DISTANCE LEARNING CENTRE

AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY

ZARIA, NIGERIA

COURSE MATERIAL

FOR

Course Code & Title: 407/ DATA COMMUNICATION AND

NETWORKS

Programme Title: B.Sc COMPUTER SCIENCE

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We acknowledge the use of the Courseware of the National Open University of
Nigeria (NOUN) as the primary resource. Internal reviewers in the Ahmadu Bello
University have also been duly listed.

2
 COPYRIGHT PAGE
© 2018 Ahmadu Bello University (ABU) Zaria, Nigeria
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without
the prior permission of the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.

First published 2018 in Nigeria.

ISBN:
Ahmadu Bello University
Zaria, Nigeria

Tel: +234

E-mail:

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COURSE WRITERS/DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Editor
Prof. M.I Sule

Course Materials Development Overseer

Dr. Usman Abubakar Zaria

Subject Matter Expert

Ahmed Aminu Sambo

Subject Matter Reviewer

Dr. Abdulkarim Muhammad

Language Reviewer
Enegoloinu Adakole

Instructional Designers/Graphics
Emmanuel Ekoja / Ibrahim Otukoya

Proposed Course Coordinator

Emmanuel Ekoja

ODL Expert
Dr. Abdulkarim Muhammad

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 INTRODUCTION

Welcome to COSC407: Networking and Communication Technology. COSC407

is a three-credit unit course that has minimum duration of one semester. It is a core
course for B.Sc. Computer Science students. The course guides you towards
understanding the basics of computer networking, network design and other
communication technology.

PREAMBLE

To successfully complete this course, read the study units, do all assessments, open
the links and read, participate in discussion forums, read the recommended books
and other materials provided and participate in the online facilitation.
Each study unit has introduction, intended learning outcomes, the main content,
conclusion, summary and references/further readings. The introduction will tell you
the expectations in the study unit. Read and note the intended learning outcomes.
The intended learning outcomes tell you what you should be able to do at the
completion of each study unit. So, you can evaluate your learning at the end of each
unit to ensure you have achieved the intended learning outcomes. The conclusion
gives you the theme of the knowledge you are taking away from the unit.
There are two main forms of assessments – the formative and the summative. The
formative assessments will help you monitor your learning. This is presented as in-
text questions and Self-Assessment Exercises. The summative assessments would
be used by the university to evaluate your academic performance.

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COURSE STUDY GUIDE

i. COURSE INFORMATION

Course Code : COSC 407

Course Title: Data Communication & Networks
Credit Units: 3
Year of Study: Four
Semester: One

ii. COURSE INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION

INTRODUCTION
COSC407 – Networking and Communication Technology is a three [3] credit unit
course of fifteen units. It teaches the various forms of networking, network design,
communication technology used by people to accomplish different organizational or
individual task.
It also gives an insight into various forms of computer networking, ranging from
LAN to WAN and even go as far as looking into the wireless networks that are in
use in today’s technology. The course also explains the enterprise network, which
forms a branch of computer networking technology.

The main purpose of this course is to provide the necessary tools for designing
and managing information systems. It makes available the steps and tools that will
enable you to make proper and accurate decision on database designs and
operations whenever the need arises.

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DESCRIPTION
Networking and Communication Technology introduces you to the concepts
associated with computer network development which is critical in understanding
the various computer technology and data communications technology. The content
of the course material has been planned and written to ensure that you acquire the
proper knowledge and skills for the appropriate situations. The essence is to help you
in acquiring the necessary knowledge and competence by equipping you with the
necessary tools to accomplish this.
We hope that by the end of this course you would have acquired the required
knowledge to view Computer Network in a new way.

iii. COURSE PREREQUISITES

You should note that although this course has no subject pre-requisite, you are
expected to have:
1. Satisfactory level of English proficiency
2. Basic Computer Operations proficiency
3. Online interaction proficiency
4. Web 2.0 and Social media interactive skills

iv. COURSE LEARNING RESOURCES

Course Textbooks
Hafner, Katie. (1998). Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of The Internet.
"How Does the Internet Work?" http://tldp.org/HOWTO/Unix-and-
Internet-Fundamentals-HOWTO/internet.html. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
Johna, Till, Johnson. "Net was born of economic necessity, not fear".
http://www.networkworld.com/columnists/2004/0607johnson.html.
Retrieved June 15, 2009.URL is sufficient attribution.

