categories 320
Module Summary 286 Biopsychosocial Perspectives: Culture and Categorical Thinking 320
Myths in Mind: How Many Words for Snow? 322
Module 7.2 :: Encoding and Retrieving Memories 287
Quick Quiz 8.1b 322
Encoding and Retrieval 288
Module Summary 323
Rehearsal: The Basics of Encoding 288
Levels of Processing 289 Module 8.2 :: Problem Solving, Judgment,
and Decision Making 324
Retrieval 290
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Defining and Solving Problems 325
Context-Dependent Memory 290 Problem-Solving Strategies and Techniques 325
State-Dependent Learning 292 Cognitive Obstacles 326
Mood-Dependent Learning 293 Quick Quiz 8.2a 326
Quick Quiz 7.2a 293 Judgment and Decision Making 327
Emotional Memories 293 Representativeness and Availability 327
Flashbulb Memories 295 Anchoring Effects 329
Myths in Mind: The Accuracy of Flashbulb Memories 296 Framing Effects 330
Quick Quiz 7.2b 296 Belief Perseverance and Confirmation Bias 330
Forgetting and Remembering 296 Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Maximizing
The Forgetting Curve: How Soon We Forget . . . 296 and Satisficing in Complex Decisions 332

Mnemonics: Improving Your Memory Skills 297 Psych @ Decision Making and Neuromarketing 333

Quick Quiz 7.2c 299 Quick Quiz 8.2b 334

Module Summary 300 Module Summary 335

Module 8.3 :: Language and Communication 336

Module 7.3 :: Constructing and Reconstructing Memories 301
What Is Language? 337
How Memories Are Organized and Constructed 302
Early Studies of Language 337
The Schema: An Active Organization Process 302
Properties of Language 338
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: How
Schemas Influence Memory 302 Phonemes and Morphemes: The Basic Ingredients of Language 339
Biopsychosocial Perspectives:Your Earliest Memories 304 Syntax: The Language Recipe 340
Quick Quiz 7.3a 305 Pragmatics: The Finishing Touches 340
Memory Reconstruction 305 Quick Quiz 8.3a 341
The Perils of Eyewitness Testimony 305 The Development of Language 341
Psych @ Court: Is Eyewitness Testimony Reliable? 307 Infants, Sound Perception, and Language Acquisition 341
Imagination and False Memories 307 Producing Spoken Language 342
Creating False Memories in the Laboratory 308 Sensitive Periods for Language 342
The Danger of False Remembering 309 The Bilingual Brain 344
Quick Quiz 7.3b 310 Quick Quiz 8.3b 344
Module Summary 311 Genes, Evolution, and Language 344
Work the Scientific Literacy Model 312 Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Genes and Language 345
Can Animals Use Language? 346
Quick Quiz 8.3c 348
THOUGHT AND Module Summary 349
8 LANGUAGE 313 Work the Scientific Literacy Model 350

Module 8.1 :: The Organization

of Knowledge 314 9 INTELLIGENCE
Concepts and Categories 315 TESTING 351
Classical Categories: Definitions
and Rules 315 Module 9.1 :: Measuring Intelligence 352
Prototypes: Categorization by Comparison 316 Different Approaches to
Networks and Hierarchies 316 Intelligence Testing 353

Contents :: xiii
 Intelligence and Perception: Galton’s Anthropometric Approach 353 Module Summary 389
Intelligence and Thinking: The Stanford-Binet Test 354 Work the Scientific Literacy Model 390
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 355
Raven’s Progressive Matrices 355
10 LIFESPAN
Quick Quiz 9.1a 356
DEVELOPMENT 391
The Chequered Past of Intelligence Testing 357
IQ Testing and the Eugenics Movement 357 Module 10.1 :: Physical Development
The Race and IQ Controversy 358 from Conception through Infancy 392
Problems with the Racial Superiority Interpretation 359 Methods for Measuring
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Beliefs about Intelligence 360 Developmental Trends 393

Quick Quiz 9.1b 362 Patterns of Development: Stages and Continuity 393

Module Summary 363 The Importance of Sensitive Periods 393

Quick Quiz 10.1a 394
Module 9.2 :: Understanding Intelligence 364
Zygotes to Infants: From One Cell to Billions 394
Intelligence as a Single, General Ability 365
Fertilization and Gestation 394
Spearman’s General Intelligence 365
Fetal Brain Development 395
Does g Tell Us the Whole Story? 366
Nutrition, Teratogens, and Fetal Development 396
Quick Quiz 9.2a 367
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The Long-Term Effects
Intelligence as Multiple, Specific Abilities 367 of Premature Birth 397
The Hierarchical Model of Intelligence 368 Quick Quiz 10.1b 399
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Testing for Myths in Mind: Vaccinations and Autism 399
Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence 369
Sensory and Motor Development in Infancy 399
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 371
Motor Development in the First Year 400
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences 371
Quick Quiz 10.1c 403
Myths in Mind: Learning Styles 372
Module Summary 404
Psych @ The NFL Draft 373
Quick Quiz 9.2b 374 Module 10.2 :: Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive
and Emotional Development 405
The Battle of the Sexes 374
Cognitive Changes: Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory 406
Do Males and Females Have Unique Cognitive Skills? 375
The Sensorimotor Stage: Living in the Material World 407
Quick Quiz 9.2c 376
The Preoperational Stage: Quantity and Numbers 407
Module Summary 376
The Concrete Operational Stage: Using Logical Thought 408
Module 9.3 :: Biological, Environmental, and
The Formal Operational Stage: Abstract
Behavioural Influences on Intelligence 377
and Hypothetical Thought 408
Biological Influences on Intelligence 378
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Evaluating Piaget 409
The Genetics of Intelligence: Twin and Adoption Studies 378
Complementary Approaches to Piaget 410
The Heritability of Intelligence 378
Quick Quiz 10.2a 411
Behavioural Genomics 380
Social Development: Attachment, Personality,
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Brain Size and Intelligence 381 and Reading Others 411
Quick Quiz 9.3a 382 Types of Attachment 411
Environmental Influences on Intelligence 383 Self Awareness 414
Birth Order 383 Prosocial Behaviour 415
Socioeconomic Status 383 Quick Quiz 10.2b 417
Nutrition 384 Parenting 417
Stress 384 Module Summary 419
Education 384
Module 10.3 :: Adolescence 420
The Flynn Effect: Is Everyone Getting Smarter? 385
Physical Changes in Adolescence 421
Myths in Mind: Can the Media Make Babies Smarter? 386
Emotional Challenges in Adolescence 422
Quick Quiz 9.3b 386
Quick Quiz 10.3a 423
Behavioural Influences on Intelligence 387
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Adolescent
Brain Training Programs 387 Risk and Decision Making 424
Nootropic Drugs 387 Cognitive Development: Moral Reasoning vs. Emotions 425
Meditation 388 Kohlberg’s Moral Development: Learning Right from Wrong 425
Quick Quiz 9.3c 388 Biopsychosocial Perspectives: Emotion and Disgust 427

xiv :: Contents
 Social Development: Identity and Relationships 427 Sex and Technology 462
Who Am I? Identity Formation During Adolescence 428 Working the Scientific Literacy Model:
Peer Groups 428 Does Sex Sell? 463

Romantic Relationships 429 Quick Quiz 11.2c 464

Quick Quiz 10.3b 429 Module Summary 465

Module Summary 430
Module 11.3 :: Social and Achievement Motivation 466
Belongingness and Love Needs 467
Module 10.4 :: Adulthood and Aging 431
Hierarchy of Needs 467
Emerging Adults: Moving from Adolescence to Adulthood 432
Belonging Is a Need, Not a Want 467
Physical Changes in Adulthood 432
Love 468
Quick Quiz 10.4a 433
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Aging Love and Commitment 469
and Cognitive Change 434 Quick Quiz 11.3a 470
Psych @ The Driver’s Seat 435 Achievement Motivation 470
Psychosocial Development across the Lifespan 435 Self-Determination Theory 471
Social Development: Intimacy and Generativity 437 Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation 471
Love and Marriage 437 A Continuum of Motivation 472
Parenting 439 Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Framing,
Values, and Pro-Environmental Messages 473
Career 439
Quick Quiz 11.3b 475
Emotional Changes 439
Module Summary 476
Quick Quiz 10.4b 440
Module Summary 441 Module 11.4 :: Emotion 477
Work the Scientific Literacy Model 442 Physiology of Emotion 478
The Initial Response 478
The Autonomic Response: Fight or Flight? 478
11 MOTIVATION AND
The Emotional Response: Movement 479
EMOTION 443 Emotional Regulation 480
Quick Quiz 11.4a 480
Module 11.1 :: Hunger and Eating 444
Experiencing Emotions 480
Physiological Aspects of Hunger 445
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The Two-
Quick Quiz 11.1a 447 Factor Theory of Emotion 483
Psychological Aspects of Hunger 447 Quick Quiz 11.4b 485
Attention and Eating 448 Expressing Emotions 485
Eating and the Social Context 448 Emotional Faces and Bodies 485
Quick Quiz 11.1b 449 Culture, Emotion, and Display Rules 487
Disorders of Eating 450 Quick Quiz 11.4c 488
Obesity 450 Module Summary 489
Anorexia and Bulimia 450 Work the Scientific Literacy Model 490
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The Effect
of Media Depictions of Beauty on Body Image 452
Quick Quiz 11.1c 453
12 PERSONALITY 491
Module Summary 454
Module 12.1 :: Contemporary
Module 11.2 :: Sex 455 Approaches to Personality 492
Human Sexual Behaviour: Psychological Influences 456 The Trait Perspective 493
Psychological Measures of Sexual Motivation 456 The Five Factor Model 494
Myths in Mind: Sex after Sixty? 457 Beyond the Big Five: The Personality of Evil? 496
Quick Quiz 11.2a 458 Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Right-Wing Authoritarianism
Human Sexual Behaviour: Physiological Influences 458 at the Group Level 498
Physiological Measures of Sex 458 Psych @ Test Yourself! 499
Sexual Orientation: Biology and Environment 459 Personality Traits over the Lifespan 499
Quick Quiz 11.2b 461 Personality Traits and States 501
Human Sexual Behaviour: Cultural Influences 461 Quick Quiz 12.1a 502

