INTERMEDIATE ENGLISH MANUAL

BY MARTA B. SANTAELLA

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WELCOME INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the B2 English Manual!

Congratulations on reaching the B2 level!

This is an exciting and important stage in your language learning journey. At this point, you have a solid
foundation in English, and now it's time to refine your skills and dive deeper into the more complex aspects
of the language. This manual will guide you through everything you need to take your English to the next
level.

In this B2 manual, you will build on your existing knowledge and explore more complex tenses, such as the
present perfect continuous and past perfect, along with advanced sentence structures like relative clauses,
conditionals, and modal verbs in various contexts.

Every section of this manual is designed to give you clear explanations, practical examples, and plenty of
practice exercises to ensure you fully understand and can apply what you’ve learned. We’ll guide you step
by step through the more challenging aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and writing, while still ensuring
clarity at each stage.

This B2 level is a significant milestone in your learning process. It’s where you begin to fine-tune your
English and start using it with more confidence in everyday, academic, and professional settings. Though
the material may seem more challenging at times, remember that with practice, everything will fall into
place. Each new concept builds on what you’ve already mastered, and with patience and persistence,
you’ll continue to improve.

Let’s get started and make the most of this exciting opportunity to advance your English!

For further doubts, please contact the teacher:

[email protected]

Let’s begin!

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INDEX
Each unit contains specific grammar rules and structures. Down below each one, you’ll find exercises to put
into practice everything you’ve learned along the way.

This manual consists of:

Introduction

- UNIT 1. Present and Past tenses _______________________________________________ 4

- UNIT 2. Future Tense _______________________________________________________ 16

- UNIT 3. Modal verbs _______________________________________________________ 22

- UNIT 4. Conditionals ________________________________________________________30

- UNIT 5. Passive voice _______________________________________________________ 36

- UNIT 6. Reflexive nouns _____________________________________________________ 42

- UNIT 7. Relative clauses _____________________________________________________ 48

- UNIT 8. Auxiliary verbs ______________________________________________________ 53

- UNIT 9. Reported Speech ____________________________________________________ 61

- UNIT 10. Connectors ________________________________________________________ 69

FINAL TEST - 50 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS.

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UNIT 1 PRESENT & PAST TENSES
Understanding the present and past tenses is essential for speaking and writing effectively. These tenses
help convey when actions occur: in the present or the past.

Let’s dive into the key types of present and past tenses and their usage, with examples.

PRESENT SIMPLE

Describes habits, general truths, and fixed schedules.

Subject + base verb (+ s/es for third-person singular).
●​ I read books every evening. (habit)
●​ Water boils at 100°C. (general truth)
●​ The train leaves at 6 PM. (fixed schedule)

PRESENT CONTINUOUS

Describes actions happening now, temporary actions, or future arrangements.

Subject + am/is/are + verb-ing.

●​ She is reading a book right now. (happening now)

●​ They are staying at a hotel for the weekend. (temporary)
●​ I am meeting John tomorrow. (future arrangement)

PRESENT PERFECT

Describes actions that started in the past but are connected to the present, or completed actions with
relevance now.

Subject + have/has + past participle.

●​ We have lived here since 2015. (started in the past, still true)
●​ She has already finished her homework. (completed with present relevance)

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PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Emphasizes the duration of ongoing actions that started in the past and continue to the present.

Subject + have/has + been + verb-ing.

●​ I have been working on this project for three hours.

●​ He has been studying English since morning.

PAST SIMPLE

Describes completed actions in the past, often with a specific time reference.

Subject + past tense verb.

●​ I watched a movie last night.

●​ They visited Paris in 2020.

Regular Verbs: Add -ed to the base verb.

●​ Example: walk → walked, play → played.

Irregular Verbs: Change the form of the verb (no rules—must be memorized).

●​ Example: go → went, eat → ate.

For negative sentences and questions, use the auxiliary did and the base verb.

●​ Negative: I did not (didn’t) play.

●​ Question: Did you play?

Completed Actions in the Past

●​ I visited my grandmother yesterday.

(The action is finished and happened in the past.)

Past Habits (often with adverbs like "always" or "often")

●​ He always walked to school when he was a child.

Series of Past Events

●​ I woke up, brushed my teeth, and had breakfast.

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Here are main key expressions to identify this tense:

-​ Yesterday
-​ Last week/month/year
-​ In 2010
-​ An hour ago

PAST CONTINUOUS

The past continuous tense is used to describe actions that were ongoing or in progress at a specific
moment in the past.

It emphasizes the duration or the unfinished nature of an action at a particular time.

Subject + was/were + verb-ing (the present participle form of the verb)

-​ Was is used for I, he, she, it (singular subjects).

-​ Were is used for you, we, they (plural subjects).

●​ I was studying at 7 PM last night.

●​ They were watching a movie when I called them.

This tense is often used to describe actions that were happening at a particular moment in the past. This is
often used with time expressions like at 5 PM, yesterday at 10 AM, etc.

●​ Example: At 8 o'clock last night, I was cooking dinner.​

(The action of cooking was happening at 8 PM.)

We use it to describe an ongoing action in the past that was interrupted by another action (usually in the
Past Simple).

●​ Example: She was reading a book when the phone rang.

(The phone ringing interrupted the reading.)

It can be used to describe two or more actions happening at the same time in the past.

●​ Example: While I was studying, my brother was playing video games.​

(Both actions were happening simultaneously.)

It can be used to set the scene or describe the background of a story in the past.

●​ Example: The sun was setting, and the birds were singing.
(It provides background information in a narrative.)

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When you want to emphasize that something was happening repeatedly or temporarily.

●​ Example: He was always complaining about his job last year.

(This shows repeated or habitual action in the past.)

These are some key expressions:

-​ At 7 o’clock
-​ Yesterday at this time
-​ While
-​ When (to indicate interruption)
-​ All day/week/month/year
-​ The whole time

Let’s see some more examples:

Ongoing Action at a Specific Time in the Past

●​ I was reading a book at 10 PM last night.

●​ They were studying all night for the exam.

Interrupted Action

●​ He was walking to the store when it started raining.

●​ We were eating dinner when the guests arrived.

Parallel Actions

●​ She was working on her project, and he was watching TV.

●​ I was writing an email, and my sister was making dinner.

Setting the Scene

●​ It was raining, and the streets were empty.

●​ The children were playing in the yard when I arrived.

WATCH OUT!

Incorrect: He was to go to the store.

Correct: He was going to the store.
​
(Remember, was/were + verb-ing is the structure.)

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PAST PERFECT SIMPLE

The Past Perfect Simple is used to describe an action that happened before another action in the past.

It focuses on the completion of an action before a specific point in time or another event in the past.

Subject + had + past participle (the 3rd form of the verb)

Had: The past perfect auxiliary verb for all subjects (I, you, he, she, it, we, they).

Past Participle: The third form of the verb (e.g., done, eaten, gone).

The Past Perfect is used to show which action happened first in the past. It is always used to talk about the
action that happened earlier than another action in the past.

●​ I had finished my homework before I went to the cinema.

(The homework was completed before going to the cinema.)

The Past Perfect describes something that was completed before another past event.

●​ She had already eaten by the time we arrived.​

(The action of eating was finished before our arrival.)

It can also explain the result of something that happened earlier.

●​ He was tired because he had worked all day.

(The tiredness was the result of working.)

Here are some common expressions used with this tense:

-​ By the time
-​ Already
-​ Before
-​ After
-​ When
-​ By (a certain point)

Order of Events:

●​ I had left the house when the phone rang.​

(I left first, and then the phone rang after.)

Completed Action Before Another Event:

●​ By the time we got to the station, the train had already left.​
(The train left before we arrived.)

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Explaining a Result:

●​ She was upset because she had forgotten her keys at home.​
(Her forgetfulness caused her to be upset.)

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

This tense is used to describe actions that were ongoing in the past before another action or point in time.
It emphasizes the duration or process of an action that was happening up to or just before a specific point
in the past.

Often used to show the cause or reason for something that happened in the past.

Subject + had + been + verb-ing (present participle form)

-​ Had: The past perfect auxiliary verb for all subjects.

-​ Been: The past participle of the verb "be" (always used).
-​ Verb-ing: The present participle form of the main verb (base verb + -ing).

●​ I had been studying for two hours before I took a break.

●​ They had been working at the company for five years when they got promoted.

The Past Perfect Continuous is used to show an action that was happening over a period of time before
another action in the past occurred. The focus is on the duration or process of the action.

●​ She had been reading the book for an hour when the phone rang.

(The reading was happening for an hour, and then the phone rang. The action was in progress
before another action interrupted it.)

We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that a past action or event happened as a result of something
that was happening before.

●​ He was tired because he had been running for two hours.

(His tiredness is the result of the ongoing action of running.)

The Past Perfect Continuous can describe the duration of an activity before a certain time in the past,
especially when it is important to show that the action had been happening for a period of time.

●​ We had been waiting for an hour when the bus finally arrived.

(The waiting went on for a period of time before the bus arrived.)

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Here are some common expressions we use with this tense:

-​ For (duration of time)

-​ Since (starting point in the past)
-​ All day, all week, etc. (indicating a long period of time)
-​ Before (another past event)
-​ By the time (showing when the action finished or another event happened)

Ongoing Action Before Another Action:

●​ I had been working all day before I finally took a break.

●​ They had been studying for hours when the teacher came in.

Cause or Reason for a Past Action:

●​ She was feeling exhausted because she had been running for an hour.
●​ He was upset because he had been waiting for too long.

Duration of an Action:

●​ We had been traveling for two weeks before we arrived in Paris.

●​ He had been thinking about his decision for months before making it.

You might be wondering what are the main keys to differentiate between Past Perfect Continuous and the
Past Perfect:

Past Perfect: Focuses on the completed action before another past event.

●​ I had finished my homework before dinner.

Past Perfect Continuous: Focuses on the duration or ongoing process of the action before another past
event.

●​ I had been finishing my homework when the phone rang.

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WATCH OUT!

Omitting the word "been":

●​ Incorrect: She had working for three hours.

●​ Correct: She had been working for three hours.