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 Leonard, Kleinrock (2005). The History of the Internet.
http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/personal_history.html. Retrieved 2009-
05-28.

v. COURSE AIMS & OBJECTIVES

This course is designed to ensure that you are able to:

Course Aims
This course sets out to achieve the following aims:
1. Introduce the concepts associated with information
systems development;
2. Provide necessary tools for analyzing, designing,
eloping a database of any size;
3. Provide you with the necessary foundation in Database
programming
4. Introduction of web services and their architectural
frameworks; and

Course Objectives
Certain objectives have been set out to ensure that the course achieves its aims. Apart
from the course objectives, every Study Session of this course has set objectives. In
the course of the study, you will need to confirm, at the end of each Study Session,
if you have met the objectives set at the beginning of each Study Session. By the end
of this course you should be able to:
1. Explain the fundamental of Networking
2. Define the term “data links”
3. Explain network protocols
4. Discuss what is involved in the building of internetworks using TCP/IP

8
 and routers
5. Explain the network standards (IEEE 802 Standards)
6. State the fundamentals of enterprise network
7. Discuss what is involved in signal transmission and impairment
8. Explain digital technology
9. Describe the concept of packet switching

vi. ACTIVITIES TO MEET COURSE OBJECTIVES

Specifically, this course shall comprise of the following activities:
1. Studying courseware
2. Listening to course audios
3. Watching relevant course videos
4. Field activities, industrial attachment or internship, laboratory or
studio work (whichever is applicable)
5. Course assignments (individual and group)
6. Forum discussion participation
7. Tutorials (optional)
8. Semester examinations (CBT and essay based).

vii. TIME (TO COMPLETE SYLLABUS/COURSE)

To cope with this course, you would be expected to commit a minimum of 3 hours
weekly for the Course (study, assignments & Forum discussions).

viii. GRADING CRITERIA AND SCALE

Grading Criteria
A. Formative assessment
Grades will be based on the following:

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Individual assignments/test (CA 1,2 etc) 20
Group assignments (GCA 1, 2 etc) 10
Discussions/Quizzes/Out of class engagements etc 10

B. Summative assessment (Semester examination)

CBT based 30
Essay based 30
TOTAL 100%

C. Grading Scale:
A = 70-100
B = 60 – 69
C = 50 - 59
D = 45-49
F = 0-44

D. Feedback
Courseware based:
1. In-text questions and answers (answers preceding references)
2. Self-assessment questions and answers (answers preceding references)

Tutor based:
1. Discussion Forum tutor input
2. Graded Continuous assessments

Student based:

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 1. Online programme assessment (administration, learning resource,
deployment, and assessment).

ix. LINKS TO OPEN EDUCATION RESOURCES

OSS Watch provides tips for selecting open source, or for procuring free or open

software.
SchoolForge and SourceForge are good places to find, create, and publish open software.
SourceForge, for one, has millions of downloads each day.
Open Source Education Foundation and Open Source Initiative, and other organisation like
these, help disseminate knowledge.
Creative Commons has a number of open projects from Khan Academy to Curriki where
teachers and parents can find educational materials for children or learn about
Creative Commons licenses. Also, they recently launched the School of Open that
offers courses on the meaning, application, and impact of "openness."
Numerous open or open educational resource databases and search engines
exist. Some examples include:
• OEDb: over 10,000 free courses from universities as well as reviews of colleges
and rankings of college degree programmes
• Open Tapestry: over 100,000 open licensed online learning resources for an
academic and general audience
• OER Commons: over 40,000 open educational resources from elementary school
through to higher education; many of the elementary, middle, and high school
resources are aligned to the Common Core State Standards
• Open Content: a blog, definition, and game of open source as well as a friendly
search engine for open educational resources from MIT, Stanford, and other
universities with subject and description listings

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 • Academic Earth: over 1,500 video lectures from MIT, Stanford, Berkeley,
Harvard, Princeton, and Yale
• JISC: Joint Information Systems Committee works on behalf of UK higher
education and is involved in many open resources and open projects including
digitising British newspapers from 1620-1900!
Other sources for open education resources
Universities
• The University of Cambridge's guide on Open Educational Resources for Teacher
Education (ORBIT)
• OpenLearn from Open University in the UK
Global
• Unesco's searchable open database is a portal to worldwide courses and research
initiatives
• African Virtual University (http://oer.avu.org/) has numerous modules on subjects
in English, French, and Portuguese
• https://code.google.com/p/course-builder/ is Google's open source software that is
designed to let anyone create online education courses
• Global Voices (http://globalvoicesonline.org/) is an international community of
bloggers who report on blogs and citizen media from around the world,
including on open source and open educational resources
Individuals (which include OERs)
• Librarian Chick: everything from books to quizzes and videos here, includes
directories on open source and open educational resources
• K-12 Tech Tools: OERs, from art to special education
• Web 2.0: Cool Tools for Schools: audio and video tools
• Web 2.0 Guru: animation and various collections of free open source software

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• Livebinders: search, create, or organise digital information binders by age,
grade, or subject (why re-invent the wheel?)