Contents :: xv
 Behaviourist and Social-Cognitive Perspectives 502 Mimicry 540
Quick Quiz 12.1b 504 Group Dynamics: Social Loafing and Social Facilitation 542
Module Summary 505 Groupthink 544
The Asch Experiments: Conformity 545
Module 12.2 :: Cultural and Biological
Approaches to Personality 506 Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Examining
Why People Conform: Seeing Is Believing 546
Culture and Personality 507
Quick Quiz 13.1a 548
Universals and Differences across Cultures: The Big Five 507
The Bystander Effect: Situational Influences
Personality Structures in Different Cultures 507 on Helping Behaviour 548
Comparing Personality Traits between Nations 508 Social Roles: The Stanford Prison Study 551
Challenges in Cross-Cultural Research 508
Obedience to Authority: The Milgram Experiment 553
Biopsychosocial Perspectives: How Culture Shapes Our
Quick Quiz 13.1b 556
Development: Cultural Differences in the Self 509
Module Summary 557
Quick Quiz 12.2a 510
How Genes Affect Personality 511 Module 13.2 :: Social Cognition 558
Twin Studies 511 Person Perception 560
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: From Molecules to Personality 512 Thin Slices of Behaviour 560
Quick Quiz 12.2b 514 Self-Fulfilling Prophecies and Other Consequences
The Role of Evolution in Personality 514 of First Impressions 561

Animal Behaviour: The Evolutionary Roots of Personality 514 The Self in the Social World 561
Why There Are So Many Different Personalities: Projecting the Self onto Others: False
The Evolutionary Explanation 515 Consensus and Naive Realism 562

Myths in Mind: Men Are from Mars,Women Are from Venus 516 Self-Serving Biases and Attributions 562

Quick Quiz 12.2c 516 Ingroups and Outgroups 563

The Brain and Personality 517 Quick Quiz 13.2a 564

Extraversion and Arousal 517 Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination 565

Contemporary Research: Images of Personality in the Brain 518 Myths in Mind: Are Only Negative Aspects of
Stereotypes Problematic? 565
Quick Quiz 12.2d 519
Prejudice in a Politically Correct World? 565
Module Summary 520
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Explicit
Module 12.3 :: Psychodynamic and Humanistic versus Implicit Measures of Prejudice 566
Approaches to Personality 521 Psych @ The Law Enforcement Academy 568
The Psychodynamic Perspective 523 Quick Quiz 13.2b 569
Unconscious Processes and Psychodynamics 523 Improving Intergroup Relations 569
The Structure of Personality 524 Module Summary 570
Defence Mechanisms 525
Module 13.3 :: Attitudes, Behaviour, and
Personality Development: The Psychosexual Stages 526 Effective Communication 571
Exploring the Unconscious with Projective Tests 529 Changing People’s Behaviour 572
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Perceiving Persuasion: Changing Attitudes through Communication 572
Others as a Projective Test 530
Using the Central Route Effectively 573
Quick Quiz 12.3a 531
Make It Personal 573
Alternatives to the Psychodynamic Approach 532
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The
Quick Quiz 12.3b 533 Identifiable Victim Effect 574
Humanistic Perspectives 533 Value Appeals 577
Quick Quiz 12.3c 534 Preaching or Flip-Flopping? One-Sided vs. Two-Sided Messages 577
Module Summary 535 Emotions in the Central Route 577
Work the Scientific Literacy Model 536 Using the Peripheral Route Effectively 578
Authority 578

13 SOCIAL Social Validation 579

PSYCHOLOGY 537 Reciprocity 579

Consistency 579

Module 13.1 :: The Power of the Situation: The Attitude-Behaviour Feedback Loop 580
Social Influences on Behaviour 538 Module Summary 583
The Person and the Situation 539 Work the Scientific Literacy Model 584

xvi :: Contents
 14 HEALTH, STRESS, AND Perceived Control 618
Working the Scientific Literacy Model:
COPING 585 Compensatory Control and Health 619
Quick Quiz 14.3b 620
Module 14.1 :: Behaviour and Health 586
Module Summary 621
Smoking 587
Work the Scientific Literacy Model 622
Working the Scientific Literacy Model:
Media Exposure and Smoking 588
Efforts to Prevent Smoking 589
15 PSYCHOLOGICAL
Quick Quiz 14.1a 590
DISORDERS 623
Obesity 590
Defining Healthy Weights and Obesity 591
Module 15.1 :: Defining and Classifying
Genetics and Body Weight 591 Psychological Disorders 624
The Sedentary Lifestyle 592 Defining Abnormal Behaviour 626
Social Factors 593 Psychology’s Puzzle: How to Diagnose Psychological Disorders 627
Psychology and Weight Loss 593 Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Labelling
Biopsychosocial Perspectives: Obesity 593 and Mental Disorders 629
Quick Quiz 14.1b 594 Quick Quiz 15.1a 631
Psychosocial Influences on Health 594 Applications of Psychological Diagnoses 631
Poverty and Discrimination 595 The Mental Disorder Defence (aka the Insanity Defence) 631
Family and Social Environment 595 Biopsychosocial Perspectives: Symptoms,Treatments, and Culture 632
Social Contagion 596 Quick Quiz 15.1b 633
Quick Quiz 14.1c 596 Module Summary 634
Module Summary 597
Module 15.2 :: Personality and Dissociative Disorders 635
Module 14.2 :: Stress and Illness 598 Defining and Classifying Personality Disorders 636
What Causes Stress? 599 Borderline Personality 636

Physiology of Stress 601 Narcissistic Personality 637

The Stress Pathways 602 Histrionic Personality 637

Oxytocin: To Tend and Befriend 603 Working the Scientific Literacy Model:
Antisocial Personality Disorder 637
Quick Quiz 14.2a 603
The Biopsychosocial Approach to Personality Disorders 640
Stress, Immunity, and Illness 604
Comorbidity and Personality Disorders 640
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Hormones,
Relationships, and Health 604 Quick Quiz 15.2a 641

Stress, Food, and Heart Disease 606 Dissociative Identity Disorder 641
Myths in Mind: Stress and Ulcers 606 Quick Quiz 15.2b 643

AIDS 607 Module Summary 644

Cancer 607 Module 15.3 :: Anxiety, Depressive, and
Quick Quiz 14.2b 607 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders 645
Stress, Personality, and Illness 608 Anxiety Disorders 646
Quick Quiz 14.2c 609 Varieties of Anxiety Disorders 646
Module Summary 609 Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Specific Phobias 647
The Vicious Cycle of Anxiety Disorders 650
Module 14.3 :: Coping and Well-Being 610
Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder (OCD) 650
Coping 611
Quick Quiz 15.3a 652
Positive Coping Strategies 611
Mood Disorders 652
Optimism and Pessimism 612
Major Depression and Bipolar Disorder 653
Personality and Coping 613
Cognitive and Neurological Aspects of Depression 653
Resilience 613
Sociocultural Influences on Mood Disorders 655
Meditation, Relaxation, and Biofeedback 614
Suicide 655
Psych @ Church 616
Psych @ The Suicide Helpline 656
Exercise 617
Quick Quiz 15.3b 656
Quick Quiz 14.3a 617
Module Summary 657

Contents :: xvii
Module 15.4 :: Schizophrenia 658 Modern Psychodynamic Therapies 683
Symptoms and Types of Schizophrenia 659 Humanistic-Existential Psychotherapy 683
Myths in Mind: Schizophrenia Is Not a Sign Evaluating Insight Therapies 684
of Violence or Genius 661 Quick Quiz 16.2a 685
Quick Quiz 15.4a 662 Behavioural, Cognitive, and Group Therapies 686
Explaining Schizophrenia 662 Systematic Desensitization 686
Genetics 662 Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Virtual Reality Therapies 687
Schizophrenia and the Nervous System 663 Aversive Conditioning 688
Environmental and Cultural Influences on Schizophrenia 664 Cognitive-Behavioural Therapies 688
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy 689
Neurodevelopmental Hypothesis 665
Group and Family Therapies 691
Quick Quiz 15.4b 666
Evaluating Cognitive-Behavioural Therapies 691
Module Summary 667
Quick Quiz 16.2b 692
Work the Scientific Literacy Model 668
Module Summary 693

Module 16.3 :: Biomedical Therapies 694

16 THERAPIES 669
Drug Treatments 695
Antidepressants and Mood Stabilizers 696
Module 16.1 :: Treating
Psychological Disorders 670 Myths in Mind: Antidepressant Drugs Are Happiness Pills 697
Barriers to Psychological Treatment 671 Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Is St. John’s Wort Effective? 697
Stigma About Mental Illness 672 Antianxiety Drugs 698
Gender Roles 672 Antipsychotic Drugs 698
Logistical Barriers: Expense and Availability 672 Evaluating Drug Therapies 699
Involuntary Treatment 673 Quick Quiz 16.3a 700
Quick Quiz 16.1a 673 Biopsychosocial Perspectives: Exercise and Depression 700
Mental Health Providers and Settings 673 Technological and Surgical Methods 701
Mental Health Providers 674 Focal Lesions 702
Inpatient Treatment and Deinstitutionalization 674 Electroconvulsive Therapy 702
Outpatient Treatment and Prevention 675 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 703
Psych @ The University Mental Health Deep Brain Stimulation 703
Counselling Centre 676 When Are Technological and Surgical Methods Used? 703
Quick Quiz 16.1b 676 Quick Quiz 16.3b 704
Evaluating Treatments 676 Module Summary 705
Empirically Supported Treatments 676 Work the Scientific Literacy Model 706
Working the Scientific Literacy Model:
Can Self-Help Treatments Be Effective? 677
Answer Key ANS-1
Quick Quiz 16.1c 679
Glossary G-1
Module Summary 680
References R-1