Using the wrong tense with time expressions:

●​ Incorrect: I had been living here for two years when I moved out last year.
●​ Correct: I had lived here for two years when I moved out last year.​
(Note: The Past Perfect is used when the focus is on the completed action, while the Past Perfect
Continuous focuses on the duration.)

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EXERCISES

Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb in either Present Perfect or Present Perfect
Continuous.

1.​ I __________ (study) English for five years, but I still need more practice.
2.​ She __________ (work) here since January.
3.​ We __________ (not see) him lately.
4.​ They __________ (live) in this city for a long time before they moved to London.
5.​ He __________ (wait) for his friend for over an hour.
6.​ I __________ (read) this book for a few days, and it’s really interesting.
7.​ My parents __________ (travel) around Europe this summer.
8.​ She __________ (clean) the house all morning.
9.​ We __________ (not finish) our project yet.
10.​ How long __________ you __________ (know) each other?

Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb in the Past Continuous tense.

1.​ Yesterday at 8 PM, I __________ (watch) TV with my family.

2.​ While they __________ (have) dinner, the phone __________ (ring).
3.​ When I called her, she __________ (study) for her exam.
4.​ We __________ (play) soccer when it __________ (start) raining.
5.​ He __________ (not listen) to the teacher during the class.
6.​ She __________ (walk) to the park when I __________ (see) her.
7.​ While I __________ (cook), my brother __________ (clean) the kitchen.
8.​ I __________ (wait) for the bus when I __________ (see) an old friend.
9.​ They __________ (not drive) to work yesterday.
10.​ At this time last week, I __________ (sit) on a beach in Spain.

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Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb in the Past Perfect Continuous tense.

1.​ They __________ (wait) for over an hour when the bus finally arrived.
2.​ She __________ (study) all morning before she took a break.
3.​ I __________ (work) at the company for three years before I decided to quit.
4.​ By the time we arrived, they __________ (eat) their dinner.
5.​ He __________ (play) video games for two hours when his parents asked him to stop.
6.​ We __________ (look) for a new apartment when we found this one.
7.​ I __________ (try) to call you for hours, but you didn’t answer.
8.​ She __________ (walk) in the park when it started to rain.
9.​ By the time the meeting started, they __________ (prepare) everything.
10.​ They __________ (argue) for an hour before they finally reached an agreement.

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EXERCISES SOLVED

Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb in either Present Perfect or Present Perfect
Continuous.

1.​ I have been studying English for five years, but I still need more practice.​
(Present Perfect Continuous: Action started in the past and is still continuing.)
2.​ She has been working here since January.​
(Present Perfect Continuous: Ongoing action that started in the past and continues into the
present.)
3.​ We haven't seen him lately.​
(Present Perfect: Action that has been completed at an unspecified time before now.)
4.​ They had been living in this city for a long time before they moved to London.​
(Past Perfect Continuous: Describes an action that was ongoing in the past before another past
action.)
5.​ He has been waiting for his friend for over an hour.​
(Present Perfect Continuous: Action that started in the past and is still continuing.)
6.​ I have been reading this book for a few days, and it’s really interesting.​
(Present Perfect Continuous: Ongoing action that started in the past and continues into the
present.)
7.​ My parents have traveled around Europe this summer.​
(Present Perfect: Completed action with relevance to the present.)
8.​ She has been cleaning the house all morning.​
(Present Perfect Continuous: Action that started in the past and is still ongoing or just finished.)
9.​ We haven't finished our project yet.​
(Present Perfect: Action that is not yet completed.)
10.​ How long have you known each other?​
(Present Perfect: Refers to the experience or state that started in the past and continues in the
present.)

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Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb in the Past Continuous tense.

1.​ Yesterday at 8 PM, I was watching TV with my family.

2.​ While they were having dinner, the phone rang.
3.​ When I called her, she was studying for her exam.
4.​ We were playing soccer when it started raining.
5.​ He was not listening to the teacher during the class.
6.​ She was walking to the park when I saw her.
7.​ While I was cooking, my brother was cleaning the kitchen.
8.​ I was waiting for the bus when I saw an old friend.
9.​ They were not driving to work yesterday.
10.​ At this time last week, I was sitting on a beach in Spain.

Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb in the Past Perfect Continuous tense.

1.​ They had been waiting for over an hour when the bus finally arrived.
2.​ She had been studying all morning before she took a break.
3.​ I had been working at the company for three years before I decided to quit.
4.​ By the time we arrived, they had been eating their dinner.
5.​ He had been playing video games for two hours when his parents asked him to stop.
6.​ We had been looking for a new apartment when we found this one.
7.​ I had been trying to call you for hours, but you didn’t answer.
8.​ She had been walking in the park when it started to rain.
9.​ By the time the meeting started, they had been preparing everything.
10.​ They had been arguing for an hour before they finally reached an agreement.

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UNIT 2 FUTURE TENSES
In English grammar, future tenses are used to talk about actions or events that are going to happen at a
later time. These tenses are essential for expressing predictions, plans, intentions, and things we expect or
promise to do in the future.

There are four main future tenses used at a B2 level:

-​ Future Simple (will)

-​ Be going to (for future intentions or predictions)
-​ Present Continuous (for future arrangements)
-​ Future Continuous (for actions in progress at a future time)

Let's explore these future tenses in detail:

FUTURE SIMPLE

The Future Simple is used for actions that will happen in the future or decisions made at the moment of
speaking. It is often used for predictions, promises, and offers.

-​ Predictions about the future (without evidence).

-​ Spontaneous decisions or offers.
-​ Promises or commitments.
-​ Facts about the future.

Subject + will + base verb

●​ I will go to the party tomorrow. (Action in the future)

●​ She will help you with the homework. (Promise)
●​ It will rain tomorrow. (Prediction)
●​ I think they will win the game. (Prediction)

BE GOING TO

The "be going to" construction is used for future plans, intentions, or predictions based on current
evidence. This tense is more about what we intend to do or what we expect to happen, especially when
we have already decided.

-​ Future intentions or plans (things you already decided to do).

-​ Predictions based on evidence or logic (when something is certain to happen).

Subject + am/are/is + going to + base verb

●​ I am going to visit my grandmother next weekend. (Planned intention)

●​ He is going to study medicine next year. (Intention)
●​ Look at those clouds! It is going to rain soon. (Prediction based on evidence)

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PRESENT CONTINUOUS FOR FUTURE TENSES

The Present Continuous can be used to talk about arrangements or plans in the future, especially when
they are already scheduled or organized.

This is often used in the context of personal plans, appointments, or events.

-​ For personal arrangements or scheduled events in the near future.

-​ To show that something has already been planned or organized.

Subject + am/are/is + verb-ing

●​ I am meeting my friends tomorrow evening. (Planned arrangement)

●​ They are traveling to New York next week. (Scheduled event)
●​ She is leaving for Paris on Monday. (Already arranged)

FUTURE CONTINUOUS

The Future Continuous describes an action that will be in progress at a specific time in the future. It
focuses on the ongoing nature of an action that will happen at some point later.

It's also used to talk about actions that are planned or expected to happen.

-​ To describe an action that will be happening at a specific time in the future.

-​ For actions that are expected to be in progress at a future time.
-​ For polite questions about someone's future plans or actions.

Subject + will + be + verb-ing

●​ This time next week, I will be lying on the beach. (Action in progress at a specific time)
●​ At 8 PM, they will be watching the movie. (Future action in progress)
●​ I will be working tomorrow afternoon, so I can’t join you. (Ongoing future action)
●​ Will you be coming to the party tomorrow? (Polite inquiry)

Here’s a little summary of all the content we’ve just developed and a simple guide on when to use which:

Future Simple (will): Use for general predictions, promises, and decisions made at the moment of
speaking.

●​ I think they will arrive soon.

Be Going To: Use for planned actions or predictions based on current evidence.

●​ We are going to eat at that new restaurant tonight. (Plan)

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Present Continuous: Use for specific, scheduled, or personal arrangements.

●​ I am meeting the doctor at 3 PM tomorrow.

Future Continuous: Use when you want to emphasize the ongoing nature of an action at a specific time in
the future.

●​ At 10 o'clock, I will be working on my project.

WATCH OUT!

Each tense has its distinct use, so being clear about your intention will help you choose the right one.

-​ Future Simple (Will): Predictions, promises, spontaneous decisions.

-​ Be Going To: Planned actions, intentions, predictions based on current evidence.
-​ Present Continuous: Future arrangements, appointments, or events.
-​ Future Continuous: Ongoing actions at a specific time in the future, or polite questions about
future actions.

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EXERCISES

Complete the sentences using either "will" or "be going to"

1.​ I think it __________ (rain) tomorrow.

2.​ We __________ (visit) my grandmother next weekend.
3.​ Look at those dark clouds! It __________ (rain) soon.
4.​ They __________ (start) their new jobs next month.
5.​ I __________ (help) you with your homework in a moment.
6.​ I’ve decided that I __________ (buy) a new laptop next month.
7.​ We __________ (have) a meeting tomorrow afternoon.
8.​ She __________ (study) hard for the upcoming exam.
9.​ The company __________ (release) a new product next year.
10.​ He __________ (probably, finish) the project by next week.
11.​ I __________ (take) the bus to work tomorrow.
12.​ I __________ (not go) to the party tonight because I’m too tired.
13.​ They __________ (call) you when they arrive at the airport.
14.​ I __________ (see) my friends this evening.
15.​ By this time next year, I __________ (live) in a different city.

Read the following text and fill in the gaps using the Future Continuous tense.

This time tomorrow, I __________ (1. drive) to the airport to catch my flight to Spain. By 8 AM, I
__________ (2. check-in) my luggage and going through security. While I wait for my flight, I __________
(3. read) a book or maybe __________ (4. have) a quick coffee.

During the flight, most passengers __________ (5. sleep) or watching movies, but I __________ (6. work)
on my presentation for the conference. When I arrive, my colleague __________ (7. wait) for me at the
arrivals area, and we __________ (8. head) straight to the hotel.

By the evening, I __________ (9. meet) the rest of the team for dinner. I’m sure we __________ (10.
discuss) our strategies for the upcoming project.

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Fill in the blanks with the correct Future Continuous form of the verb.

Alice: What __________ you __________ (1. do) tomorrow evening?

Ben: At 7 PM, I __________ (2. watch) the football match with some friends. Why?