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 x. ABU DLC ACADEMIC CALENDAR/PLANNER

PERIOD
Semester Semester 1 Semester 2 Semester 3
Activity JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
Registration
Resumption
Late Registn.
Facilitation
Revision/
Consolidation
Semester
Examination

N.B: - All Sessions commence in January

- 1 Week break between Semesters and 6 Weeks vocation at end of session.
- Semester 3 is OPTIONAL (Fast-tracking, making up carry-overs & deferments)

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xi. COURSE STRUCTURE & OUTLINE

WEEK MODULE STUDY ACTIVITY

SESSION

Study Session 1: 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

Title: Introduction 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
to Networking 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
4. View any other Video/U-tube (http://bit.ly/33KVlqx ,
http://bit.ly/32amjrb , http://bit.ly/2rRNhqO ,
Week 1 http://bit.ly/388refZ , http://bit.ly/2Yl3K2P ,
http://bit.ly/2YqAt7b )
5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
9. Any out of Class Activity
Study Session 2 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Title: Data Links 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Week 2 4. View any other Video/U-tube (http://bit.ly/2LmY03A ,
http://bit.ly/2PfWe55 , http://bit.ly/36cY4Lh ,
STUDY http://bit.ly/34Q6AiW, http://bit.ly/2OOqy89 )
5. View referred OER (address/site)
MODULE 1 6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
9. Any out of Class Activity
1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Study Session 3 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Title: Deploying

15
Week 3 Physical Media 4. View any other Video/U-tube (http://bit.ly/2qjQSgS ,
http://bit.ly/2OPemny, http://bit.ly/2qoNl0U,
http://bit.ly/33OCoDt , http://bit.ly/2LnBhEg ,
http://bit.ly/2Pb9GaI )
5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
9. Any out of Class Activity
1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Study Session 4 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Week 4 Title: Network 4. View any other Video/U-tube (http://bit.ly/363zvjK ,
Protocols http://bit.ly/2L1cNRu , http://bit.ly/2Lmq1rT ,
http://bit.ly/32bs3Rt , http://bit.ly/2MJ9OiS ,
http://bit.ly/2NFcXzY )
5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site )
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
9. Any out of Class Activity
1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Week 5 Study Session 1 4. View any other Video/U-tube (http://bit.ly/387L5vS ,
Title: Harnessing http://bit.ly/2rdBxin , http://bit.ly/34ZLcbb ,
Wi-Fi for user http://bit.ly/2NDFUft , http://bit.ly/33Njqx8 , http://bit.ly/3445nEJ
mobility , http://bit.ly/33L2Aid )
5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
STUDY
9. Any out of Class Activity
MODULE 2
1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
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 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Study Session 2 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Title: Building 4. View any other Video/U-tube (http://bit.ly/2RlfbGu ,
Week 6 Internetworks http://bit.ly/2DJLHKr , http://bit.ly/2DJtKvn ,
using TCP/IP and http://bit.ly/36241u7 , http://bit.ly/368H88F )
Routers 5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
9. Any out of Class Activity
Study Session 3 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Title: Network 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Standards (IEEE 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
802 Standards) 4. View any other Video/U-tube (http://bit.ly/2PcYev3 ,
http://bit.ly/2rTycoD , http://bit.ly/351zqN6 ,
http://bit.ly/2sLTCVd , http://bit.ly/2YgZdyp ,
http://bit.ly/2LjttU4 )
5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
9. Any out of Class Activity
1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Study Session 4 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Week 7 Title: 4. View any other Video/U-tube (http://bit.ly/380fHQ5 ,
Implementing http://bit.ly/36d5Qor , http://bit.ly/2UjBGuL ,
Security best http://bit.ly/2RjwszD , http://bit.ly/2OPFD9j , http://bit.ly/2Rjful1
practices )
5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
9. Any out of Class Activity