Module 16.2 :: Psychological Therapies 681 Credits C-1

Insight Therapies 682 Name Index NI-1

Psychoanalysis: Exploring the Unconscious 682 Subject Index SI-1

xviii : : Contents
 From the Authors
A well-rounded university education requires a healthy dose of science. This means not just a memorized
list of scientific terms and famous names, but rather the abilities and disposition that allow students to
encounter, understand, and evaluate scientific as well as nonscientific claims. This is true regardless of an
individual’s personal and career goals. As this text and MyPsychLab program emphasize, the science of psy-
chology reaches across disciplinary boundaries and addresses numerous complex issues affecting individuals
and society.To effectively use what they learn about psychology, students need to carry with them a scientific
perspective. An Introduction to Psychological Science is written from the perspective of scientific literacy—the
ability not only to define scientific terminology, but also to understand how it functions, to critically evaluate
it, and to apply it to personal and societal matters.
Psychological science is in a privileged position to help students hone their scientific literacy. It is both a
rigorous scientific discipline and a field that studies the most complex of all phenomena: the behavioural,
cognitive, and biological basis of behaviour. With this focus on behaviour, one can rightly argue that psychol-
ogy resides at the hub or core of numerous other scientific disciplines; it also shares connections with
neuroscience, education, and public health, to name a few linkages. From this perspective, the knowledge
acquired by studying psychological science should transfer and apply to many other fields.This is great news
when you consider that psychology is one of few science courses that many undergraduates will ever take.
To make scientific literacy the core of our text and MyPsychLab, we developed content and features with the
model shown in the graphic as a guide.The competencies that surround the scientific literacy core represent
different knowledge or skill sets we want to work toward during the course. The multidirectional nature of
the arrows connecting the four supporting themes for scientific literacy demonstrates the interrelatedness
of the competencies, which span both core-level skills, such as knowing general information (e.g., terms, con-
cepts), and more advanced skills, such as knowing how to explain phenomena from a scientific perspective,
critical thinking, and application of material.
We used this model in developing all aspects of this program, the topics included in the book, the execution
of the writing, the learning objectives we established, the quizzes, and other features. We believe a scien-
tific literacy perspective and model will prove useful in addressing two course needs we often hear from
instructors—to provide students with a systematic way to categorize the overwhelming amount of infor-
mation they are confronted with, and to cultivate their curiosity and help them understand the relevance,
practicality, and immense appeal of psychological science.
We thank the many instructors and students who have helped us craft
Knowledge Gathering this model and apply it to our discipline, and we look forward to
your feedback. Please feel free to contact us and share your
What do we
know about this? experiences with the Canadian edition of An Introduction to
Psychological Science.

Application Scientific
Explanation Mark Krause
Scientific [email protected]
Why is How can
this Literacy science
relevant? explain it?
Dan Corts
[email protected]
Stephen Smith
[email protected]
Critical Thinking
Dan Dolderman
Can we critically [email protected]
evaluate the evidence?

xix
 Content and Features
Students in the general psychology course are inundated with many disparate
pieces of information at a time when they are still developing the
skills and strategies for organizing and making sense of that
information. How do the scientific literacy model
and supporting features in An Introduction
to Psychological Science address this
issue?
Knowledge Gathering

What do we
know about this?

Introductory psychology courses

cover a vast amount of content
drawn from diverse specialty areas.
The organization of the material is
central to helping students absorb
this content.
Roberto A Sanchez/iStockphoto

Module
M

3.1
3 Genetic and Evolutionary Perspectives
on Behaviour
Learning
Learr KNOW . . . UNDERSTAND . . .
U APPLY . . . ANALYZE . . .
Objectives
Obje
e The key terminology How twin and adoption
H Your knowledge of genes and Claims that scientists have located
After rreading related to genes, studies
st
t reveal relationships behaviour to hypothesize why a specific gene that controls a
this m
module inheritance, and between genes and behaviour
b a trait might be adaptive single trait or behaviour
you sshould evolutionary psychology
o y
ogy Explanations for cognitive gender
differences that are rooted in genetics

Psychologist
Psycho o Martie Haselton has given new wm meaning
eanin to the phrase dress Of course, evolutionary psychologists are quick to point out that females
for success
succ . She is not talking about professional
s on
sional advancement,
nal add however; are not alone in “signalling” their receptiveness for sexual activity. Males
rather,
ratherr she is referring to success in attracting
a ing a mate. Dr. Haselton is
acting provide numerous—if not more obvious—examples. Evolutionary psy-
an evolutionary
evoo psychologist—she studies how hhuman behaviour has
e how
es chologists might point out that body building, flaunting material assets,
evolved
evolvee to solve problems that relate to survival
u viva aand reproductive suc-
urvival and other public displays of strength and status are common male strat-

Modules cess. As
choose

In
A part of her work, she has discovered

I one project, Dr. Haselton and her colleagues

e ed tthat
ere
choose are related to sexual motivation in some
haa the clothes people
s me subtle
su
u

es iinvited
ways.

nvi e female volunteers to

invite
the laboratory to participate in a study about personality,
p rson l sexuality, and health.
personal
egies for attracting mates. Researchers must ask themselves this ques-
tion: Is this behaviour just a coincidence? Or is this how the evolutionary
forces that allowed our species to survive for hundreds of thousands of
years are influencing our behaviour in the modern world? Evolutionary
psychologists like Dr. Haselton are building evidence to argue that how
The young women were not given any specific directio
directions
irect o about what to wear

Chapters are divided into and during their visit to the laboratory they agreed
g ed tto
greed
male and female volunteers viewed the photographs
thought the women in the photos had dressed
o be photographed. Later,
o raph to judge whether they
ographs
d to
o lolook
o k attractive. It turns out
we dress and how we send many other signals can be explained by evolu-
tionary principles, a topic we explore in this module.

Focus Questions

modules to make it easier

that women were rated as having dressed more o e attractively
ore attttracc when they were
in their peak level of fertility of the menstrual
u ccycle
ual yc e (Durante et al., 2008; 1 How is human behaviour influenced by genetic factors?
Haselton et al., 2007). The researchers suggested
s ed
stedd tthat
h t wearing such clothing
2 How has evolution played a role in modern-day human behaviour?
during the fertile phase of the menstrual cyclee wwasas aann attempt to be noticed

for students to organize by a potential mate (although the women in the h sstudy
he tudy might disagree).

content as well as to self-

test and review their learning at regu- Knowledge
lar intervals. It also transforms lengthy
chapters into nice “bite-sized” chunks Module Summary

of information that students can read Module

3.1
Now that you have read this module you should

in a single sitting (e.g., between classes).

For instructors, the modular content
●
KNOW . . .

The key terminology related to genes, inheritance,

and evolutionary psychology:
behavioural genetics (p. 79)
behavioural genomics (p. 78)
chromosomes (p. 76)
genes (p. 76)
genotype (p. 76)
heritability (p. 79)
Roberto A Sanchez/iStockphoto

ANALYZE . . .
What d
makes it easy to customize delivery dizygotic twins (p. 79)
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
intersexual selection (p. 84)
intrasexual selection (p. 83)

know ab
(p. 76) monozygotic twins (p. 79) ● Claims that scientists have located a specific gene n
ne
epigenetics (p. 81) natural selection (p. 82) that controls a single trait or behaviour. As you o
ou

based on their preferred syllabus. evolution (p. 82) phenotype (p. 76)
e
ell
learned in this module, most psychological traits, as well
le
as disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease, involve multiple
genes, some of which may not even yet be discovered. d
UNDERSTAND . . .

Module Summaries
(See the Myths in Mind feature on page 78.)
● Explanations for cognitive sex differences that are
● How twin and adoption studies reveal relationships
between genes and behaviour. Both methods measure rooted in genetics. The Biopsychosocial Perspectives
genetic, environmental, and interactive contributions to feature on page 89 summarized research showing that
behaviour. Twin studies typically compare monozygotic males have an advantage when it comes to a specific
mental rotation task. Given that this is a relatively

Learning Objectives The major terms, concepts, and appli-

twins (genetically identical) and dizygotic twins (full
siblings sharing the prenatal environment) to estimate consistent sex difference, high testosterone levels are
heritability. Adoption studies compare adopted children to associated with better performance on the task, and the
their adoptive and biological parents. These designs allow male advantage has been found cross-culturally, it seems
plausible that this difference has a genetic basis. In future

Learning Objectives organized around an

researchers to determine heritability, a number between
0 and 1 that estimates the degree to which individual
differences in a trait (in a given population) are due to
genetic factors. A heritability of 1.0 would mean that genes
chapters we will return to issues and discussion of sex-
based differences in cognitive abilities (see Module 9.3). cations of the modules are reviewed in
updated Bloom’s taxonomy aim to guide
contribute to 100% of individual differences. Many human
characteristics, including intelligence and personality,
60
Forced
Mutual
Choice Combo the Module Summaries. The summaries
% most distressed by infidelity

have heritability estimates typically ranging between

50 Choice
.40 and .70.

students to higher-level understanding. ●

APPLY . . .

Your knowledge of genes and behaviour to develop

40 also return to and address the original
30

Summaries of the key points related to

hypotheses about why a trait may be adaptive. Try
putting yourself in an evolutionary psychologist’s position
and answer the following two questions (check your
20 Learning Objectives from the beginning
answers on page ANS-1):

these objectives are provided at the end

1. Many evolutionary psychologists claim that men are
more interested in a mate’s physical attractiveness
and youth, whereas women are more interested in
10

0
of the module and include application
Sexual or Emotional Aspects of

questions (with answers in the back of

qualities that contribute to childrearing success, such
emotional without sexual unfaithfulness:
as intelligence and wealth. If this is the case, then who infidelity infidelity or sexual or

of each module. Objectives are listed at do you think would express more jealousy over sexual
infidelity—men or women?
sexual without
emotional
emotional?

the book).
infidelity
2. Researchers (Cramer et al., 2008) asked volunteers to
Format of infidelity
rate how upset they would be by sexual infidelity in

four levels of increasing complexity: know, a mate and then they plotted the results in the graph
shown in Figure 3.11. Do their results confirm your
hypothesis?
{fig. 3.11} Men’s and Women’s Reactions to Infidelity
Men find sexual infidelity more distressing than do women,
regardless of how a question is framed.

understand, apply, and analyze.