Alice: Oh, I __________ (3. attend) a charity event, and I thought you might want to join.

Ben: I’d love to, but during the match, I __________ (4. cheer) for my favorite team!

Alice: I understand. I __________ (5. give) a short speech at the event, so I’ll probably be nervous.

Ben: Don’t worry! You’ll be great. By 9 PM, I __________ (6. celebrate) the team’s victory—or recovering
from their loss.

Alice: Haha, sounds like a fun night for you! Meanwhile, I __________ (7. talk) to the guests and
__________ (8. enjoy) the event.

Ben: Let’s catch up afterward. What __________ you __________ (9. do) on Saturday?

Alice: Around noon, I __________ (10. shop) for groceries. How about you?

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EXERCISES SOLVED

Complete the sentences using either "will" or "be going to"

1.​ will rain

2.​ are going to visit
3.​ is going to rain
4.​ are going to start
5.​ will help
6.​ am going to buy
7.​ are having
8.​ is going to study
9.​ will release
10.​ will probably finish
11.​ am going to take
12.​ will not go
13.​ will call
14.​ am going to see
15.​ will be living

Read the following text and fill in the gaps using the Future Continuous tense.

1.​ will be driving

2.​ will be checking in
3.​ will be reading
4.​ will be having
5.​ will be sleeping
6.​ will be working
7.​ will be waiting
8.​ will be heading
9.​ will be meeting
10.​ will be discussing

Fill in the blanks with the correct Future Continuous form of the verb.

1.​ will you be doing

2.​ will be watching
3.​ will be attending
4.​ will be cheering
5.​ will be giving
6.​ will be celebrating
7.​ will be talking
8.​ will be enjoying
9.​ will you be doing
10.​ will be shopping

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UNIT 3 MODAL VERBS

Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that express necessity, possibility, ability, permission, advice, obligation,
or other specific attitudes.

Unlike other verbs, modal verbs don’t change their form and are always followed by the base form of the
main verb.

At the B2 level, learners are expected to understand modal verbs in more nuanced and flexible ways. This
includes subtle differences in meaning, formal and informal uses, and context-dependent interpretations.

Let’s go over the main characteristics of modal verbs:

They don’t add -s, -ed, or -ing.

●​ He can play the piano. (Not "cans")

They are followed by the bare infinitive (the base form of the verb without "to").

●​ She should study harder. (Not "to study")

Negative forms are created by adding not.

●​ He should not drive so fast.

CAN / COULD

Present or general ability, permission, or possibility.

●​ I can swim. (Ability)

●​ You can borrow my book. (Permission)
●​ It can be dangerous. (Possibility)

Past ability, polite requests, or hypothetical situations.

●​ When I was younger, I could climb trees easily. (Past ability)

●​ Could you help me with this task? (Polite request)
●​ It could rain later, so take an umbrella. (Possibility)

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MAY / MIGHT

Formal permission or possibility.

●​ You may leave the room now. (Permission)

●​ It may snow tonight. (Possibility)

A weaker or less certain possibility.

●​ She might be late because of traffic.

MUST

Strong necessity, obligation, or logical conclusion.

●​ You must wear a seatbelt while driving. (Obligation)

●​ She must be the new manager—they introduced her earlier. (Deduction)
●​ You must not smoke here. (Prohibition)

SHALL

Formal or polite offers and suggestions (less common in modern English).

●​ Shall we go for a walk? (Suggestion)

●​ I shall return the book tomorrow. (Promise)

SHOULD / OUGHT TO

Giving advice, recommendations, or expectations.

●​ You should see a doctor about that cough. (Advice)

●​ This movie should be good—it has great reviews. (Expectation)

Similar to "should," but slightly more formal.

●​ You ought to respect your elders.

WILL / WOULD

Future intentions, predictions, or promises.

●​ I will call you tomorrow. (Intention)

●​ This job will take a few hours to complete. (Prediction)

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Polite requests, hypothetical situations, or habitual past actions.

●​ Would you like a cup of coffee? (Polite offer)

●​ If I were rich, I would travel the world. (Hypothetical)
●​ When we were kids, we would play outside for hours. (Habitual past)

NEED / NEEDN’T

Modal meaning is used in questions and negatives for necessity.

●​ Need I bring my passport? (Is it necessary?)

●​ You needn't come if you're busy. (It's not necessary.)

HAVE TO / DON’T HAVE TO

Expresses external obligation.

●​ I have to finish this report by tomorrow. (Obligation)

Expresses lack of necessity.

●​ You don’t have to come early tomorrow.

MIGHT AS WELL

Used for making suggestions when there is no better option.

●​ We might as well wait here until the rain stops.

WATCH OUT!

Must: Internal obligation (personal or from the speaker).

●​ I must go now—I’m really tired.

Have to: External obligation (rules or external authority).

●​ You have to wear a uniform at this school.

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After having gone through all modal verbs, there are a few things we should consider:

Deduction

Present deductions:

●​ He must be at home (I’m sure he’s there).

●​ He can’t be at home (It’s impossible that he’s there).

Past deductions (use have + past participle):

●​ He must have forgotten the meeting. (I’m sure he forgot.)

●​ He might have left already. (It’s possible.)
●​ He can’t have known about the deadline. (Impossible.)

Politeness Levels

Could is more polite than can:

●​ Can you help me? (Neutral)

●​ Could you help me? (Polite)

Expressing Possibility

Might, may, and could express different levels of possibility:

●​ It may rain. (Neutral)

●​ It might rain. (Less likely)
●​ It could rain. (Neutral or slightly optimistic)

Let’s see some practical examples:

-​ You must remember to submit your application by the deadline. (Obligation)

-​ She might join us later if she finishes her work. (Possibility)
-​ If I were you, I would take that job offer. (Advice, hypothetical)
-​ You don’t have to bring anything to the meeting—it’s all provided. (Lack of necessity)
-​ He can’t have forgotten—I just reminded him! (Deduction)

25
EXERCISES

Complete each sentence with the appropriate modal verb: can, could, may, might, must, should, will, or
would.

1.​ You __________ finish your homework before playing video games. (advice)
2.​ She __________ be at home now; I just saw her car in the driveway. (deduction)
3.​ When I was younger, I __________ run 10 kilometers without stopping. (past ability)
4.​ He __________ have forgotten to call; he’s very forgetful sometimes. (deduction)
5.​ __________ you help me carry these boxes? They’re heavy. (polite request)
6.​ You __________ wear a helmet while riding a bike; it’s the law. (obligation)
7.​ If I were rich, I __________ travel the world. (hypothetical situation)
8.​ We __________ visit Paris next summer if we can save enough money. (possibility)
9.​ You __________ not park here; it’s a no-parking zone. (prohibition)
10.​ She __________ study harder if she wants to pass the exam. (advice)

Rewrite the sentences by replacing the words in parentheses with the correct modal verb.

1.​ It’s possible that he will come to the party. → He __________ come to the party.
2.​ I advise you to get more sleep. → You __________ get more sleep.
3.​ It’s not allowed to smoke in this building. → You __________ smoke in this building.
4.​ I am certain that she has already arrived. → She __________ have already arrived.
5.​ In the past, I was able to speak French fluently. → I __________ speak French fluently.
6.​ We have no choice but to attend the meeting. → We __________ attend the meeting.
7.​ Is it okay if I borrow your book? → __________ I borrow your book?
8.​ It’s not necessary to bring food to the picnic; it’s provided. → You __________ bring food to the
picnic.
9.​ He has permission to leave early today. → He __________ leave early today.
10.​ If I were you, I’d take that job offer. → You __________ take that job offer.

26
Read each sentence and identify the modal verb and its function (e.g., obligation, possibility, advice,
etc.).

1.​ You must wear a seatbelt while driving.

2.​ Could you lend me your book for a day?
3.​ It might rain later, so take an umbrella.
4.​ She can speak three languages fluently.
5.​ He must have left already; the house is empty.
6.​ You should apologize to her; it’s the right thing to do.
7.​ May I use your phone to call a taxi?
8.​ They might not come to the meeting because of the weather.
9.​ If I had more time, I would help you with your project.
10.​ You don’t have to pay for the drinks; they’re included in the package.

27
EXERCISES SOLVED

Complete each sentence with the appropriate modal verb: can, could, may, might, must, should, will, or
would.

1.​ You should finish your homework before playing video games. (advice)
2.​ She must be at home now; I just saw her car in the driveway. (deduction)
3.​ When I was younger, I could run 10 kilometers without stopping. (past ability)
4.​ He might have forgotten to call; he’s very forgetful sometimes. (deduction)
5.​ Could you help me carry these boxes? They’re heavy. (polite request)
6.​ You must wear a helmet while riding a bike; it’s the law. (obligation)
7.​ If I were rich, I would travel the world. (hypothetical situation)
8.​ We might visit Paris next summer if we can save enough money. (possibility)
9.​ You must not park here; it’s a no-parking zone. (prohibition)
10.​ She should study harder if she wants to pass the exam. (advice)

Fill in with appropriate future time clauses. You can use conjunctions like "when," "as soon as," "after,"
"before," "until," and "if."

1.​ I will start cooking dinner after I finish my work.

2.​ We’ll go for a walk as soon as it stops raining.
3.​ She will send you the report when she completes it.
4.​ I’ll call you when I arrive at the station.
5.​ We will wait here until you come back.
6.​ If you finish your homework, we can watch a movie.
7.​ He’ll buy a new car when he saves enough money.
8.​ They will start the meeting after everyone is present.
9.​ I will clean the house when I have some time.
10.​ If it is sunny tomorrow, we will have a picnic in the park.