17
 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Study Session 1 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Title: Creating 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Enterprise Network 4. View any other Video/U-tube (http://bit.ly/2Yj0iWl ,
http://bit.ly/388zNr9 , http://bit.ly/2RlhxoO ,
http://bit.ly/2sDwN5U , http://bit.ly/2sDwN5U ,
http://bit.ly/33U3ppf )
5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
STUDY 7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
MODULE 3 8. Any additional study material
9. Any out of Class Activity
1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Study Session 2 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Week 8 Title: Planning 4. View any other Video/U-tube ( http://bit.ly/2Pc3U8K ,
and Selection of http://bit.ly/2Pgf4ZQ , http://bit.ly/2RqEFSy ,
Enterprise http://bit.ly/2RlwlUc , http://bit.ly/32hvfLH ,
Network http://bit.ly/363q9Es )
5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
9. Any out of Class Activity
1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Study Session 3 4. View any other Video/U-tube (http://bit.ly/2Yfdjk1 ,
Title: Advanced http://bit.ly/2RlSdPk , http://bit.ly/2Rjo831 , http://bit.ly/2RqqNIl,
WAN and LAN http://bit.ly/38aWaN1 )
Classes 5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material

18
 9. Any out of Class Activity

1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

Study Session 1 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Title: Modem and 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Week 9 Modulation 4. View any other Video/U-tube (http://bit.ly/3677uYj ,
Concepts http://bit.ly/2sMMIiz , http://bit.ly/2sNsvt3 , http://bit.ly/2PbiFbP
, http://bit.ly/33LZdHJ )
5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
STUDY 8. Any additional study material
9. Any out of Class Activity
MODULE 4
1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Study Session 2 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Title: Multiplexers 4. View any other Video/U-tube (http://bit.ly/2YgWvsC ,
http://bit.ly/34PlQg3 , http://bit.ly/388CMzS ,
http://bit.ly/2OSfXsZ , http://bit.ly/2qpZyCA ,
http://bit.ly/2rWJl84 )
5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
9. Any out of Class Activity
1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Week 10 Study Session 3 4. View any other Video/U-tube (http://bit.ly/34RvOxf ,
Title: Digital http://bit.ly/2LocrUN , http://bit.ly/2RkUUAA ,
Technologies http://bit.ly/33LdQet , http://bit.ly/33RUi8i )
5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)

19
 7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
9. Any out of Class Activity

STUDY 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
MODULE Study Session 1 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
5 Title: Integrated 4. View any other Video/U-tube (http://bit.ly/2RlqcHQ ,
Services Digital http://bit.ly/2PqolyX , http://bit.ly/2qq0YwU ,
Network http://bit.ly/2LCr0ED , http://bit.ly/34QoJNA , http://bit.ly/2qjsufi
(ISDN) )
5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
9. Any out of Class Activity
1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Study Session 2 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Title: Digital 4. View any other Video/U-tube (http://bit.ly/2YflOeV ,
Subscriber Line http://bit.ly/2DJXb0v , http://bit.ly/2sIXHtb , http://bit.ly/2LCrDht
Week 11 (DSL) , http://bit.ly/2LmxAyM )
5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
9. Any out of Class Activity

20
 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Study Session 3 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Title: 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Synchronous 4. View any other Video/U-tube (http://bit.ly/2rYBiri ,
Optical Network http://bit.ly/2r4NwyU , http://bit.ly/2rfU65p ,
(SONET) http://bit.ly/384bASZ , http://bit.ly/2RkUUAA ,
http://bit.ly/360gfDF )
5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
9. Any out of Class Activity
Study Session 4 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Title: 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Packet Switching. 4. View any other Video/U-tube (http://bit.ly/33JS8HO ,
http://bit.ly/2rhIa34 , http://bit.ly/2Lo914v ,
http://bit.ly/2LoXe5V , http://bit.ly/34Po1Ad ,
http://bit.ly/33PnKfl )
5. View referred OER (address/site )
Week 12 6. View referred Animation (Address/Site )
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
9. Any out of Class Activity
Study Session 5 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Title: 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Internet and 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
TCP/IP 4. View any other Video/U-tube (http://bit.ly/2sMRJrp ,
http://bit.ly/368V0Qh , http://bit.ly/3445nEJ , http://bit.ly/384d5k5
, http://bit.ly/33R5D8u , http://bit.ly/2OMsGx3 )
5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material

21
 9. Any out of Class Activity
Week 13 REVISION/TUTORIALS (On Campus or Online) & CONSOLIDATION WEEK