xx

Application
 Another major set of forebrain structures
comprises the limbic system, an integrated net-
work involved in emotion and memory (Maclean,
1952; see Figure 3.25). One key structure in the
limbic system
y is the amygdalayg , which facilitates
memory fo ormation for emotio
formation tion
tio
i n events, mediates fear
io
emotional
responses, and appears too plapplay
a a role in recognizing
p
preting
and interpreting emotionion
onal sstimuli, including facial
on
emotional
n In addit
ns.
expressions. tion
io , th
addition, thee amygdala connects
u
uctures
with structures in
n tthe
he nervous
nerr system that are

Key Terms
Key Terms are defined within the narra-
tive, helping students place them in con-
text, and are then listed again within the
Module Summaries. A complete glossary Quick Quiz 3.1a
Heredity and Behaviour
is also included at the end of the text. 1 The chemical units that provide instructions on how

KNOW . . .
specific proteins are to be produced are called ________.
A chromosomes C genomic
B genes D autosomes

2
UNDERSTAND . . .

A person who is homozygous for a trait

A always has two dominant copies of a gene.
B always has two recessive copies of a gene.
C has identical copies of the gene.
D has different copies of the gene.
Quick Quizzes
3 If a researcher wanted to identify how someone’s life
APPLY . . .

experiences could affect the expression of different

Quizzes appear at the conclusion of major genes and thus put that person at risk for developing
depression, she would most likely use which of the
following methods?

sections of the module (typically two to A Behavioural genomics

B A comparison of monozygotic and dizygotic twins

four quizzes per module). These quizzes C

in different parts of the world
An adoption study
D Epigenetics

contain multiple-choice questions that

4 Imagine you hear a report about a heritability study
ANALYZE . . .

enable students to assess their compre- that claims trait X is “50% genetic.” Which of the
following is a more accurate way of stating this?
A Fifty percent of individual differences of trait X

hension and better prepare for exams. B

within a population are due to genetic factors.
Only half of a population has the trait.
C
Like the Learning Objectives, the Quick The trait is homozygous.
D More than 50% of similarities of trait X within a
population are due to genetic factors.

Quizzes assess understanding at the Answers can be found on page ANS-1.

four levels of Bloom’s taxonomy and are

marked accordingly.

Before Drug Agonist Drug Antagonist Drug

Agonist
drug

Active Illustration Neurotransmitter

Antagonist
drug

For key figures and illustrations,

lustrations, anima-
lustrations Normal Receptor site Enhanced Receptor site Blocked Receptor site

tions are provided within the eText to cellular

activity
cellular
activity
cellular
activity

{fig. 3.18} Drug Effects at the Synapses Drugs can act as agonists by facilitating the effects of a neurotransmitter, or as

deliver greater clarity and understand- antagonists by blocking these effects. Click on this figure in your eText to see more details.

HORMONES AND THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Module 11.1). In other words, the brain triggers activity
ing. For example, readers are much more Neurotransmitters are not the body’s only chemical mes-
senger system. Hormones are chemicals secreted by the glands
in the endocrine system which then influences the brain’s
activity via hormones. This cycle continues as our brain

apt to understand the structures of the of the endocrine system. Generally, neurotransmitters work
almost immediately within the microscopic space of the
synapse, whereas hormones are secreted into the blood-
and body attempt to maintain the appropriate energy levels
for dealing with the environment.
The brain area that is cr itical for this brain-

brain when they can click on a diagram stream and travel throughout the body. Thus, the effects of
hormones are much slower than those of neurotransmit-
ters. With help from the nervous system, the endocrine
endocrine relationship is the hypothalamus , a brain
structure that regulates basic biological needs and motivational
systems. The hypothalamus releases specialized chemi-

e Gathering
of it and see a fully rotating illustration. system contributes to homeostasis—the balance of energy, cals called releasing factors that stimulate the pituitary
metabolism, body temperature, and other basic functions gland—the master gland of the endocrine system that produces
that keeps the body working properly (see Figure 3.19; see hormones and sends commands about hormone production to

The Pearson eText for the Canadian edi- Hypothalamus

Pineal
the other glands of the endocrine system. These hormones
can be released by glands throughout the body before
finding their way to the brain via the bloodstream.

tion of An Introduction to Psychological Sci-

Pituitary gland gland
How we respond to stress illustrates nicely how the
nervous and endocrine systems influence each other. In
Thyroid psychological terms, stress is loosely defined as an imbal-

ence is designed with alternative delivery ance between perceived demands and the perceived
resources available to meet those demands. Such an imbal-
Adrenal ance might occur if you suddenly realize your midterm
models in mind. Highly visual, clearly laid glands exam is tomorrow at 8:00 a.m.Your resources—time and
energy—may not be enough to meet the demand of suc-

do we
ceeding on the exam. The hypothalamus, however, sets
out, and with integrated video and media, Ovaries
(female)
Pancreas
chemical events in motion that physically prepare the
body for stress. It signals the pituitary gland to release a

it is optimal for online reading and interac-

hormone into the bloodstream that in turn stimulates the
adrenal glands, a pair of endocrine glands located adjacent
to the kidneys that release stress hormones, such as cortisol and
Testes

tion. Students can access their textbook (male) epinephrine. Cortisol and epinephrine help mobilize the
body during stress, thus providing enough energy for you

out this?
to deal with the sudden increase in activity necessary to
{fig. 3.19} The Endocrine System Glands throughout the
anytime, anywhere, and any way they want, body release and exchange hormones. The hypothalamus
interacts with the endocrine system to regulate hormonal
processes.
respond to the stress-inducing situation (see Module 14.2).
Another important chemical is endorphin, a hor-
mone produced by the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus

including listening online or downloading

it to their iPads.
Watch the Video

MyPsychLab Listen to the Chapter Audio

MyPsychLab icons n in the margin call

ns Explore the Concept
f
out important information d
students can
access online—for example, videos, simu- Simulate the Experiment
lations, and hands-on experiments.
Study and Review

Content and Features :: xxi

Scientific Explanation
 This element of scientific literacy encompasses a
Scientific Explanation basic understanding of research methodology and Knowledge Gathering
thinking about problems within a scientific frame-
How can science work. An Introduction to Psychological Science inte-
explain it? grates and reinforces key research methodology What do we
concepts throughout the book. This interweaving
of methodology encourages students to continue know about this?
practising their scientific thinking skills. Learning
science is more than accumulating facts; students
learn to ask questions, construct explanations, test
those explanations, and communicate their ideas
to others.

Application
Scientific
Module Opening Vignettes
Why is this rele
e
evant
t?
Each module opens with a short vignette
emphasizing the personal and societal rel- Roberto A Sanchez/iStockphoto
Literacy
Module
Mod
d
Genetic and Evolutionary Perspectives
evance of certain topics to be covered. 3.1
3.
.
on Behaviour
The vignette concludes with Focus Ques- Learning
Learnii
Objectii
Objectives
KNOW . . .
The key terminology
UNDERSTAND . . .
How twin and adoption
APPLY . . .
Your knowledge of genes and
ANALYZE . . .
Claims that scientists have located

tions preparing the reader to think about After

Afte reading
Aft
his m
this mo
reaa
mod
youu ssh
you sho
o
d
module
should
related to genes,
inheritance, and
evolutionary psychology
studies reveal relationships
between genes and behaviour
behaviour to hypothesize why
a trait might be adaptive
a specific gene that controls a
single trait or behaviour
Explanations for cognitive gender
differences that are rooted in genetics

the content found within the module. Psychologist Martie Haselton has given new meaning to the phrase dress
for success. She is not talking about professional advancement, however;
Of course, evolutionary psychologists are quick to point out that females
are not alone in “signalling” their receptiveness for sexual activity. Males
rather, she is referring to success in attracting a mate. Dr. Haselton is provide numerous—if not more obvious—examples. Evolutionary psy-
an evolutionary psychologist—she studies how human behaviour has chologists might point out that body building, flaunting material assets,
evolved to solve problems that relate to survival and reproductive suc- and other public displays of strength and status are common male strat-
cess. As part of her work, she has discovered that the clothes people egies for attracting mates. Researchers must ask themselves this ques-
choose are related to sexual motivation in some subtle ways. tion: Is this behaviour just a coincidence? Or is this how the evolutionary
forces that allowed our species to survive for hundreds of thousands of
In one project, Dr. Haselton and her colleagues invited female volunteers to
years are influencing our behaviour in the modern world? Evolutionary
the laboratory to participate in a study about personality, sexuality, and health.
psychologists like Dr. Haselton are building evidence to argue that how
The young women were not given any specific directions about what to wear
we dress and how we send many other signals can be explained by evolu-
and during their visit to the laboratory they agreed to be photographed. Later,
tionary principles, a topic we explore in this module.
male and female volunteers viewed the photographs to judge whether they
thought the women in the photos had dressed to look attractive. It turns out
Focus Questions
that women were rated as having dressed more attractively when they were
in their peak level of fertility of the menstrual cycle (Durante et al., 2008;
Haselton et al., 2007). The researchers suggested that wearing such clothing
1 How is human behaviour influenced by genetic factors? BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL
PERSPECTIVES
2 How has evolution played a role in modern-day human behaviour?
during the fertile phase of the menstrual cycle was an attempt to be noticed
by a potential mate (although the women in the study might disagree).

Hunters and Gatherers: Men, Women,

and Spatial Memory
Evo
Evolutionary
o psychologists claim that the brain consists of a set
of cognitive
c adaptations for solving problems related to survival
andd reproductive fitness. They also hypothesize that male and
female
m brains will differ in some ways because males and females
fem
havee had to solve a different set of problems in order to sur-
hav

Biopsychosocial Perspectives vivee and reproduce. Specifically, due to their size and strength,
males
mal l were traditionally responsible for tracking and killing
animals. These responsibilities would require males to travel
To emphasize the complexity of scien- over long distances without becoming lost. Females, due to the
fact that they cared for children, remained closer to home and
tific explanations, students are reminded
throughout each chapter that behaviour
includes biology, individual thoughts and
Critical Thinking
instead spent time foraging for berries and edible plants. Males’
responsibilities would favour individuals with good spatial skills;
females’ responsibilities would favour memory for the location
of objects (e.g., plants). The question, then, is whether the abili-
ties that were adaptive for males and females over the course of
experiences, and the influence of social our species’ evolution are still present today. Put another way,
and cultural factors. will modern males and females show performance differences
on different tests of spatial abilities that are consistent with their

Can we critically
y historic roles as hunter (males) and gatherer (females)?
One sex difference that has been reported involves solv-
ing the mental rotation task seen in Figure 3.9.
Instructions

evaluate
e the evide
evidence?
c 1. Take a close look at standard object #1 in Figure 3.9. One
of the three objects to the right of it is the same.Which one
matches the standard? Repeat this with standard object #2
and the three comparison shapes to the right of it.
2. Many researchers find that, on average, males and females
differ in their ability to perform this task. Do you think that

xxii :: Content and Features

 Myths in Mind
Many commonly hheld eld beliefs people have MYTHS IN MIND
efore
f
about behaviour before t ki a psychol-
taking psychol
h l We Are Born with All the Brain Cells
ogy course are half-truths or outright We Will Ever Have
falsehoods. This feature sets the record For decades, neuroscience taught us that nerves do not
regenerate; in other words, scientists believed that we are
straight in a concise and informative way.
born with all of the brain cells we will ever have. This con-
The selected examples are likely to have clusion made perfect sense because no one had ever seen
personal relevance to many readers and new neurons form in adults, and severe neurological damage
deal with important scientific issues. is often permanent.