28
Read each sentence and identify the modal verb and its function (e.g., obligation, possibility, advice,
etc.).

1.​ You must wear a seatbelt while driving.

a.​ Modal verb: must
b.​ Function: Obligation
2.​ Could you lend me your book for a day?
a.​ Modal verb: could
b.​ Function: Polite request
3.​ It might rain later, so take an umbrella.
a.​ Modal verb: might
b.​ Function: Possibility
4.​ She can speak three languages fluently.
a.​ Modal verb: can
b.​ Function: Ability
5.​ He must have left already; the house is empty.
a.​ Modal verb: must
b.​ Function: Deduction/Certainty
6.​ You should apologize to her; it’s the right thing to do.
a.​ Modal verb: should
b.​ Function: Advice
7.​ May I use your phone to call a taxi?
a.​ Modal verb: may
b.​ Function: Permission
8.​ They might not come to the meeting because of the weather.
a.​ Modal verb: might
b.​ Function: Possibility
9.​ If I had more time, I would help you with your project.
a.​ Modal verb: would
b.​ Function: Hypothetical situation
10.​ You don’t have to pay for the drinks; they’re included in the package.
a.​ Modal verb: don’t have to
b.​ Function: Lack of obligation

29
UNIT 4 CONDITIONALS

Conditionals are sentences that express possible or hypothetical situations and their outcomes. They
consist of two clauses:

They consist of two clauses:

-​ The "if" clause (condition)

-​ The main clause (result)

The verb tenses used in each clause determine the type of conditional and its meaning.

At the B2 level, learners should understand four main types: Zero, First, Second, and Third Conditionals
and a mix of conditional structures.

ZERO CONDITIONAL

To talk about general truths, facts, or things that always happen under certain conditions.

If + present simple, present simple

●​ If you heat water to 100°C, it boils. (Scientific fact)

●​ Plants die if they don’t get water. (General truth)

FIRST CONDITIONAL

To describe possible or likely future events and their results.

If + present simple, will + base verb

●​ If it rains tomorrow, we’ll stay at home.

●​ She will pass the exam if she studies hard.

NOTE, the present simple in the "if" clause refers to the condition; the "will" in the main clause refers to the
likely result in the future.

30
SECOND CONDITIONAL

To discuss hypothetical or unlikely present/future situations and their possible results.

If + past simple, would + base verb

●​ If I won the lottery, I would travel around the world. (Unlikely condition in the future)
●​ If she were taller, she could play basketball. (Hypothetical condition in the present)

NOTE, use "were" instead of "was" for all subjects in formal contexts.

THIRD CONDITIONAL

To talk about hypothetical situations in the past that did not happen and their imagined outcomes.

If + past perfect, would have + past participle

●​ If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam. (I didn’t study, so I failed.)
●​ They would have arrived on time if they had left earlier. (They left late, so they arrived late.)

Keep in mind, the past perfect in the "if" clause describes the missed opportunity or action.

MIXED CONDITIONALS

Mixed conditionals combine elements of the Second and Third Conditionals to discuss present
consequences of past actions or hypothetical past outcomes from present conditions.

●​ If I had studied medicine, I would be a doctor now. (Past condition → Present result)
●​ If she were more organized, she would have finished the project on time. (Present condition → Past
result)

31
Here’s a quick comparison table with all English conditionals:

TYPE IF CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE EXAMPLE

Zero Present Simple Present Simple If you mix red and blue,
you get purple.

First Present Simple Will + base form If she studies, she will
pass.

Second Past Simple Would + base form If I had money, I would

buy a car.

Third Past Perfect Would have + past If he had called, I would

participle have answered.

Mixed Past perfect / Past Would + base verb / If I had worked harder, I
Simple Would have would be rich now.

32
EXERCISES

Choose the correct form for each sentence.

1.​ If I (study) harder, I (pass) the exam tomorrow.

2.​ If he (invite) me to his party, I (go).
3.​ If they (know) about the meeting, they (come).
4.​ If you (work) harder, you (get) a promotion next year.
5.​ If she (be) more careful, she (not/miss) the bus.
6.​ If it (rain) tomorrow, we (cancel) the picnic.
7.​ If I (have) more time, I (help) you with your project.
8.​ If you (ask) her nicely, she (lend) you the money.
9.​ If I (win) the lottery, I (buy) a house in the countryside.
10.​ If they (not/arrive) on time, we (leave) without them.

Fill using the Second and Third Conditionals.

If I __________ (1) you, I __________ (2) go to the concert with you last night. Unfortunately, I didn’t know
you were going, or I __________ (3) have joined you. I __________ (4) have been so excited to see that
band live!

If I __________ (5) known earlier about the event, I __________ (6) have bought tickets in advance. But
now it’s too late, and the tickets are sold out. If you __________ (7) told me sooner, I __________ (8) have
made sure to get tickets for both of us.

I’m still a little disappointed. If I __________ (9) enjoyed the concert with you, we __________ (10) had a
great time together. Maybe next time, if we __________ (11) know about it in advance, we __________ (12)
make sure to go together.

Fill in the gaps with the correct form of Mixed Conditionals:

1.​ If she __________ (study) harder, she __________ (not fail) the exam last week.
2.​ If I __________ (not forget) to bring my umbrella, I __________ (not get) wet.
3.​ If I __________ (be) you, I __________ (not make) that mistake yesterday.
4.​ If he __________ (listen) to my advice, he __________ (not be) in this situation now.
5.​ If they __________ (arrive) on time, they __________ (not miss) the beginning of the meeting.
6.​ If we __________ (not take) the wrong turn, we __________ (not be) lost now.
7.​ If she __________ (take) the job offer, she __________ (be) much happier now.
8.​ If I __________ (not spend) so much money last month, I __________ (have) enough for the trip
this weekend.
9.​ If I __________ (not eat) so much, I __________ (feel) much better today.
10.​ If you __________ (speak) English better, you __________ (understand) the presentation
yesterday.

33
EXERCISES SOLVED

Choose the correct form for each sentence.

1.​ If I studied harder, I would pass the exam tomorrow. (Second Conditional - Hypothetical situation
about the present/future)
2.​ If he invited me to his party, I would go. (Second Conditional - Hypothetical situation in the
present/future)
3.​ If they had known about the meeting, they would have come. (Third Conditional - Hypothetical
situation in the past)
4.​ If you worked harder, you would get a promotion next year. (Second Conditional - Hypothetical
present/future)
5.​ If she had been more careful, she would not have missed the bus. (Third Conditional -
Hypothetical past situation)
6.​ If it rains tomorrow, we will cancel the picnic. (First Conditional - Real future situation)
7.​ If I had more time, I would help you with your project. (Second Conditional - Hypothetical
present/future)
8.​ If you ask her nicely, she will lend you the money. (First Conditional - Real present/future situation)
9.​ If I won the lottery, I would buy a house in the countryside. (Second Conditional - Hypothetical
present/future)
10.​ If they don’t arrive on time, we will leave without them. (First Conditional - Real future situation)

Fill using the Second and Third Conditionals.

1.​ were (Second Conditional - Hypothetical situation in the present/future)

2.​ would have gone (Third Conditional - Hypothetical past situation)
3.​ would have (Third Conditional - Hypothetical past situation)
4.​ would have been (Third Conditional - Hypothetical past situation)
5.​ had (Third Conditional - Hypothetical past situation)
6.​ would have bought (Third Conditional - Hypothetical past situation)
7.​ had (Third Conditional - Hypothetical past situation)
8.​ would have made (Third Conditional - Hypothetical past situation)
9.​ had (Third Conditional - Hypothetical past situation)
10.​ would have had (Third Conditional - Hypothetical past situation)
11.​ had (Second Conditional - Hypothetical situation in the present/future)
12.​ would (Second Conditional - Hypothetical situation in the present/future)

34
Fill in the gaps with the correct form of Mixed Conditionals.

1.​ If she had studied harder, she would not have failed the exam last week.​
(Third Conditional for past situation + Second Conditional for present result)
2.​ If I had not forgotten to bring my umbrella, I would not have gotten wet.​
(Third Conditional for past situation + Second Conditional for present result)
3.​ If I were you, I would not have made that mistake yesterday.​
(Second Conditional for present hypothetical situation + Third Conditional for past result)
4.​ If he had listened to my advice, he would not be in this situation now.​
(Third Conditional for past situation + Second Conditional for present result)
5.​ If they had arrived on time, they would not have missed the beginning of the meeting.​
(Third Conditional for past situation + Second Conditional for present result)
6.​ If we had not taken the wrong turn, we would not be lost now.​
(Third Conditional for past situation + Second Conditional for present result)
7.​ If she had taken the job offer, she would be much happier now.​
(Third Conditional for past situation + Second Conditional for present result)
8.​ If I had not spent so much money last month, I would have enough for the trip this weekend.​
(Third Conditional for past situation + Second Conditional for present result)
9.​ If I had not eaten so much, I would feel much better today.​
(Third Conditional for past situation + Second Conditional for present result)
10.​ If you spoke English better, you would have understood the presentation yesterday.​
(Second Conditional for present situation + Third Conditional for past result)

35
UNIT 5 PASSIVE VOICE
The passive voice is formed using the verb to be (in the appropriate tense) + the past participle of the main
verb.

Subject (receiver of the action) + to be + past participle + (optional: agent using "by")

Focus on the action/result,

●​ The report was completed on time. (Focus is on the completion, not who did it.)

The agent is unknown or irrelevant,

●​ The cake was eaten. (We don’t know who ate it.)
●​ Rules are made to be followed. (Who made the rules doesn’t matter.)

Formal tone,

●​ A new policy has been implemented.

Now, it’s time to see some examples by tense.

Present Simple

●​ Active: The chef cooks the meal.

●​ Passive: The meal is cooked by the chef.

Past Simple

●​ Active: They built the bridge in 1995.

●​ Passive: The bridge was built in 1995.

Present Perfect

●​ Active: They have completed the project.

●​ Passive: The project has been completed.

Future Simple

●​ Active: The team will announce the results tomorrow.

●​ Passive: The results will be announced tomorrow.

Modal Verbs

●​ Active: You should follow the rules.

●​ Passive: The rules should be followed.

36
You must be wondering, when do we use passive voice, then?

To emphasize the receiver of the action:

●​ The Mona Lisa was painted by Leonardo da Vinci. (Focus is on the artwork.)

When the performer is unknown:

●​ The documents were stolen.

To create a formal or objective tone:

●​ Mistakes were made during the process.

NOTE how certain verbs are frequently used in the passive voice, especially in academic and formal
writing:

Award: She was awarded the prize.

Consider: He is considered a great artist.

Blame: The accident was blamed on the driver.

37
EXERCISES

Convert the following active sentences into passive voice.

1.​ They are designing a new airport in the city.