Week 14 & 15 SEMESTER EXAMINATION

22
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION........................................................................ 5
PREAMBLE ................................................................................. 5
COURSE STUDY GUIDE .......................................................... 6
i. COURSE INFORMATION ................................... 6
ii. COURSE INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION 6
iii. COURSE PREREQUISITES ................................. 7
iv. COURSE LEARNING RESOURCES .................. 7
v. COURSE AIMS & OBJECTIVES ........................ 8
vi. ACTIVITIES TO MEET COURSE OBJECTIVES 9
vii. TIME (TO COMPLETE SYLLABUS/COURSE) 9
viii. GRADING CRITERIA AND SCALE .................. 9
ix. LINKS TO OPEN EDUCATION RESOURCES11
x. ABU DLC ACADEMIC CALENDAR/PLANNER14
xi. COURSE STRUCTURE & OUTLINE ............... 15
xii. STUDY MODULE ................................................ 25
MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK DESIGN 25
Study Session 1: Introduction to Networking ...................................................................... 25
Study Session 2: Data Links ................................................................................................. 40
Study Session 3: Deploying Physical Media ........................................................................ 48
Study Session 4: Network Protocols .................................................................................... 54
MODULE 2: NETWORK DESIGN ........................................ 64
Study Session 1: Harnessing Wi-Fi for User Mobility ......................................................... 64
Study Session 2: Building Internetworks Using Transport Control Protocol (TCP)/Internet
Protocol (IP) and Routers ..................................................................................................... 73
Study Session 3: Network Standards (IEEE 802 Standards) ................................................ 83
Study Session 4: Implementing Security Best Practices ...................................................... 89
MODULE 3: ENTERPRISE NETWORK .............................. 95
Study Session 1: Creating Enterprise Network .................................................................... 95
Study Session 2: Planning and Selection of Enterprise Network....................................... 102
Study Session 3: Local Area Network (LAN) And Wide Area Network (WAN) ............. 111
MODULE 4: COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY ......... 116
23
Study Session 1: Modem and Modulation Concepts ......................................................... 116
Study Session 2: Multiplexers ............................................................................................ 131
Study Session 3: Digital Technologies ............................................................................... 142
Study Session 4: Signal Transmission and Impairment ..................................................... 148
Study Session 5: Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN) ........................................... 157
Study Session 6: Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) ................................................................ 170
Study Session 7: Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) ............................................... 179
Study Session 8: Packet Switching..................................................................................... 188
Study Session 9: Internet and TCP/IP ................................................................................ 195
GLOSSARY .............................................................................. 206

24
 xii. STUDY MODULE

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK DESIGN

Study Session 1: Introduction to Networking

Study Session 2: Data links
Study Session 3: Deploying Physical Media
Study Session 4: Network Protocols

Study Session 1:
Introduction to Networking

Introduction
1.0 Objectives
2.0Main Content
2.1 Overview
2.2 Definition of Networking
2.3 History of Computer Networks
2.4 Purpose of Computer Networks
2.5 Network Classification
2.6 Types of Network Based on Physical Scope
2.7 Introduction to Telecommunication Circuit
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

25
Introduction
Having read through the course guide, you will have a general understanding of what
this study session is about and how it fits into the course as a whole. This study session
addresses three issues: Definition of networking, purpose of computer network, Types
of network; the Local area network, personal area network, Home area network, wide
area network campus network, metropolitan area network, enterprise private network,
virtual private network, Internet work, and backbone network. First, we give a broad
definition of networking, then we define networks as a highway on which data can
travel. The Internet is discussed as a good example of an internet work (i.e., a network
of networks). Finally, we discuss different types of network.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end this study session, you should be able to:
1. Explain the term networking system
2. Identify the various types of networking
3. Highlight the history of networking
4. Describe the areas of work of networking.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Overview
The concept of a network is pretty simple. A couple of computers have some cable
strung between them, and sends data back and forth using electrical signaling over the
cable. More or less the same as telephones do, or, in a very rough sense, like two kids
speaking into tin cans connected by a string; but how does the data actually move from
computer A to computer B? How does computer A find the physical location of
computer B on the network? If they communicate with electrical signaling, so the data
is traveling "at the speed of light"; why does it take so long to send a big file across the
network?
The internet is not one single entity; it is a massive interconnection of hosts such as your
26
computer, and another- halfway across the world. We understand that our Internet
Service Providers (ISPs) provide internet access to our host, but it may not necessarily
provide service to the server that you are communicating with. In this case, how does
information make its way from your host to the other host and vice versa?
The answer lies in the interconnection of many ISPs themselves. ISPs can be categorized
into Tier 1, 2 and 3 ISPs. Tier 1 ISPs are major internet service providers that usually
sell access to smaller Tier 2 ISPs. Tier 2 ISPs may service entire countries or cities, but
not the rest of the world. Tier 3 ISPs are also customers of Tier 2 ISPs, and usually
service end users such as you. ISPs peer with each other to allow data from your host to
reach the other host. From this, we understand that data passes through multiple ISPs in
order to be delivered from one location to another.