MyPsychLab Simulations
MyPsychLab Simulations allow w students
to participate in experiments online to
reinforce what they are learning in class
and in their book. More than 50 experi-
ments, surveys, and inventories are avail-
able through this online tool (available at
MyPsychLab).
Scientific Explanatio

How can science

explain
In recent it? number of instruc-
years, an increasing
tors have begun to focus on telling students
how psychological science fits within the scien-
tific community. Psychology serves, in essence, as
a hub science. Through this emphasis on scien-
tific literacy in psychology, students begin to see
the practicality and relevance of psychology and
become more literate in the fields that our hub
science supports.

Content and Features :: xxiii

 Many departments are focusing to an increasing extent
Critical Thinking on the development of critical thinking, as these skills
Application
A are highly sought after in society and the workforce.
Can we critically Critical thinking is generally defined as the ability to
apply knowledge, use information in new ways, ana-
Scien
evaluate the evidence?
Why
Why is this relevant? lyze situations and concepts, and evaluate decisions.
To develop critical thinking, the module objectives
Liter
and quizzes are built around an updated Bloom’s tax-
onomy. Objectives are listed at four levels of increas-
ing complexity: know, understand, apply, and analyze.
The following features also help students organize,
analyze, and synthesize information. Collectively, these
features encourage students to connect different lev-
Working
Worr the Scientific Literacy els of understanding with specific objectives and quiz
Model
Mod questions.
Workii the Scientific Literacy Model, intro-
Working
duced d in Chapter 1, and then featured in
each module in the remaining chapters,
fully integrates the model of scientific
literacc Core concepts are highlighted
literacy.
and students
s are walked through the Work the Scientific Literacy Model
Critical T
steps of knowledge gathering, approach-
ing the
thh problem from a scientific stand- At the end of every chapter, students have ann opportunity ni
point,, using critical thinking, and revealing e
emselves.
to “Work the Scientific Literacy Model” themselves. Th
The
applicc
applications. Work the Model feature walks students througho
ough
from the chapter, providing study tips and reminders
r
content e
fo
for
Caan we c
a
WORKING THE SCIENTIFIC
the body. The fact that a neural area known to be associated
i
ically
key content areas. Students are asked to critically evaluate a
ev
valua
a
ate the
with pain perception also contains receptors for Substance P
LITERACY MODEL suggests that this neurotransmitter is likely involved with

Pain and Substance P

pain responses.
However, this is not the only part of the brain containing
Substance P receptors. They are also found in the amygdala
what they have learned by accessing a video e clip, either
eo h
through MyPsychLab, the Layar app, the QR R code on the th
Pain is not a simple process. Instead, there are a number of (which responds to fear and arousal) and the hypothalamus
different neural systems and neurotransmitters involved with (which is related to fight-or-flight responses and the release
our responses to painful stimuli (see Module 4.4). In fact, sero- of different hormones). Why would this be the case? One
tonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine have all been implicated possibility is that pain is not simply a physical sensation.
in some part of the pain response. One neurotransmitter that
hasn’t been discussed yet, however, is known as Substance P,
a neurotransmitter involved in the experience of pain.
A large body of research now suggests that when we feel
pain, it is a combination of both sensation and an emotional
response. Sometimes the tears that fall after we stub our
page, or YouTube. They are then provided with th a question on
toe are due not only to being hurt, but to being frustrated
What do we know
about Substance P?
(among many other emotions).

Can we critically evaluate

prompting them to apply relevant content to o the scenario
Substance P was first discovered
in 1931 when a paste made from
the brain and intestine of a horse
was found to cause muscles to
this research?
Evidence in favour of the role of
Substance P in pain perception
depicted in the video. These questions
contract (Von Euler & Gaddum,
1931); that was one heck of a party. It was named Substance P
because the paste became powdery (Gaddum & Schild, 1934).
comes from a group of patients
with a rare condition called congeni-
tal insensitivity to pain. These indi-
can be assigned as either a classroom Work the Scientific Literacyy Model :: Understandingg Brain Functions
Twenty years later, Austrian physiologist Fred Lembeck deter- viduals lack the ability to perceive pain, and even in early
mined that this substance was associated with the transmis-
sion of pain (Harrison & Geppetti, 2001; Lembeck, 1953).
Lembeck and others noted that Substance P was found in
childhood acquire significant damage to the skin, joints,
eyes, and other body regions. Because they lack a pain
response, these individuals do not take action to prevent
discussion or a writing assignment. 1 2
What do we know about structures of the brain? How can science help explain brain
the dorsal root of the spinal cord, an area that transmits pain See Table 3.2 for a list of the major brain regions, structures, and their structure and function?
physical damage to the body. Research in the U.K. (ironi-
information back to the brain (Otsuka et al., 1972), as well as cally conducted by someone named Dr. Misery) found that functions. As you review this material, try to come up with strategies to dis- As discussed on page 121, in the very early days of brain
in several different brain areas related to the pain response some individuals with this disorder lack Substance P recep- tinguish these terms. For example, two brain structures commonly confused research, scientists had to rely almost exclusively on case stud-
(Mantyh, 2002). So, when tissue on the skin surface is dam- tors in the peripheral nerves (Misery et al., 1999). Studies with each other are the hypothalamus and the hippocampus. Although the ies to gather data. There was no way to image the brain of a
aged, sensory nerves carry messages to the spinal cord and such as this provide strong evidence for this neurotrans- hypothalamus and the hippocampus are both part of the limbic system, they living, breathing patient or research participant. Today, through
then up to the brain. In turn, these CNS structures release mitter’s role in pain perception. have very different functions. The hypothalamus serves as a sort of thermostat, neuroimaging technology, researchers are able to take detailed
Substance P, giving rise to the perception of pain. maintaining the appropriate body temperature, and it can affect drives such as pictures of the brain and can examine the actual activity of
More contentious is the issue of pain and emotion. There aggression and sex. The hippocampus is critical for learning and memory, par- major structures such as the hypothalamus and the hippocam-
is a great deal of evidence linking emotion and pain. For ticularly the formation of new memories. Can you think of a memory device pus while that activity is occurring. Researchers have developed
How can science instance, social “pain” resulting from being rejected acti- that might help you keep these two brain structures separate? One suggestion: a variety of methods for studying the brain, each of which
explain what vates similar brain areas as physical pain (Eisenberger, 2012; For the hippocampus, think of the last part of the word—“campus.” To suc- offers some advantage over the others. See pages 121–125
Substance P does? Eisenberger et al., 2003). There is also evidence that patients cessfully navigate your university’s campus, you need to keep in mind where for detailed descriptions of methods for measuring and
with chronic pain conditions are also more likely to suffer certain buildings are located. This area is exactly the type of task that involves a observing brain activity: electroencephalogram (EEG), positron
From an evolutionar y from depression (Dunne & Dunne, 2012). Interestingly, some functioning hippocampus. As you study, try to come up with your own memory emission tomography (PET) scans, magnetic resonance imaging
standpoint, it makes sense investigators have found that drugs that influence the levels devices to help recall the different brain structures (MRI), functional MRI (fMRI), magnetoencepha-
to have pathways specialized for the perception of pain. Pain of Substance P in the brain have antidepressant properties and their functions. lography (MEG), brain lesioning, and transcranial
is an important messenger telling you to stop doing some- (Adell, 2004). However, these researchers are quick to note magnetic stimulation (TMS).
thing that is harming your body. Compelling evidence for the that such drugs could also potentially influence other neu-
role of Substance P comes from an examination of the brain rotransmitter systems. Therefore, more research is needed
areas containing Substance P receptors. These receptors to clarify this issue.
are densely packed in a structure in the middle of the brain
called the periaqueductal grey (Yip & Chahl, 2001). This brain
region receives pain- and temperature-related input from
Why is this relevant?
the spinal cord and sends it to different areas of the cerebral
cortex, the wrinkled outer surface of the brain involved with Millions of people suffer from
many sophisticated processes. It also receives input from the chronic pain. In addition to
4 Why is this relevant?
Sebastian Kaulitzki/Shutterstock

3
cortex and transmits it through the spinal cord to the rest of compromising the well-being Watch the accompanying video excerpt Can we critically evaluate
on brain functions. You can access the video at MyPsychLab
claims about brain function?
or by clicking the play button in the centre of your eText. If your
instructor assigns this video as a homework activity, you will find Modern methods have helped us understand a great deal about brain
additional content to help you in MyPsychLab. You can also view structures and functions, but many misunderstandings persist. In
the video by using your smart phone and the QR code below, or Myths in Mind on page 95, we addressed the question of whether
you can go to the YouTube link provided. humans are born with all of the nerve cells we will ever have. In the past
15 years or so, advances in brain science have challenged this traditionally
After you have read this chapter and watched the video, imag-
held belief. Researchers have observed neurogenesis in a limited number
ine that your best friends invite you over for pizza and a friendly
of brain regions, particularly in the hippocampus. Some areas within the
game of cards. Describe how the following parts of the brain are
hippocampus have the capacity to generate new cells long after birth.
involved during your evening of eating pizza, socializing, and playing
cards: Broca’s area, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and occipital lobe. Also, in our discussion of hemispheric specialization on page 115, we
discussed how the degree to which people are “right-brained” or “left-
brained” is often exaggerated in the popular media. Creative artists are
often described as “right-brained,” whereas logical and analytical types
are supposedly “left-brained.” In reality, most cognitive functions are
spread throughout multiple brain regions.
It is easy to get caught up in thinking about these kinds of generalities
as absolutes. Whenever you encounter “scientific claims” in the popu-
lar media, it is important to properly evaluate the information before
embracing it as truth.