2.​ Scientists discovered the vaccine in record time.
3.​ The committee will announce the results tomorrow.
4.​ Someone has stolen my wallet from the bag.
5.​ She is cleaning the house for the party.
6.​ They did not invite him to the meeting.
7.​ The manager should review the application before approval.
8.​ They have already sent the invitations for the event.
9.​ People speak Spanish in many countries around the world.
10.​ They were discussing the proposal when I entered the room.
11.​ The teacher is going to assign homework tomorrow.
12.​ The architect designed this building in the 1920s.
13.​ Someone will complete the work by next Friday.
14.​ The company had delivered the packages before the deadline.
15.​ The firefighters rescued the family from the burning building.

Convert the following passive sentences into active voice.

1.​ The new policy was approved by the board of directors.

2.​ The cake has been baked by Sarah.
3.​ The documents will be signed by the CEO tomorrow.
4.​ The bridge was being repaired by the workers when the accident occurred.
5.​ The results have already been announced by the committee.
6.​ The concert is being held at the city stadium.
7.​ The thief was caught by the police last night.
8.​ A lot of progress has been made in the project.
9.​ The novel was written by a famous author.
10.​ Homework is always assigned by the teacher on Mondays.

38
Complete the text below by filling in the gaps with the correct form of the verb in either active or
passive voice.

The museum in our city (1) ________ (build) in 1920 and (2) ________ (visit) by millions of people since its
opening. Last year, the management (3) ________ (decide) to renovate it to make it more accessible and
modern. The renovation project (4) ________ (complete) by a team of skilled architects and workers in just
eight months. During this time, many historical artifacts (5) ________ (move) to temporary storage
facilities.

Once the renovation (6) ________ (finish), the museum’s director (7) ________ (organize) a grand
reopening ceremony. Invitations (8) ________ (send) to local dignitaries and prominent historians, and the
event (9) ________ (broadcast) live on television. Several visitors (10) ________ (comment) on how
beautifully the building (11) ________ (restore), with one guest saying it (12) ________ (transform) into a
masterpiece.

In the first month after reopening, the museum (13) ________ (welcome) over 100,000 visitors. Special
exhibitions (14) ________ (hold) weekly to attract more people, and feedback (15) ________ (collect) from
attendees to continuously improve the experience. “The museum (16) ________ (love) by everyone,” the
director proudly (17) ________ (state) in a recent interview.

39
EXERCISES SOLVED

Convert the following active sentences into passive voice.

1.​ A new airport is being designed in the city.

2.​ The vaccine was discovered in record time.
3.​ The results will be announced tomorrow.
4.​ My wallet has been stolen from the bag.
5.​ The house is being cleaned for the party.
6.​ He was not invited to the meeting.
7.​ The application should be reviewed before approval.
8.​ The invitations for the event have already been sent.
9.​ Spanish is spoken in many countries around the world.
10.​ The proposal was being discussed when I entered the room.
11.​ Homework is going to be assigned tomorrow.
12.​ This building was designed by the architect in the 1920s.
13.​ The work will be completed by next Friday.
14.​ The packages had been delivered before the deadline.
15.​ The family was rescued from the burning building by the firefighters.

Convert the following passive sentences into active voice.

1.​ The board of directors approved the new policy.

2.​ Sarah has baked the cake.
3.​ The CEO will sign the documents tomorrow.
4.​ The workers were repairing the bridge when the accident occurred.
5.​ The committee has already announced the results.
6.​ They are holding the concert at the city stadium.
7.​ The police caught the thief last night.
8.​ The team has made a lot of progress in the project.
9.​ A famous author wrote the novel.
10.​ The teacher always assigns homework on Mondays.

40
Complete the text below by filling in the gaps with the correct form of the verb in either active or
passive voice.

The museum in our city (1) was built in 1920 and (2) has been visited by millions of people since its
opening. Last year, the management (3) decided to renovate it to make it more accessible and modern.
The renovation project (4) was completed by a team of skilled architects and workers in just eight months.
During this time, many historical artifacts (5) were moved to temporary storage facilities.

Once the renovation (6) was finished, the museum’s director (7) organized a grand reopening ceremony.
Invitations (8) were sent to local dignitaries and prominent historians, and the event (9) was broadcast live
on television. Several visitors (10) commented on how beautifully the building (11) had been restored, with
one guest saying it (12) was transformed into a masterpiece.

In the first month after reopening, the museum (13) welcomed over 100,000 visitors. Special exhibitions
(14) are being held weekly to attract more people, and feedback (15) is collected from attendees to
continuously improve the experience. “The museum (16) is loved by everyone,” the director proudly (17)
stated in a recent interview.

41
UNIT 6 REFLEXIVE NOUNS
Reflexive pronouns are used when the subject and the object of a verb are the same person or thing. In
other words, the action is being done by someone or something to itself. Reflexive pronouns always end in
-self (singular) or -selves (plural).

SUBJECT PRONOUN REFLEXIVE PRONOUN

I Myself

You (Singular) Yourself

He Himself

She Herself

It Itself

We Ourselves

You (Plural) Yourselves

They Themselves

What do we use reflexive nouns for?

To emphasize the subject or object ("self-directed actions")​

Reflexive pronouns are used when the subject does something to itself.

●​ She cut herself while cooking.

●​ The cat cleaned itself after eating.
●​ We taught ourselves how to play the guitar.

For emphasis ("emphatic reflexive")​

Reflexive pronouns are used to stress that someone did something personally, often with words like by.

●​ I’ll do it myself!
●​ The president himself attended the meeting.
●​ They solved the problem themselves without help.

After certain verbs with specific meanings​

Reflexive pronouns often follow verbs that describe actions people typically do to themselves.

●​ He blamed himself for the mistake.

●​ They introduced themselves to the new teacher.
●​ She prepared herself for the exam.

42
Idiomatic expressions​
Reflexive pronouns are used in some fixed expressions.

●​ Make yourself at home.

●​ Help yourself to some snacks.
●​ Behave yourself!

WATCH OUT!

We tend to make some common mistakes, such as using reflexive pronouns if the subject and object are
not the same:

-​ Incorrect: He asked myself for help.

-​ Correct: He asked me for help.

Using reflexive pronouns with passive voice unnecessarily:

-​ Incorrect: The homework was done by myself.

-​ Correct: The homework was done by me.

Here are some more examples so you get a better understanding:

●​ I enjoyed myself at the party last night.

●​ The children managed to cook dinner by themselves.
●​ She found herself in a difficult situation.
●​ He hurt himself while climbing the tree.
●​ The robot programmed itself to perform better.

43
EXERCISES

Complete the sentences below with the correct reflexive pronoun.

1.​ I cut _________ while chopping vegetables.

2.​ The children enjoyed _________ at the park.
3.​ Sarah blames _________ for failing the exam.
4.​ We decorated the entire house by _________.
5.​ The dog scratched _________ while playing in the garden.
6.​ Please introduce _________ to the new guests.
7.​ He taught _________ how to play the piano.
8.​ You don’t need to worry; just be _________!
9.​ The computer restarted _________ after the power surge.
10.​ They managed to finish the project all by _________.

Each sentence below contains a reflexive pronoun mistake. Rewrite the sentences correctly.

1.​ She herself cooked dinner by itself.

2.​ He told to himself a secret.
3.​ They blamed ourselves for the mistake.
4.​ I taught myselfs how to fix the bike.
5.​ The cat was cleaning hisself after eating.
6.​ You should take care of myself when I’m sick.
7.​ We prepared ourself for the upcoming test.
8.​ Did you see the accident itself?
9.​ You and Peter need to behave yourselfs in the classroom.
10.​ My parents asked myself to explain my decision.

44
Choose the correct reflexive pronoun in each sentence.

1.​ I didn’t need anyone’s help; I did it (myself / ourselves / itself).

2.​ The bird injured (herself / itself / himself) while flying into the window.
3.​ They found (themselves / yourselves / itself) lost in the forest.
4.​ Maria always talks to (herself / itself / themselves) when she’s nervous.
5.​ We should try to fix the issue by (themselves / ourselves / herself).
6.​ Did you see the prime minister (himself / itself / yourself) at the event?
7.​ The car fixed (itself / ourselves / himself) after the mechanic’s adjustments.
8.​ Please help (yourselves / itself / herself) to some coffee.
9.​ I couldn’t believe my eyes when I saw the actor (herself / myself / himself).
10.​ The kids entertained (themselves / yourselves / itself) while waiting for dinner.

45
EXERCISES SOLVED

Complete the sentences below with the correct reflexive pronoun.

1.​ I cut myself while chopping vegetables.

2.​ The children enjoyed themselves at the park.
3.​ Sarah blames herself for failing the exam.
4.​ We decorated the entire house by ourselves.
5.​ The dog scratched itself while playing in the garden.
6.​ Please introduce yourself to the new guests.
7.​ He taught himself how to play the piano.
8.​ You don’t need to worry; just be yourself!
9.​ The computer restarted itself after the power surge.
10.​ They managed to finish the project all by themselves.

Each sentence below contains a reflexive pronoun mistake. Rewrite the sentences correctly.

1.​ She herself cooked dinner by herself.

Correct: She herself cooked dinner.
2.​ He told himself a secret.
Correct: He told himself a secret.
3.​ They blamed themselves for the mistake.
Correct: They blamed themselves for the mistake.
4.​ I taught myself how to fix the bike.
Correct: I taught myself how to fix the bike.
5.​ The cat was cleaning itself after eating.
Correct: The cat was cleaning itself after eating.
6.​ You should take care of yourself when I’m sick.
Correct: You should take care of yourself when I’m sick.
7.​ We prepared ourselves for the upcoming test.
Correct: We prepared ourselves for the upcoming test.
8.​ Did you see the accident itself?
Correct: Did you see the accident itself?
9.​ You and Peter need to behave yourselves in the classroom.
Correct: You and Peter need to behave yourselves in the classroom.
10.​ My parents asked me to explain my decision.
Correct: My parents asked me to explain my decision.

46
Choose the correct reflexive pronoun in each sentence.

1.​ I didn’t need anyone’s help; I did it myself.