2.2 Definition of Networking

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of computers
and devices interconnected by communication channels that facilitate communications
among users and allows users to share resources. A network can as well be defined as a
collection of computers or other hardware devices that are connected together, either
physically or logically, using special hardware and software, to allow them to exchange
information and cooperate. Networking is the term that describes the processes involved
in designing, implementing, upgrading, managing and otherwise working with networks
and network technologies.

2.3 History of Computer Networks

Before the advent of computer networks that were based upon some type of
telecommunications system, communication between calculation machines and early
computers was performed by human users by carrying instructions between them. Many
of the social behaviors seen in today's Internet were demonstrably present in the
nineteenth century and arguably in even earlier networks using visual signals.
In September 1940, George Stibitz used a teletype machine to send instructions for a
27
problem set from his Model at Dartmouth College to his Complex Number Calculator
in New York and received results back by the same means. Linking output systems like
teletypes to computers was an interest at the Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) when, in 1962, J.C.R. Licklider was hired and developed a working group he
called the "Intergalactic Network", a precursor to the ARPANET.
In 1964, researchers at Dartmouth developed the Dartmouth Time Sharing System for
distributed users of large computer systems. The same year, at Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, a research group supported by General Electric and Bell Labs used a
computer to route and manage telephone connections.
Throughout the 1960s, Leonard Kleinrock, Paul Baran and Donald Davies
independently conceptualised and developed network systems which used packets that
could be used in a network between computer systems. In 1965, Thomas Merrill and
Lawrence G. Roberts created the first wide area network (WAN).
The first widely used telephone switch that used true computer control was introduced
by Western Electric in 1965. In 1969, the University of California at Los Angeles, the
Stanford Research Institute, University of California at Santa Barbara, and the
University of Utah were connected as the beginning of the ARPANET network using
50 kbit/s circuits. Commercial services using X.25 were deployed in 1972, and later
used as an underlying infrastructure for expanding TCP/IP networks.
Today, computer networks are the core of modern communication. All modern aspects
of the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) are computer-controlled, and
telephony increasingly runs over the Internet Protocol, although not necessarily the
public Internet. The scope of communication has increased significantly in the past
decade, and this boom in communications would not have been possible without the
progressively advancing computer network. Computer networks and the technologies
needed to connect and communicate through and between them, continue to drive
computer hardware, software, and peripherals industries. This expansion is mirrored by
growth in the numbers and types of users of networks from the researcher to the home
user.
28
2.4 Purpose of Computer Networks
Computer networks can be used for a variety of purposes; these are listed below.
i. Facilitating communications
Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant
messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing.
ii. Sharing hardware
In a networked environment, each computer on a network may access and use hardware
resources on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network printer.
iii. Sharing files, data, and information
In a network environment, authorized users may access data and information stored on
other computers on the network. The capability of providing access to data and
information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks.
iv. Sharing software
Users connected to a network may run application programs on remote computers.

2.5 Network Classification

The following list presents categories used for classifying networks.
a. Connection Method
Computer networks can be classified according to the hardware and software technology
that is used to interconnect the individual devices in the network, such as optical fiber,
Ethernet, wireless LAN, HomePNA, power line communication or G.hn.
Ethernet, as it is defined by IEEE 802, utilises various standards and mediums that
enable communication between devices. Frequently deployed devices include hubs,
switches, bridges, or routers. Wireless LAN technology is designed to connect devices
without wiring. These devices use radio waves or infrared signals as a transmission
medium. ITU-T G.hn technology uses existing home wiring (coaxial cable, phone lines
and power lines) to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) local area network.

29
 b. Technologies
Twisted pair wire is the most widely used medium for telecommunication. Twisted-
pair cabling consist of copper wires that are twisted into pairs. Ordinary telephone wires
consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs. Computer networking cabling
consist of 4 pairs of copper cabling that can be utilised for both voice and data
transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and
electromagnetic induction. The transmission speed ranges from 2 million bits per second
to 100 million bits per second. Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms which are
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded twisted-pair (STP) which are rated in
categories which are manufactured in different increments for various scenarios.
Coaxial cable Wired is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and
other work-sites for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire
wrapped with insulating layer typically of a flexible material with a high dielectric
constant, all of which are surrounded by a conductive layer. The layers of insulation
help minimize interference and distortion. Transmission speed range from 200 million
to more than 500 million bits per second.
Optical fiber cable consists of one or more filaments of glass fiber wrapped in protective
layers. It transmits light which can travel over extended distances. Fiber-optic cables are
not affected by electromagnetic radiation. Transmission speed may reach trillions of bits
per second. The transmission speed of fiber optics is hundreds of times faster than for
coaxial cables and thousands of times faster than a twisted-pair wire

c. Wireless technologies

Take note of the following.