INTERACTIVE PRINT Download the free Scan pages featuring Discover MyPsychLab Your turn to Work the Scientific Literacy Model: Watch the
accompanying video on YouTube, or on your phone (using the Layar

Layar App the Layar logo interactive content app or QR code). If your instructor has assigned this as a homework activity, you can find the
video clip and additional content at MyPsychLab. Answer the questions that accompany the
video clip to test your understanding.
youtube.com/workthemodel
SCAN WITH LAYAR

xxiv :: Content and Features

Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Subtropical
Garden; or, beauty of form in the flower garden.
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
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you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The Subtropical Garden; or, beauty of form in the flower

garden.

Author: W. Robinson

Release date: October 17, 2015 [eBook #50243]

Most recently updated: October 22, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Shaun Pinder, Chuck Greif and the Online

Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE

SUBTROPICAL GARDEN; OR, BEAUTY OF FORM IN THE FLOWER
GARDEN. ***
 Contents.
List of Illustrations
(In certain versions of this etext [in
certain browsers] clicking on this
symbol , or directly on the image,
will bring up a larger version of the
illustration.)
(etext transcriber's note)
THE SUBTROPICAL GARDEN.

Works by the same Author.

/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\

ALPINE FLOWERS FOR ENGLISH GARDENS. With 70

Illustrations.
THE WILD GARDEN, or our Groves and Shrubberies made
beautiful by the naturalisation of hardy exotic plants. With
Frontispiece.
MUSHROOM CULTURE: its Extension and Improvement.
With Illustrations.
Nearly Ready.
HARDY FLOWERS; or, HERBACEOUS, BULBOUS, AND
ALPINE PLANTS. This will be the most comprehensive and
practically instructive book ever published on these plants. With
Frontispiece.
A CATALOGUE OF CULTIVATED HARDY PERENNIALS,
BULBS, ANNUALS, etc., including also all British Plants.
Prepared for the purpose of facilitating exchanges, &c., and
enumerating nearly 10,000 hardy exotic and British plants.
 Frontispiece.

THE

SUBTROPICAL GARDEN;

OR,
 BEAUTY OF FORM IN THE
FLOWER GARDEN.

BY W. ROBINSON, F.L.S.,
AUTHOR OF ‘ALPINE FLOWERS,’ ‘THE WILD GARDEN,’ ‘HARDY FLOWERS,’ ETC.

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1871.

The right of Translation is reserved.

LONDON:
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET
AND CHARING CROSS.
 PREFACE.

THIS book is written with a view to assist the newly-awakened taste for
something more than mere colour in the flower-garden, by enumerating,
describing, indicating the best positions for, and giving the culture of, all our
materials for what is called “subtropical gardening.” This not very happy,
not very descriptive name, is adopted from its popularity only; fortunately
for our gardens numbers of subjects not from subtropical climes may be
employed with great advantage. Subtropical gardening means the culture of
plants with large and graceful or remarkable foliage or habit, and the
association of them with the usually low-growing and brilliant flowering-
plants now so common in our gardens, and which frequently eradicate every
trace of beauty of form therein, making the flower-garden a thing of large
masses of colour only.
The guiding aim in this book has been the selection of really suitable
subjects, and the rejection of many that have been recommended and tried
for this purpose. This point is more important than at first sight would
appear, for in most of the literature hitherto devoted to the subject plants
entirely unsuitable are named. Thus we find such things as Alnus glandulosa
aurea and Ulmus campestris aurea (a form of the common elm) enumerated
among subtropical plants by one author. Manifestly if these are admissible
almost every species of plant is equally so. These belong to a class of
variegated hardy subjects that have been in our gardens for ages, and have
nothing whatever to do with subtropical gardening. Two other classes have
also purposely been omitted: very tender stove-plants, many of which have
been tried in vain in the Paris and London Parks, and such things as
Echeveria secunda, which though belonging to a type frequently enumerated
among subtropical plants, are, more properly, subjects of the bedding class.
But if I have excluded many that I know to be unsuitable, every type of the
vegetation of northern and temperate countries has been searched for
valuable kinds; and as no tropical or subtropical subject that is really
effective has been omitted, the result is the most complete selection that is
possible from the plants now in cultivation.
 No pains have been spared to show by the aid of illustrations the beauty
of form displayed by the various types of plants herein enumerated. For
some of the illustrations I have to thank MM. Vilmorin and Andrieux, the
well-known Parisian firm; for others, the proprietors of the ‘Field;’ while the
rest are from the graceful pencil of Mr. Alfred Dawson, and engraved by Mr.
Whymper and Mr. W. Hooper. I felt that engravings would be of more than
their usual value in this book, inasmuch as they place the best attainable
result before the reader’s eye, thus enabling him to arrange his materials
more efficiently. A small portion of the matter of this book originally
appeared in my book on the gardens of Paris, in which it will not again be
printed. For the extensive list of the varieties of Canna I am indebted to M.
Chatè’s “Le Canna.” Most of the subjects have been described from
personal knowledge of them, both in London and Paris gardens.
W. R.
April 3, 1871.
 CONTENTS.

PART I.

PAGE
INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 1

PART II.

DESCRIPTION, ARRANGEMENT, CULTURE, ETC., OF SUITABLE

SPECIES, HARDY AND TENDER, ALPHABETICALLY
ARRANGED 43

PART III.

SELECTIONS OF PLANTS FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES 221

 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Separate plates to face the pages given.

PAGE
Frontispiece—Hardy and tender Plants in the Subtropical Garden.
Cannas in a London park 13
Anemone japonica alba 17
Group and single specimens of plants isolated on the grass 23
Portion of plan showing Yuccas, etc. 25
Formal arrangements in London parks 26
Tree Ferns and other Stove Plants 28
Ailantus and Cannas 30
Young Conifers, etc. 32
Gourds 34
Section of raised bed at Battersea 40
Acanthus latifolius 47
Aralia canescens 58
Aralia japonica 60
Aralia papyrifera 61
Asplenium Nidus-avis 70
Bambusa aurea 72
Bambusa falcata 74
Berberis nepalensis 79
Blechnum brasiliense 80
Bocconia cordata 81
Buphthalmum speciosum 83
Caladium esculentum 84
Colocasia odorata 85
Canna 86
Carlina acaulis 110
Caryota sobolifera 111
Centaurea babylonica 112
Chamædorea 114
Chamærops excelsa 116
Cycas 120
Tree Fern 123
Dimorphanthus mandschuricus 124
Erianthus Ravennæ 132
Ferula communis 136
Ficus elastica 139
Gynerium argenteum 142
Gunnera scabra 144
Heracleum 147
Malva crispa 153
Melianthus major 155
Monstera deliciosa 156
Montagnæa heracleifolia 157
Morina longifolia 158
Mulgedium alpinum 159
Musa Ensete 160
Nicotiana Tabacum 163
Onopordum Acanthium 164
Poa fertilis 174
Rheum Emodi 178
Rhus glabra laciniata 180
Seaforthia elegans 185
Solanum robustum 190
Solanum Warscewiczii 195
Uhdea bipinnatifida 205
Wigandia macrophylla 208
Yucca filamentosa 212
Yucca pendula 214
Yucca filamentosa variegata 217
 PART I.

INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL

CONSIDERATIONS.
SUBTROPICAL GARDENING.

INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL

CONSIDERATIONS.
The system of garden-decoration popularly known as “Subtropical,” and
which simply means the use in gardens of plants having large and handsome
leaves, noble habit, or graceful port, has taught us the value of grace and
verdure amid masses of low, brilliant, and unrelieved flowers, and has
reminded us how far we have diverged from Nature’s ways of displaying the
beauty of vegetation, our love for rude colour having led us to ignore the
exquisite and inexhaustible way in which plants are naturally arranged. In a
wild state brilliant blossoms are usually relieved by a setting of abundant
green; and even where mountain and meadow plants of one kind produce a
wide blaze of colour at one season, there is intermingled a spray of pointed
grass and other leaves, which tone down the mass and quite separate it from
anything shown by what is called the “bedding system” in gardens. When
we come to examine the most charming examples of our own indigenous or
any other wild vegetation, we find that their attraction mainly depends on
flower and fern, trailer, shrub, and tree, sheltering, supporting, relieving and
beautifying each other, so that the whole array has an indefinite tone, and
the mind is satisfied with the refreshing mystery of the arrangement.
We may be pleased by the wide spread of purple on a heath or mountain,
but when we go near and examine it in detail, we find that its most exquisite
aspect is seen in places where the long moss cushions itself beside the ling,
and the fronds of the Polypody peer forth around little masses of heather.
Everywhere we see Nature judicious in the arrangement of her highest
effects, setting them in clouds of verdant leafage, so that monotony is rarely
produced—a state of things which it is highly desirable to attain as far as
possible in the garden.
We cannot attempt to reproduce this literally—nor would it be wise or
convenient to do so—but assuredly herein will be found the chief source of
true beauty and interest in our gardens as well as in those of Nature; and the
more we keep this fact before our eyes, the nearer will be our approach to
truth and success.
Nature in puris naturalibus we cannot have in our gardens, but Nature’s
laws should not be violated; and few human beings have contravened them
more than our flower-gardeners during the past twenty years. We should
compose from Nature, as landscape artists do. We may have in our gardens
—and without making wildernesses of them either—all the shade, the relief,
the grace, the beauty, and nearly all the irregularity of Nature.
Subtropical gardening has shown us that one of the greatest mistakes
ever made in the flower-garden was the adoption of a few varieties of plants
for culture on a vast scale, to the exclusion of interest and variety, and, too
often, of beauty or taste. We have seen how well the pointed, tapering leaves
of the Cannas carry the eye upwards; how refreshing it is to cool the eyes in
the deep green of those thoroughly tropical Castor-oil plants, with their
gigantic leaves; how grand the Wigandia, with its wrought-iron texture and
massive outline, looks, after we have surveyed brilliant hues and richly-
painted leaves; how greatly the sweeping palm-leaves beautify the British
flower-garden; and, in a word, the system has shown us the difference
between the gardening that interests and delights all beholders, as well as
the mere horticulturist, and that which is too often offensive to the eye of
taste, and pernicious to every true interest of what Bacon calls the “purest of
humane pleasures.”
But are we to adopt this system in its purity? as shown, for example, by
Mr. Gibson when superintendent of Battersea Park. Certainly not. It is
evident, that to accommodate it to private gardens an expense and a
revolution of appliances would be necessary, which are in nearly all cases
quite impossible, and if possible, hardly desirable. We can, however,
introduce into our gardens most of its better features; we can vary their
contents, and render them more interesting by a better and nobler system.
The use of all plants without any particular and striking habit, or foliage, or
other desirable peculiarity, merely because they are natives of very hot
countries, should be tabooed at once, as tending to make much work, and to
return—a lot of weeds; for “weediness” is all that I can ascribe to many
Solanums and stove plants, of no real merit, which have been employed
under this name. Selection of the most beautiful and useful from the great
mass of plants known to science is one of the most important of the
horticulturist’s duties, and in no branch must he exercise it more thoroughly
than in this. Some of the plants used are indispensable—the different kinds
of Ricinus, Cannas in great variety, Polymnia, Colocasia, Uhdea, Wigandia,
Ferdinanda, Palms, Yuccas, Dracænas, and fine-leaved plants of coriaceous
texture generally. A few specimens of these may be accommodated in many
gardens; they will embellish the houses in winter, and, transferred to the
open garden in summer, will lend interest to it when we are tired of the
houses. Some Palms, like Seaforthia, may be used with the best effect for
the winter decoration of the conservatory, and be placed out with a good
result, and without danger, in summer. Many fine kinds of Dracænas,
Yuccas, Agaves, etc., which have been seen to some perfection at our shows
of late, are eminently adapted for standing out in summer, and are in fact
benefited by it. Among the noblest ornaments of a good conservatory are the
Norfolk Island and other tender Araucarias; and these may be placed out for
the summer, much to their advantage, because the rains will thoroughly
clean and freshen them for winter storing. So with some Cycads and other
plants of distinct habit—the very things best fitted to add to the attractions
of the flower-garden. Thus we may, in all but the smallest gardens, enjoy all
the benefits of what is called Subtropical Gardening, without creating any
special arrangements for it.
But what of those who have no conservatory, no hothouses, no means for
preserving large tender plants in winter? They too may enjoy the beauty
which plants of fine form afford. A better effect than any yet seen in an
English garden from tender plants may be obtained by planting hardy ones
only! There is the Pampas grass, which when well grown is unsurpassed by
anything that requires protection. There are the Yuccas, noble and graceful
in outline, and thoroughly hardy, and which, if planted well, are not to be
surpassed, if equalled, by anything of like habit we can preserve indoors.
There are the Arundos, conspicua and Donax, things that well repay for
liberal planting; and there are fine hardy herbaceous plants like Crambe
cordifolia, Rheum Emodi, Ferulas, and various graceful umbelliferous
plants that will furnish effects equal to any we can produce by using the
tenderest exotics. The Acanthuses too, when well grown, are very suitable
for this use. Then we have a hardy Palm, that has preserved its health and
greenness in sheltered positions, where its leaves could not be torn to shreds
by storms, through all our recent hard winters.
And when we have obtained these, and many like subjects, we may
associate them with not a few things of much beauty among trees and shrubs
—with elegant tapering young pines, many of which, like Cupressus
nutkaensis and the true Thuja gigantea, have branchlets as graceful as a
Selaginella; not of necessity bringing the larger things into close or awkward
association with the humbler and dwarfer subjects, but sufficiently so to
carry the eye from the minute and pretty to the higher and more dignified
forms of vegetation. By a judicious selection from the vast number of hardy
plants now obtainable in this country, and by associating with them, where it
is convenient, house plants that may be placed out for the summer, we may
arrange and enjoy charms in the flower-garden to which we are as yet
strangers, simply because we have not sufficiently selected from and utilized
the vast amount of vegetable beauty at our disposal.
In dealing with the tenderer subjects, we must choose such as will make a
healthy growth in sheltered places in the warmer parts of England and
Ireland at all events. There is some reason to believe that not a few of the
best will be found to flourish much further north than is generally supposed.
In all parts the kinds with permanent foliage, such as the New Zealand flax
and the hardier Dracænas, will be found as effective as around London and
Paris; and to such the northern gardener should turn his attention as much as
possible. Even if it were possible to cultivate the softer-growing kinds, like
the Ferdinandas, to the same perfection in all parts as in the south of
England, it would by no means be everywhere desirable, and especially
where expense is a consideration, as these kinds are not capable of being
used indoors in winter. The many fine permanent-leaved subjects that stand
out in summer without the least injury, and may be transferred to the
conservatory in autumn, there to produce as fine an effect all through the
cold months as they do in the flower-garden in summer, are the best for
those with limited means.
But of infinitely greater importance are the hardy plants; for however few
can indulge in the luxury of rich displays of tender plants, or however rare
the spots in which they may be ventured out with confidence, all may enjoy
those that are hardy, and that too with infinitely less trouble than is required
by the tender ones. Those noble masses of fine foliage displayed to us by
tender plants have done much towards correcting a false taste. What I wish
to impress upon the reader is, that in whatever part of these islands he may
live, he need not despair of producing sufficient similar effect to vary his
flower-garden or pleasure-ground beautifully by the use of hardy plants
alone; and that the noble lines of a well-grown Yucca recurva, or the finely
chiselled yet fern-like spray of a graceful young conifer, will aid him as
much in this direction as anything that requires either tropical or subtropical
temperature.
Since writing the preceding remarks I have visited America, and when on
my way home landed at Queenstown with a view of seeing a few places in
the south of Ireland, and among others Fota Island, the residence of Mr.
Smith Barry, where I found a capital illustration of what may be easily
effected with hardy plants alone. Here an island is planted with a hardy
bamboo (Bambusa falcata), which thrives so freely as to form great tufts
from 16 ft. to 20 ft. high. The result is that the scene reminds one of a bit of
the vegetation of the uplands of Java, or that of the bamboo country in
China. The thermometer fell last December (1870) seventeen degrees below
freezing point, so that they suffered somewhat, but their general effect was
not much marred. Accompanying these, and also on the margins of the
water, were huge masses of Pampas grass yet in their beauty of bloom, and
many great tufts of the tropical-looking New Zealand flax, with here and
there a group of Yuccas. The vegetation of the islands and of the margins of
the water was composed almost solely of these, and the effect quite unlike
anything usually seen in the open air in this country. Nothing in such
arrangements as those at Battersea Park equals it, because all the subjects
were quite hardy, and as much at home as if in their native wilds.
Remember, in addition, that no trouble was required after they were planted,
and that the beauty of the scene was very striking a few days before
Christmas, long after the ornaments of the ordinary flower-garden had
perished. The whole neighbourhood of the island was quite tropical in
aspect; and, as behind the silvery plumes of the Pampas grass and the
slender wands of the bamboo the exquisitely graceful heads of the Monterey
and other cypresses and various pines towered high in the air, it was one of
the most charming scenes I have yet enjoyed in the pleasure-grounds of the
British Isles. And this, which was simply the result of judiciously planting
three or four kinds of hardy plants, will serve to suggest how many other
beautiful aspects of vegetation we may create by utilising the rich stores
within our reach.

Clumsy mass of Cannas in a London park.

We will next speak of arrangement and sundry other matters of some

importance in connection with this subject. The radical fault of the
“Subtropical Garden,” as hitherto seen, is its lumpish monotony and the
almost total neglect of graceful combinations. It is fully shown in the
London parks every year, so that many people will have seen it for
themselves. The subjects are not used to contrast with or relieve others of
less attractive port and brilliant colour, but are generally set down in large
masses. Here you meet a troop of Cannas, numbering 500, in one long
formal bed—next you arrive at a circle of Aralias, or an oval of Ficus, in
which a couple of hundred plants are so densely packed that their tops form
a dead level. Isolated from everything else as a rule these masses fail to
throw any natural grace into the garden, but, on the other hand, go a long
way towards spoiling the character of the subjects of which they are
composed. For it is manifest that you get a far superior effect from a group
of such a plant as the Gunnera, the Polymnia, or the Castor-oil plant,
properly associated with other subjects of entirely diverse character, than
you can when the lines or masses of such as these become so large and so
estranged from their surroundings that there is no relieving point within
reach of the eye. A single specimen or small group of a fine Canna forms
one of the most graceful objects the eye can see. Plant a rood of it, and it
soon becomes as attractive as so much maize or wheat. No doubt an
occasional mass of Cannas, etc., might prove effective—in a distant
prospect especially—but the thing is repeated ad nauseam.
The fact is, we do not want purely “Subtropical gardens,” or “Leaf
gardens,” or “Colour gardens,” but such gardens as, by happy combinations
of the materials at our disposal, shall go far to satisfy those in whom true
taste has been awakened—and, indeed, all classes. For it is quite a mistake
to assume that because people, ignorant of the inexhaustible stores of the
vegetable kingdom, admire the showy glares of colour now so often seen in
our gardens, they are incapable of enjoying scenes displaying some traces of
natural beauty and variety.
The fine-leaved plants have not yet been associated immediately with the
flowers; hence the chief fault. Till they are so treated we can hardly see the
great use of such in ornamental gardening. Why not take some of the
handsomest plants of the medium-sized kinds, place them in the centre of a
bed, and then surround them with the gaily-flowering subjects? The Castor-
oil plants would not do so well for this, because they are rampant growers in
fair seasons, but the Yuccas, Cannas, Wigandias, and small neat Palms and
Cycads would suit exactly. Avoid huge, unmeaning masses, and associate
more intimately the fine-leaved plants with the brilliant flowers. A quiet
mass of green might be desirable in some positions, but even that could be
varied most effectively as regards form. The combinations of this kind that
may be made are innumerable, and there is no reason why our beds should
not be as graceful as bouquets well and simply made.
However, it is not only by making combinations of the subtropical plants
with the gay-flowering ones now seen in our flower-gardens that a beautiful
effect may be obtained, but also with those of a somewhat different type.
Take, for instance, the stately hollyhock, sometimes grown in such formal
plantations as to lose some of its charms, and usually stiff and poor below
the flowers. It is easy to imagine how much better a group of these would
appear if seen surrounded by a graceful ring of Cannas, or any other tall and
vigorous subjects, than they have ever yet appeared in our gardens.
Consider, again, the Lilies, from the superb, tall, and double varieties of
the brilliant Tiger lily to the fair White lily or the popular L. auratum. Why,
a few isolated heads of Fortune’s Tiger lily, rising like candelabra above a
group of Cannas, would form one of the most brilliant pictures ever seen in
a garden. Then, to descend from a very tall to a very dwarf lily, the large and
white trumpet-like flowers of L. longiflorum would look superb, emerging
from the outer margin of a mass of
 Anemone japonica alba. Type of fine-flowered herbaceous plant for associating with foliage-
plants.