2.​ The bird injured itself while flying into the window.
3.​ They found themselves lost in the forest.
4.​ Maria always talks to herself when she’s nervous.
5.​ We should try to fix the issue by ourselves.
6.​ Did you see the prime minister himself at the event?
7.​ The car fixed itself after the mechanic’s adjustments.
8.​ Please help yourselves to some coffee.
9.​ I couldn’t believe my eyes when I saw the actor himself.
10.​ The kids entertained themselves while waiting for dinner.

47
UNIT 7 RELATIVE CLAUSES
Relative pronouns are used to introduce relative clauses, which provide more information about a noun or
pronoun in the main clause.

Relative pronouns connect clauses, allowing speakers and writers to avoid repeating words or phrases.

Without a relative pronoun:

●​ I met a woman. The woman is a doctor.

With a relative pronoun:

●​ I met a woman who is a doctor.

They allow for more complex sentence construction, essential for formal and academic writing. By
embedding information into a single sentence, relative clauses make ideas more sophisticated.

●​ Simple: The students wrote an essay. The essay was about climate change.
●​ Complex: The students wrote an essay that was about climate change.

Using relative pronouns helps create a natural flow in speech and writing. Without them, sentences can
feel disjointed or overly simplistic.

●​ Choppy: I know a musician. The musician plays jazz. Jazz is his favorite genre.
●​ Fluent: I know a musician who plays jazz, which is his favorite genre.

At the B2 level, you need a deeper understanding of their functions, rules, and nuances.

Who

Refers to people and acts as the subject of the relative clause.

●​ This is the woman who helped me.​

(Who = subject of "helped.")

Whom

Refers to people and acts as the object of the verb or preposition in the relative clause.

●​ The person whom I called didn’t answer.​

(Whom = object of "called.")
●​ OR: The person who I called didn’t answer (less formal).

Whose

Refers to possession for people, animals, or things.

48
 ●​ That’s the man whose car broke down.​
(Whose = possession of "car.")

Which

Refers to things or animals and can act as the subject or object of the relative clause.

●​ The book which I borrowed was fascinating.

●​ This is the house which was built last year.

That

Refers to people, animals, or things in defining relative clauses. Cannot be used in non-defining relative
clauses.

●​ The car that broke down belongs to my neighbor.

●​ The girl that I met is from Spain.

We have two different types of relative clauses in the English language:

Defining Relative Clauses

Provide essential information about the noun they describe. No commas are used.

●​ The man who lives next door is a doctor.​

(The clause is essential to identify which man.)

Non-Defining Relative Clauses

Add extra, non-essential information about the noun. Commas are used.

●​ My brother, who lives in Canada, is coming to visit.​

(The clause gives extra information; the main meaning remains clear without it.)

WATCH OUT!

In some cases, the relative pronoun can be omitted when it functions as the object of the relative clause.

●​ The book that I’m reading is interesting.

●​ The book I’m reading is interesting. (Both are correct.)

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When a preposition is needed, it can either:

Precede the relative pronoun (formal):

●​ The house in which I live is old.

Follow the verb or object (less formal):

●​ The house I live in is old.

We must also go over the list of mistakes we could easily make:

Using the wrong pronoun:

●​ Incorrect: The woman which works here is kind.

●​ Correct: The woman who works here is kind.

Omitting necessary commas in non-defining clauses:

●​ Incorrect: My father who is retired enjoys gardening.

●​ Correct: My father, who is retired, enjoys gardening.

Using "that" in non-defining clauses:

●​ Incorrect: My car, that is red, is parked outside.

●​ Correct: My car, which is red, is parked outside.

Finally, let’s go over some more examples so the explanation is complete:

●​ The student whose phone rang was embarrassed.

●​ The company, which was founded in 1990, is very successful.
●​ This is the hotel where we stayed during our vacation.
●​ The movie that won the award was amazing.
●​ He met a woman whom he admired greatly.

Relative pronouns play a critical role in the English language because they enhance clarity, cohesion, and
detail in communication.

50
EXERCISES

Fill in the blanks with the correct relative pronoun.

1.​ The woman ___ lives next door is a doctor.

2.​ This is the book ___ I borrowed from the library.
3.​ My brother, ___ is a pilot, is visiting us this weekend.
4.​ Do you know the man ___ car was stolen?
5.​ The cake ___ she baked for the party was delicious.
6.​ That’s the museum ___ I visited last summer.
7.​ The company ___ products are eco-friendly is gaining popularity.
8.​ The dog ___ I adopted last year is very playful.
9.​ My uncle, ___ I admire greatly, is an excellent teacher.
10.​ This is the place ___ we met for the first time.
11.​ The girl ___ he was talking to seemed very friendly.
12.​ We visited the park ___ was recently renovated.
13.​ The singer, ___ voice is incredible, performed beautifully.
14.​ This is the same jacket ___ I saw at the store yesterday.
15.​ The house ___ roof was damaged in the storm is being repaired.

Combine the sentences using relative pronouns.

1.​ I know a girl. She plays the violin.

2.​ We stayed at a hotel. It was very comfortable.
3.​ That is the boy. His father works at the bank.
4.​ They bought a car. It was quite expensive.
5.​ The movie was amazing. We watched it last night.
6.​ That’s the teacher. She taught me how to write essays.
7.​ The man was very polite. I spoke to him this morning.
8.​ This is the restaurant. They serve the best pizza in town.
9.​ My neighbor has a dog. The dog barks all night.
10.​ The book is on the table. It belongs to Sarah.

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EXERCISES SOLVED

Fill in the blanks with the correct relative pronoun.

1.​ The woman who lives next door is a doctor.

2.​ This is the book that I borrowed from the library.
3.​ My brother, who is a pilot, is visiting us this weekend.
4.​ Do you know the man whose car was stolen?
5.​ The cake that she baked for the party was delicious.
6.​ That’s the museum which I visited last summer.
7.​ The company whose products are eco-friendly is gaining popularity.
8.​ The dog which I adopted last year is very playful.
9.​ My uncle, whom I admire greatly, is an excellent teacher.
10.​ This is the place where we met for the first time.
11.​ The girl whom he was talking to seemed very friendly.
12.​ We visited the park that was recently renovated.
13.​ The singer, whose voice is incredible, performed beautifully.
14.​ This is the same jacket that I saw at the store yesterday.
15.​ The house whose roof was damaged in the storm is being repaired.

Combine the sentences using relative pronouns.

1.​ I know a girl who plays the violin.

2.​ We stayed at a hotel that was very comfortable.
3.​ That is the boy whose father works at the bank.
4.​ They bought a car that was quite expensive.
5.​ The movie which we watched last night was amazing.
6.​ That’s the teacher who taught me how to write essays.
7.​ The man whom I spoke to this morning was very polite.
8.​ This is the restaurant where they serve the best pizza in town.
9.​ My neighbor has a dog which barks all night.
10.​ The book that is on the table belongs to Sarah.

52
UNIT 8 AUXILIARY VERBS
Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs, play a crucial role in forming complex verb phrases,
questions, negatives, and certain grammatical structures in English.

They are not used on their own but work with main verbs to convey tense, mood, voice, or emphasis.

Auxiliary verbs are essential in English for creating grammatical variety and precision.

Understanding their functions helps in mastering sentence construction, forming questions, and conveying
nuanced meanings like obligation, possibility, or formality.

Primary Auxiliary Verbs

These include be, have, and do. They assist in forming various grammatical constructions.

Be: Used for forming continuous and passive tenses.

●​ Continuous: She is working late today.

●​ Passive: The book was written by a famous author.

Have: Used for forming perfect tenses.

●​ Present Perfect: They have finished their homework.

●​ Past Perfect: She had left before the meeting started.

Do: Used to form questions, negatives, and emphatic statements in the present or past simple tense.

●​ Questions: Do you like coffee?

●​ Negatives: I didn’t see the movie.
●​ Emphasis: I do understand the problem.

Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Modals (e.g., can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must) express ideas like ability, possibility,
necessity, or advice.

-​ Ability: She can speak three languages.

-​ Possibility: It might rain later.
-​ Necessity: You must wear a seatbelt.
-​ Advice: You should take some rest.

Now that it’s clear how many types of auxiliary verbs we can find, let’s go over their functions:

Forming Tenses

Auxiliary verbs help form continuous, perfect, and perfect continuous tenses.

53
Continuous Tenses (with be):

●​ I am studying for my exam. (Present Continuous)

●​ They were running when it started to rain. (Past Continuous)

Perfect Tenses (with have):

●​ She has completed her work. (Present Perfect)

●​ We had already left by the time you arrived. (Past Perfect)

Making Questions

Auxiliaries invert with the subject to form questions.

●​ Do you know the answer?

●​ Have you seen this movie before?
●​ Will she attend the party?

Creating Negatives

Negatives are formed by adding not (or its contracted form n't) after the auxiliary verb.

●​ I don’t like spicy food.

●​ She hasn’t arrived yet.
●​ They shouldn’t waste their time.

Passive Voice

The verb be is used as an auxiliary to form the passive voice.

●​ The project was completed on time.

●​ This song is loved by many people.

Emphasis

The auxiliary do is used for emphasis in positive statements.

●​ I do enjoy reading novels.

●​ He did finish his homework!

Politeness and Formality

Modal auxiliaries add politeness or formality.

●​ May I borrow your pen?

●​ Could you explain that again, please?

54
WATCH OUT!

Using auxiliaries unnecessarily

●​ Incorrect: He doesn’t knows the answer.

●​ Correct: He doesn’t know the answer.

Confusing modals and main verbs

●​ Incorrect: She must to go now.

●​ Correct: She must go now.

Omitting auxiliaries in negatives or questions

●​ Incorrect: You not understand me.

●​ Correct: You don’t understand me.

In summary, auxiliary verbs are fundamental to the structure and clarity of the English language.

Without them, it would be impossible to express actions or states accurately in time.

●​ She is reading a book. (Present Continuous)

●​ They have finished their homework. (Present Perfect)
●​ We were watching TV when the phone rang. (Past Continuous)

Without auxiliaries, forming such sentences would be unclear.

●​ Question: Do you like coffee?

●​ Negative: I don’t want to go to the party.

They enable the passive voice, allowing for a shift in focus from the subject performing an action to the
object receiving the action.

●​ Active: The chef cooked the meal.

●​ Passive: The meal was cooked by the chef.