Terrestrial microwave – terrestrial microwaves use Earth-based transmitter and

receiver. The equipment looks similar to satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves use
low-gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Path between
relay stations spaced approximately 30 miles apart. Microwave antennas are usually
30
placed on top of buildings, towers, hills, and mountain peaks.
Communications satellites – the satellites use microwave radio as their
telecommunications medium which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The
satellites are stationed in space, typically 22,000 miles (for geosynchronous satellites)
above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying
voice, data, and TV signals.
Cellular and PCS systems – use several radio communications technologies. The
systems are divided to different geographic areas. Each area has a low-power transmitter
or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next area.

Wireless LANs – wireless local area network use a high-frequency radio technology
similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use
spread spectrum technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a
limited area. An example of open-standards wireless radio-wave technology is IEEE.
Infrared communication- this can transmit signals between devices within small
distances not more than 10 meters peer to peer or (face to face) without anybody in the
line of transmitting.

2.6 Types of Networks Based on Physical Scope

Common types of computer networks may be identified by their scale.
a. Local area network
A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a
limited geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building,
or closely positioned group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network is a
node. Current wired LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology, although
new standards like ITU-T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing
home wires (coaxial cables, phone lines and power lines).
Typical library network, in a branching tree topology and controlled access to resources
All interconnected devices must understand the network layer (layer 3), because they
31
are handling multiple subnets (the different colors).
Those inside the library, which have only 10/100 Mbit/s Ethernet connections to the
user device and a Gigabit Ethernet connection to the central router, could be called
"layer 3 switches" because they only have Ethernet interfaces and must understand IP.
It would be more correct to call them access routers, where the router at the top is a
distribution router that connects to the Internet and academic networks' customer access
routers.
The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (Wide Area Networks),
include their higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and no need for leased
telecommunication lines. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies
operate at speeds up to 10 Gbit/s. This is the data transfer rate. IEEE has projects
investigating the standardization of 40 and 100 Gbit/s.
b. Personal area network
A Personal Area Network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among
computer and different information technological devices close to one person. Some
examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax
machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video game consoles. A PAN may
include wired and wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10 meters.
A wired PAN is usually constructed with USB and Firewire connections while
technologies such as Bluetooth and infrared communication typically form a wireless
PAN.
c. Home area network
A Home Area Network (HAN) is a residential LAN which is used for communication
between digital devices typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of
personal computers and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing devices. An
important function is the sharing of Internet access, often a broadband service through
a CATV or Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) provider. It can also be referred to as an office
area network (OAN).

32
 d. Wide area network
A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic
area such as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances, using a
communications channel that combines many types of media such as telephone lines,
cables, and air waves. A WAN often uses transmission facilities provided by common
carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the
lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer,
and the network layer.
e. Campus network
A campus network is a computer network made up of an interconnection of local area
networks (LAN's) within a limited geographical area. The networking equipment
(switches, routers) and transmission media (optical fiber, copper plant, Cat5 cabling
etc.) are almost entirely owned (by the campus tenant / owner: an enterprise, university,
government etc.).
In the case of a university campus-based campus network, the network is likely to link
a variety of campus buildings including; academic departments, the university library
and student residence halls.
f. Metropolitan area network
A Metropolitan area network is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a
large campus.
g. Enterprise private network
An enterprise private network is a network built by an enterprise to interconnect various
company sites, e.g., production sites, head offices, remote offices, shops, in order to
share computer resources.
h. Virtual private network
A Virtual Private Network (VPN) is a computer network in which some of the links
between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network
(e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the
virtual network are said to be tunneled through the larger network when this is the case.
33
One common application is secured communications through the public internet; but a
VPN need not have explicit security features, such as authentication or content
encryption. VPNs, for example, can be used to separate the traffic of different user
communities over an underlying network with strong security features. VPN may have
best-effort performance, or may have a defined service level agreement (SLA) between
the VPN customer and the VPN service provider. Generally, a VPN has a topology more
complex than point-to- point.
i. Internetwork
An internetwork is the connection of two or more private computer networks via a
common routing technology (OSI Layer 3) using routers. The internet is an aggregation
of many internetworks; hence its name has been shortened to internet.
j. Backbone network
A Back-Bone Network (BBN)-or network backbone, is part of a computer network
infrastructure that interconnects various pieces of network, providing a path for the
exchange of information between different LANs or sub networks. A backbone can tie
together diverse networks in the same building, in different buildings in a campus
environment, or over wide areas. Normally, the backbone's capacity is greater than the
networks connected to it.
A large corporation that has many locations may have a backbone network that ties all
of the locations together, for example, if a server cluster needs to be accessed by
different departments of a company that are located at different geographical locations.
The pieces of the network connections (for example: Ethernet, wireless) that
bring these departments together is often mentioned as network backbone. Network
congestion is often taken into consideration while designing backbones. Backbone
networks should not be confused with the internet backbone.
k. Global area network
A Global Area Network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile
communications across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas,
34
etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off the user
communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this
involves a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.