subtropical plants, relieved by the rich green within; and anybody, with even
a slight knowledge of the lily family, may imagine many other combinations
equally beautiful and new. The bulbs would of course require planting in the
autumn, and might be left in their places for several years at a time, whereas
the subtropical plants might be those that require planting every year; but as
the effect is obtained by using comparatively few lilies, the spaces between
them would be so large, as to leave plenty of room to plant the others.
However, it is worth bearing in mind, that most of the Cannas, by far the
finest group of “Subtropical” plants for the British Isles, remain through the
winter in beds in the open air protected by litter: hence, permanent
combinations of Lilies and Cannas are perfectly practicable.
Then, again, we have those brilliant and graceful hosts of Gladioli, that
do not show their full beauty in the florist’s stand or in his formal bed, but
when they spring here and there, in an isolated manner, from rich foliage,
entirely unlike their own pointed sword-like blades. Next may be named the
flame-flowered Tritoma, itself almost subtropical in foliage when well
grown. Any of the Tritomas furnish a splendid effect grouped near or closely
associated with subtropical plants. The lavishly blooming and tropical-
looking Dahlia is a host in itself, varying so much as it does from the most
gorgeous to the most delicate hues, and differing greatly too in the size of
the flowers, from those of the pretty fancy Dahlias to the largest exhibition
kinds. Combinations of Dahlias with Cannas and other free-growing
subtropical plants have a most satisfactory effect; and where beds or groups
are formed of hardy subjects (Acanthuses and the like), in quiet half-shady
spots, some of the more beautiful spotted and white varieties of our own
stately and graceful Foxglove would be charmingly effective. In similar
positions a great Mullein (Verbascum) here and there would also suit; while
such bold herbaceous genera as Iris, Aster (the tall perennial kinds), the
perennial Lupin, Baptisias, Thermopsis, Delphiniums, tall Veronicas,
Aconites, tall Campanulas, Papaver bracteatum, Achillea filipendula,
Eupatoriums, tall Phloxes, Vernonias, Leptandra, etc., might be used
effectively in various positions, associated with groups of hardy subjects.
For those put out in early summer, summer and autumn-flowering things
should be chosen.
The tall and graceful Sparaxis pulcherrima would look exquisite leaning
forth from masses of rich foliage about a yard high; the common and the
double perennial Sunflower (Helianthus multiflorus, fl. pl.) would serve in
rougher parts, where admired; in sheltered dells the large and hardy varieties
of Crinum capense would look very tropical and beautiful if planted in rich
moist ground; and the Fuchsia would afford very efficient aid in mild
districts, where it is little injured in winter, and where, consequently, tall
specimens flower throughout the summer months; and lastly, the many
varied and magnificent varieties of herbaceous Peony, raised during recent
years, would prove admirable as isolated specimens on the grass near groups
of fine-foliaged plants. Then again we have the fine Japan Anemones, white
and rose, the showy and vigorous Rudbeckias, the sweet and large annual
Datura ceratocaula, the profusely-flowering Statice latifolia, the Gaillardias,
the Peas (everlasting and otherwise), the ever-welcome African Lily (Calla),
the handsome Loosestrife (Lythrum roseum superbum), and the still
handsomer French Willow, and not a few other things which need not be
enumerated here, inasmuch as it is hoped enough has been said to show our
great and unused resources for adding real grace and interest to our gardens.
This phase of the subject—the association of tall or bold flowers with
foliage-plants—is so important, that I have bestowed some pains in
selecting the many and various subjects useful for it from almost every class
of plants; and they will be found in a list at the end of the alphabetical
arrangement.
Many charming results may be obtained by carpeting the ground beneath
masses of tender subtropical plants with quick-growing ornamental annuals
and bedding plants, which will bloom before the larger subjects have put
forth their strength and beauty of leaf. If all interested in flower-gardening
had an opportunity of seeing the charming effects produced by judiciously
intermingling fine-leaved plants with brilliant flowers, there would be an
immediate revolution in our flower-gardening, and verdant grace and beauty
of form would be introduced, and all the brilliancy of colour that could be
desired might be seen at the same time. Here is a bed of Erythrinas not yet
in flower: but what affords that brilliant and singular mass of colour beneath
them? Simply a mixture of the lighter varieties of Lobelia speciosa with
variously coloured and brilliant Portulacas. The beautiful surfacings that
may thus be made with annual, biennial, or ordinary bedding plants, from
Mignonette to Petunias and Nierembergias, are almost innumerable.
Reflect for a moment how consistent is all this with the best gardening
and the purest taste. The bare earth is covered quickly with these free-
growing dwarfs; there is an immediate and a charming contrast between the
dwarf-flowering and the fine-foliaged plants; and should the last at any time
put their heads too high for the more valuable things above them, they can
be cut in for a second bloom. In the case of using foliage-plants that are
eventually to cover the bed completely, annuals may be sown, and they in
many cases will pass out of bloom and may be cleared away just as the large
leaves begin to cover the ground. Where this is not the case, but the larger
plants are placed thin enough to always allow of the lower ones being seen,
two or even more kinds of dwarf plants may be employed, so that the one
may succeed the other, and that there may be a mingling of bloom. It may be
thought that this kind of mixture would interfere with what is called the
unity of effect that we attempt to attain in our flower-gardens. This need not
be so by any means; the system could be used effectively in the most formal
of gardens.
One of the most useful and natural ways of diversifying a garden, and
one that we rarely or never take advantage of, consists in placing really
distinct and handsome plants alone upon the grass, to break the monotony of
clump margins and of everything else. To follow this plan is necessary
wherever great variety and the highest beauty are desired in the ornamental
garden. Plants may be
placed singly or in open groups near the margins of a
bold clump of shrubs or in the open grass; and the system
is applicable to all kinds of hardy ornamental subjects,
from trees downwards, though in our case the want is for
the fine-leaved plants and the more distinct hardy
subjects. Nothing, for instance, can look better than a
well-developed tuft of the broad-leaved Acanthus
latifolius, springing from the turf not far from the margin Group and single
of a pleasure-ground walk; and the same is true of the specimens of plants
Yuccas, Tritomas, and other things of like character and isolated on the
hardiness. We may make attractive groups of one family, grass.
as the hardiest Yuccas; or splendid groups of one species
like the Pampas grass—not by any means repeating the individual, for there
are about twenty varieties of this plant known on the Continent, and from
these half a dozen really distinct and charming kinds might be selected to
form a group. The same applies to the Tritomas, which we usually manage
to drill into straight lines; in an isolated group in a verdant glade they are
seen for the first time to best advantage: and what might not be done with
these and the like by making mixed groups, or letting each plant stand
distinct upon the grass, perfectly isolated in its beauty!
Let us again try to illustrate the idea simply. Take an important spot in a
pleasure-ground—a sweep of grass in face of a shrubbery—and see what
can be done with it by means of these isolated plants. If, instead of leaving it
in the bald state in which it is often found, we place distinct things isolated
here and there upon the grass, the margin of shrubbery will be quite
softened, and a new and charming feature added to the garden. If one who
knew many plants were arranging them in this way, and had a large stock to
select from, he might produce numberless fine effects. In the case of the
smaller things, such as the Yucca and variegated Arundo, groups of four or
five good plants should be used to form one mass, and everything should be
perfectly distinct and isolated, so that a person could freely move about
amongst the plants without touching them. In addition to such arrangements,
two or three individuals of a species might be placed here and there upon the
grass with the best effect. For example, there is at present in our nurseries a
great Japanese Polygonum (P. Sieboldi), which has never as yet been used
with much effect in the garden. If anybody will select some open grassy spot
in a pleasure-garden, or grassy glade near a wood—some spot considered
unworthy of attention as regards ornamenting it—and plant a group of three
plants of this Polygonum, leaving fifteen feet or so between the stools, a
distinct aspect of vegetation will be the result. The plant is herbaceous, and
will spring up every year to a height of from six feet to eight feet if planted
well; it has a graceful arching habit in the upper branches, and is covered
with a profusion of small bunches of pale flowers in autumn. It is needless
to multiply examples; the plan is capable of infinite variation, and on that
account alone should be welcome to all true gardeners.

Portion of plan showing Yuccas, Pampas grass, Tritomas, Retinospora, Acanthus latifolius,
Arundo Donax variegata, etc., irregularly isolated on the grass.

One kind of arrangement needs to be particularly guarded against—the

geometro-picturesque one, seen in some parts of the London parks devoted
to subtropical gardening. The plants are very often of the finest kinds and in
the most robust health, all the materials for the best results are abundant, and
yet the scene fails to satisfy the eye, from the needless formality of many of
the beds, produced by the heaping together of a great number of species of
one kind in long straight or twisting masses with high raised edges
frequently of hard-beaten soil. Many people will not see their way to
obliterate the formality of the beds, but assuredly we need not do so to get
rid of such effective formality as that shown in the accompanying figure!

Formal arrangements in London parks.

The formality of the true geometrical garden is charming to many to

whom this style is offensive; and there is not the slightest reason why the
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