Auxiliary verbs are a cornerstone of English grammar, facilitating everything from basic sentence
construction to expressing complex ideas and nuanced emotions.

Their importance lies in their versatility and indispensability in making communication smooth, precise, and
effective.

55
EXERCISES

Read each sentence, underline the auxiliary verb(s), and state their function (e.g., tense, question,
negative, emphasis, etc.).

1.​ She is reading a fascinating novel about ancient Egypt.

2.​ I haven’t seen him for weeks.
3.​ Did you understand the instructions?
4.​ They have been working hard on their group project.
5.​ He can play the piano beautifully.
6.​ The homework must be submitted by Friday.
7.​ I don’t know why he’s upset.
8.​ You might want to double-check the report before sending it.
9.​ If she had known, she would have helped.
10.​ The cake was baked by my grandmother.

Choose the correct auxiliary verb(s) to complete the sentences.

1.​ She __________ never been to Paris before. (has / is / does)

2.​ __________ you know where the nearest bus stop is? (Have / Do / Are)
3.​ The movie __________ being filmed in London right now. (is / has / does)
4.​ They __________ left by the time we arrived. (had / have / are)
5.​ You __________ not borrow my car without permission! (must / may / will)
6.​ We __________ studying for hours before the test. (have been / were / had)
7.​ I __________ not agree with his decision. (do / am / have)
8.​ Could you __________ me a favor? (do / make / have)
9.​ If I __________ known, I would have told you. (had / have / was)
10.​ The house __________ sold last month. (was / has / is)

56
For each sentence, rewrite it as a question or a negative sentence using the appropriate auxiliary verb.

1.​ She has completed the assignment.

2.​ They will arrive at 8:00 PM.
3.​ He can solve this puzzle quickly.
4.​ The book was written by a famous author.
5.​ I am watching a documentary about climate change.
6.​ She could lend us some money if we asked.
7.​ We have been waiting for an hour.
8.​ They were discussing the new project at the meeting.
9.​ You must take your shoes off before entering.
10.​ He does understand the problem.
11.​ She will invite us to her party.
12.​ They had finished their homework before dinner.
13.​ He is learning to play the guitar.
14.​ The problem can be solved easily.
15.​ We were planning a trip to the mountains.

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EXERCISES SOLVED

Read each sentence, underline the auxiliary verb(s), and state their function (e.g., tense, question,
negative, emphasis, etc.).

1.​ is reading - Auxiliary verb: is (Function: Present Continuous Tense)

2.​ haven’t seen - Auxiliary verb: haven’t (Function: Negative form of Present Perfect Tense)
3.​ Did - Auxiliary verb: Did (Function: Question form in Past Simple Tense)
4.​ have been working - Auxiliary verb: have been (Function: Present Perfect Continuous Tense)
5.​ can play - Auxiliary verb: can (Function: Ability/Permission Modal)
6.​ must be submitted - Auxiliary verb: must (Function: Necessity/Obligation Modal)
7.​ don’t know - Auxiliary verb: don’t (Function: Negative form of Present Simple Tense)
8.​ might want - Auxiliary verb: might (Function: Possibility/Advice Modal)
9.​ had known - Auxiliary verb: had (Function: Past Perfect Tense)
10.​ was baked - Auxiliary verb: was (Function: Passive Voice in Past Simple)

Choose the correct auxiliary verb(s) to complete the sentences.

1.​ She has never been to Paris before. (has)

2.​ Do you know where the nearest bus stop is? (Do)
3.​ The movie is being filmed in London right now. (is)
4.​ They had left by the time we arrived. (had)
5.​ You must not borrow my car without permission! (must)
6.​ We have been studying for hours before the test. (have been)
7.​ I do not agree with his decision. (do)
8.​ Could you do me a favor? (do)
9.​ If I had known, I would have told you. (had)
10.​ The house was sold last month. (was)

58
For each sentence, rewrite it as a question or a negative sentence using the appropriate auxiliary verb.

●​ She has completed the assignment.

Question: Has she completed the assignment?

Negative: She has not completed the assignment.

●​ They will arrive at 8:00 PM.

Question: Will they arrive at 8:00 PM?

Negative: They will not arrive at 8:00 PM.

●​ He can solve this puzzle quickly.

Question: Can he solve this puzzle quickly?

Negative: He cannot solve this puzzle quickly.

●​ The book was written by a famous author.

Question: Was the book written by a famous author?

Negative: The book was not written by a famous author.

●​ I am watching a documentary about climate change.

Question: Am I watching a documentary about climate change?

Negative: I am not watching a documentary about climate change.

●​ She could lend us some money if we asked.

Question: Could she lend us some money if we asked?

Negative: She could not lend us some money if we asked.

●​ We have been waiting for an hour.

Question: Have we been waiting for an hour?

Negative: We have not been waiting for an hour.

59
●​ They were discussing the new project at the meeting.

Question: Were they discussing the new project at the meeting?

Negative: They were not discussing the new project at the meeting.

●​ You must take your shoes off before entering.

Question: Must you take your shoes off before entering?

Negative: You must not take your shoes off before entering.

●​ He does understand the problem.

Question: Does he understand the problem?

Negative: He does not understand the problem.

●​ She will invite us to her party.

Question: Will she invite us to her party?

Negative: She will not invite us to her party.

●​ They had finished their homework before dinner.

Question: Had they finished their homework before dinner?

Negative: They had not finished their homework before dinner.

●​ He is learning to play the guitar.

Question: Is he learning to play the guitar?

Negative: He is not learning to play the guitar.

●​ The problem can be solved easily.

Question: Can the problem be solved easily?

Negative: The problem cannot be solved easily.

●​ We were planning a trip to the mountains.

Question: Were we planning a trip to the mountains?

Negative: We were not planning a trip to the mountains.

60
UNIT 9 REPORTED SPEECH
Reported speech is a way to convey what someone else has said without quoting their exact words. It
involves changing pronouns, time expressions, and often the verb tense, depending on the context.

It is an essential part of communication in English for the following reasons:

Summarizing Information

Instead of quoting word for word, reported speech helps summarize someone’s statement, especially in
conversations, storytelling, or news reporting.

●​ Direct: "I have to leave because I have an appointment."

●​ Reported: He said he had to leave because he had an appointment.

Maintaining a Formal

Reported speech often softens the tone, making it less direct, which can be more appropriate in formal
situations.

●​ Direct: "Close the door immediately!"

●​ Reported: She told me to close the door.

Focusing on the Content

Reported speech shifts attention from the speaker's exact phrasing to the main idea or message.

●​ Direct: "The concert was amazing! I’ve never seen anything like it."
●​ Reported: She said the concert was amazing and that she had never seen anything like it.

Incorporating Past Events in Narratives

When telling stories or recounting past conversations, reported speech integrates quotes smoothly.

●​ Direct: "I will call you tomorrow."

●​ Reported: She said she would call me the next day.

Reporting Questions and Requests

Reported speech allows questions or commands to be communicated indirectly.

●​ Direct: "Do you know the time?"

●​ Reported: He asked if I knew the time.

When it comes to reporting a speech, we must consider a few points, so far, tense backshifting is key.

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If the reporting verb is in the past (e.g., said, told), the verb tense in the reported clause usually moves one
step back in time.

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

Present simple “I work here” She said she worked here

Present continuous “I’m reading” He said he was reading

Present perfect “I’ve eaten” She said she had eaten

Past simple “I went home” He said he had gone home

Future simple “I will call you” She said she would call me

Pronouns are adjusted to match the perspective of the reporter.

●​ Direct: "I love my job."

●​ Reported: He said he loved his job.

Words related to time and place often change to reflect the shift in context.

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

Today That day

Tomorrow The next day

Yesterday The day before

Here There

Now Then

WATCH OUT!

If the reporting verb is in the present or the original statement refers to a general truth, backshifting may
not occur.

●​ Direct: "The Earth is round."

●​ Reported: She says the Earth is round.

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REPORTING QUESTIONS

-​ Yes/No Questions​
Use if or whether to introduce the reported question.
●​ Direct: "Do you like pizza?"
●​ Reported: She asked if I liked pizza.
-​ WH-Questions​
Retain the question word (who, what, where, etc.) but use statement word order.
●​ Direct: "Where do you live?"
●​ Reported: He asked where I lived.

Now that we have understood the grammar perspective, we’re going to see a few more examples:

Statements

●​ Direct: "I am studying for the test."

●​ Reported: She said she was studying for the test.

Questions

●​ Direct: "Why are you late?"

●​ Reported: He asked why I was late.

Commands/Requests

Use to + verb or not to + verb.

●​ Direct: "Please close the window."

●​ Reported: He asked me to close the window.
●​ Direct: "Don’t be late."
●​ Reported: She told me not to be late.

63
Bearing in mind that B2 level doesn’t imply advanced structures, let’s see a sneak peek of what we’ll
stumble upon in the C1 manual:

Reporting Modals

●​ "Can" → "could": "I can swim" → He said he could swim.

●​ "May" → "might": "I may leave early" → She said she might leave early.
●​ "Must" → "had to" (for obligation): "I must finish this" → He said he had to finish it.

Conditional Sentences

●​ Direct: "If I had more time, I would travel."

●​ Reported: She said that if she had more time, she would travel.

Mixed Reporting Verbs​

Some verbs require different structures:

●​ Advice: "You should rest" → He advised me to rest.

●​ Suggest: "Let's go out" → He suggested going out.

TEACHER TIP:

Always consider the context of the reporting and whether tense backshifting is necessary.

If the original statement still applies (e.g., "The train leaves at 6 PM"), no backshifting is required.

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EXERCISES

Rewrite the sentences in reported speech.

1.​ She said, "I am reading a great book."

2.​ He asked, "Where are you going tomorrow?"
3.​ They said, "We will finish the project soon."
4.​ She asked, "Did you complete your homework?"
5.​ He said, "I have already seen that movie."
6.​ She told me, "Don't forget to lock the door."
7.​ They said, "We were waiting for you."
8.​ He asked, "Why didn’t you call me?"
9.​ She said, "I might join the meeting later."
10.​ He asked, "Who wrote this article?"

Rewrite the sentences in direct speech.

1.​ She said she had lost her keys.

2.​ He asked me if I could help him with the task.
3.​ They told me not to be late for the party.
4.​ She said she would call me the next day.
5.​ He said he didn’t like coffee.
6.​ They said they were planning to travel next month.
7.​ She asked if I was feeling better.
8.​ He said he had been working all day.
9.​ She told him to take an umbrella because it was raining.
10.​ They asked who had taken their book.

65
Complete the sentences by converting the direct speech into reported speech.

1.​ "Can you help me with my homework?" → She asked if …

2.​ "We are going to the park later." → They said that …
3.​ "What time does the train leave?" → He asked what time …
4.​ "Don’t touch the wires!" → She told me …
5.​ "I haven’t finished my assignment yet." → He said that …
6.​ "Did she enjoy the concert?" → He asked if …
7.​ "Please close the door behind you." → He requested me …
8.​ "I am thinking about joining a yoga class." → She said that …
9.​ "Why are you so late today?" → They asked me …
10.​ "We will meet you at the restaurant." → They said that …
11.​ "How much does this cost?" → She asked how much …
12.​ "We had a great time at the beach yesterday." → They said that …
13.​ "Don’t forget to bring your ID card." → He reminded me …
14.​ "I was feeling unwell last night." → She mentioned that …
15.​ "Why didn’t you reply to my email?" → He asked why …

66
EXERCISES SOLVED

Rewrite the sentences in reported speech.

1.​ She said that she was reading a great book.

2.​ He asked where I was going the next day.
3.​ They said that they would finish the project soon.
4.​ She asked if I had completed my homework.
5.​ He said that he had already seen that movie.
6.​ She told me not to forget to lock the door.
7.​ They said that they had been waiting for me.
8.​ He asked why I hadn’t called him.
9.​ She said that she might join the meeting later.
10.​ He asked who had written that article.

Rewrite the sentences in direct speech.

1.​ She said, "I lost my keys."

2.​ He asked, "Can you help me with the task?"
3.​ They told me, "Don’t be late for the party."
4.​ She said, "I will call you tomorrow."
5.​ He said, "I don’t like coffee."
6.​ They said, "We are planning to travel next month."
7.​ She asked, "Are you feeling better?"
8.​ He said, "I have been working all day."
9.​ She told him, "Take an umbrella because it’s raining."
10.​ They asked, "Who took our book?"

67
Complete the sentences by converting the direct speech into reported speech.

1.​ She asked if I could help her with her homework.

2.​ They said that they were going to the park later.
3.​ He asked what time the train left.
4.​ She told me not to touch the wires.
5.​ He said that he hadn’t finished his assignment yet.
6.​ He asked if she had enjoyed the concert.
7.​ He requested me to close the door behind me.
8.​ She said that she was thinking about joining a yoga class.
9.​ They asked me why I was so late that day.
10.​ They said that they would meet me at the restaurant.
11.​ She asked how much that cost.
12.​ They said that they had had a great time at the beach the previous day.
13.​ He reminded me to bring my ID card.
14.​ She mentioned that she had been feeling unwell the night before.
15.​ He asked why I hadn’t replied to his email.

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UNIT 10 CONNECTORS
Connectors, also known as linking words or discourse markers, play a crucial role in connecting ideas in a
sentence or between sentences.

At the B2 level, they are essential for creating complex, cohesive, and coherent communication.

Connectors allow for smoother communication, help maintain coherence, and make writing more polished.
A strong grasp of connectors at the B2 level demonstrates the ability to build complex arguments and
articulate ideas effectively.

During my live speaking lessons, I always insist on the importance of using connectors during our
interventions since it will make us different from the rest. We might be competing against smart people but
giving your speech a sense of cohesion and sense will make you stand out.

We’re going to develop each type thoroughly:

Additive Connectors

These connectors are used to add information.

●​ And: Links similar ideas.​

- She enjoys hiking, and she also loves camping.
●​ Moreover/Furthermore: Introduces additional points, emphasizing importance.​
- The trip was exhausting. Moreover, the weather was terrible.
●​ In addition: Adds extra information in a formal tone.​
- He is an excellent chef. In addition, he runs a food blog.

Adversative Connectors

Used to contrast ideas.

●​ But: Indicates contrast.​

- She wanted to go to the party, but she had too much work.
●​ However: Presents a counterpoint formally.​
- It was raining heavily. However, they decided to play football.
●​ Nevertheless/Nonetheless: Highlights an exception despite the previous statement.​
- The movie received bad reviews. Nevertheless, it performed well at the box office.
●​ On the other hand: Compares two opposite aspects.​
- Living in a city offers convenience. On the other hand, it can be noisy and crowded.

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Causal Connectors

Explain reasons or causes.

●​ Because: Provides a reason.​

- She stayed home because she wasn’t feeling well.
●​ Since/As: Indicates a cause or reason formally.​
- Since the bus was late, we missed the meeting.
●​ Therefore/Thus: Indicates a result.​
- He studied hard; therefore, he passed the exam with flying colors.
●​ As a result: Shows a consequence of an earlier action.​
- It was freezing. As a result, the event was canceled.

Sequential Connectors

Help sequence actions, ideas, or events.

●​ First/Firstly, Second/Secondly, Finally: Order points in a logical flow.​

- Firstly, we’ll discuss the project. Secondly, we’ll assign tasks. Finally, we’ll set deadlines.
●​ Then/After that: Sequence events informally.​
- She packed her bag, and then she left for the airport.
●​ Meanwhile: Indicates simultaneous actions.​
- I was cooking dinner. Meanwhile, he was setting the table.

Conditional Connectors

Express conditions.

●​ If: Introduces a condition.​

- If it rains, we’ll stay indoors.
●​ Unless: Indicates a condition in the negative.​
- You can’t leave unless you finish your work.
●​ Provided that/As long as: Expresses a condition with a stipulation.​
- You can borrow my car as long as you return it by evening.

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Comparative Connectors

Highlight similarities or differences.

●​ Like/As: Shows similarity.​

- She sings like a professional.
●​ While/Whereas: Contrast ideas or situations.​
- She enjoys running, whereas he prefers cycling.

Exemplification Connectors

Provide examples.

●​ For example/For instance: Introduces a specific instance.​

- Many countries have strict visa policies. For instance, you need an invitation to visit Russia.
●​ Such as: Introduces specific examples.​
- She enjoys outdoor activities such as hiking and cycling.

Summative Connectors

Summarize or conclude a discussion.

●​ In conclusion/To sum up: Formal conclusion.​

- To sum up, teamwork is essential for success.
●​ All in all: Informal summary.​
- All in all, it was a great vacation despite some minor issues.
●​ In short: Brief conclusion.​
- In short, the meeting was productive and insightful.

Contrastive Connectors

Highlight differences or contradictions.

●​ Although/Even though: Concede a point before contrasting it.​

- Although it was late, she continued working.
●​ Despite/In spite of: Show contrast with a noun or noun phrase.​
- Despite the heavy rain, the event went ahead.
●​ While: Contrasts simultaneous actions.​
- While he prefers tea, she enjoys coffee.

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Purpose Connectors

Indicate the goal or purpose of an action.

●​ To/In order to/So as to: Explain purpose.​

- She left early to catch the train.
●​ So that: Indicates purpose with an explanation.​
- He explained the topic clearly so that everyone could understand.

Emphatic Connectors

Add emphasis to a statement.

●​ Indeed: Reinforces a point.​

- He is indeed one of the best players in the team.
●​ Actually: Clarifies or contradicts.​
- I thought the movie was boring. Actually, it was quite interesting.
●​ In fact: Provides additional support to a point.​
- She loves animals. In fact, she has three dogs and two cats.

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EXERCISES

Complete the sentences below with a suitable connector (e.g., because, although, moreover, unless, in
conclusion, etc.).

1.​ I stayed at home ___ it was raining heavily.

2.​ She enjoys outdoor activities ___ hiking and camping.
3.​ He studies hard every day; ___, he still struggles with math.
4.​ The project was delayed ___ the team did not meet the deadline.
5.​ She opened the window ___ it was too hot inside.
6.​ ___ it was her first time skiing, she managed quite well.
7.​ I will join the trip ___ I finish my work on time.
8.​ They visited several cities during their vacation. ___, they went to Paris and Rome.
9.​ He has lived in three countries. ___, he speaks four languages fluently.
10.​ The company expanded its services. ___, profits increased significantly.
11.​ The book was interesting; ___, the movie adaptation was disappointing.
12.​ She arrived early ___ she could prepare for her presentation.
13.​ You can’t enter the building ___ you have a valid ID.
14.​ ___ the weather was bad, the picnic was not canceled.
15.​ ___, teamwork and communication are essential for a successful project.

Rewrite the sentences below using a suitable connector to combine the ideas.

1.​ The sun was shining. We decided to go for a walk.

2.​ He failed the exam. He didn’t study enough.
3.​ I like coffee. I prefer tea.
4.​ She worked hard. She didn’t get the promotion.
5.​ The train was delayed. We missed the meeting.
6.​ The car broke down. We had to call a tow truck.
7.​ She doesn’t like spicy food. She ordered a mild dish.
8.​ He enjoys playing football. He also likes basketball.
9.​ I didn’t know the answer. I guessed.
10.​ He was tired. He kept working until late.

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EXERCISES SOLVED

Complete the sentences below with a suitable connector (e.g., because, although, moreover, unless, in
conclusion, etc.).

1.​ because
2.​ such as
3.​ however
4.​ because
5.​ because
6.​ Although
7.​ unless
8.​ Moreover
9.​ In addition
10.​ As a result
11.​ however
12.​ so
13.​ unless
14.​ Although
15.​ In conclusion

Rewrite the sentences below using a suitable connector to combine the ideas.

1.​ The sun was shining, so we decided to go for a walk.

2.​ He failed the exam because he didn’t study enough.
3.​ I like coffee, but I prefer tea.
4.​ She worked hard, but she didn’t get the promotion.
5.​ The train was delayed, so we missed the meeting.
6.​ The car broke down, so we had to call a tow truck.
7.​ She doesn’t like spicy food, so she ordered a mild dish.
8.​ He enjoys playing football and also likes basketball.
9.​ I didn’t know the answer, so I guessed.
10.​ He was tired, but he kept working until late.

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