l. Internet
The internet is a global system of interconnected governmental, academic, corporate,
public, and private computer networks. It is based on the networking technologies of the
Internet Protocol Suite. It is the successor of the Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network (ARPANET) developed by DARPA of the United States Department of
Defense. The Internet is also the communications backbone underlying the World Wide
Web (WWW).
Participants in the internet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred
documented, and often standardised, protocols compatible with the Internet Protocol
Suite and an addressing system (IP addresses) administered by the Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority and address registries. Service providers and large enterprises
exchange information about the reachability of their address spaces through the Border
Gateway Protocol (BGP), forming a redundant worldwide mesh of transmission paths.
m. Intranets and extranets
Intranets and extranets are parts or extensions of a computer network, usually a local
area network. An intranet is a set of networks using the Internet Protocol and IP-based
tools, such as web browsers and file transfer applications, which are under the control
of a single administrative entity. That administrative entity closes the intranet to all but
specific, authorized users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal network of an
organization. A large intranet will typically have at least one web server to provide users
with organizational information.
An extranet is a network that is limited in scope to a single organization or entity and
also has limited connections to the networks of one or more other usually, but not
necessarily, trusted organizations or entities—a company's customers may be given
access to some part of its intranet— while at the same time the customers may not be
35
considered trusted from a security standpoint. Technically, an extranet may also be
categorized as a CAN, MAN, WAN, or other type of network, although an extranet cannot
consist of a single LAN; it must have at least one connection with an external network.

n. Overlay network
An overlay network is a virtual computer network that is built on top of another network.
Nodes in the overlay are connected by virtual or logical links, each of which corresponds
to a path, perhaps through many physical links, in the underlying network.
A sample overlay network: IP over SONET over Optical
For example, many peer-to-peer networks are overlay networks because they are
organized as nodes of a virtual system of links run on top of the Internet. The Internet
was initially built as an overlay on the telephone network. Overlay networks have been
around since the invention of networking when computer systems were connected over
telephone lines using modem, before any data network existed.
Nowadays, the internet is the basis for many overlaid networks that can be constructed
to permit routing of messages to destinations specified by an IP address. For example,
distributed hash tables can be used to route messages to a node having a specific logical
address, whose IP address is known in advance.
Overlay networks have also been proposed as a way to improve internet routing, such
as through quality of service guarantees to achieve higher- quality streaming media.
Previous proposals such as IntServ, DiffServ, and IP Multicast have not seen wide
acceptance largely because they require modification of all routers in the network. On
the other hand, an overlay network can be incrementally deployed on end-hosts running
the overlay protocol software, without cooperation from Internet service providers. The
overlay has no control over how packets are routed in the underlying network between
two overlay nodes, but it can control, for example, the sequence of overlay nodes a
message traverses before reaching its destination.

36
2.7 Introduction to Telecommunication Circuit
A telecommunication circuit is any line, conductor, or other conduit by which
information is transmitted. A dedicated circuit, private circuit or leased line is a line
that is dedicated for only one use. Originally, this was analog, and was often used by
radio stations as a studio/transmitter link (STL) or remote pickup unit (RPU) for their
audio, sometimes as a backup to other means. Later lines went digital, and are used for
private corporate data networks.

A telecommunication circuit may be defined as follows.

i. The complete path between two terminals over which one-way or two-way
communications may be provided. See communications protocol.
ii. An electronic path between two or more points, capable of providing a number of
channels.
iii. A number of conductors connected together for the purpose of carrying an electric
current.
iv. An electronic closed-loop path among two or more points used for signal transfer.
v. A number of electrical components, such as resistors, inductances, capacitors,
transistors, and power sources connected together in one or more closed loops.

In-text Question
What is Computer Networking?

Answer
A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to share
information and resources.

3.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

1. Briefly describe the following: -
i. Internetwork
ii. Backbone Network
iii. Intranet
37
 2. State and explain all the types of networks based on their physical scope.

4.0 Conclusion and Summary

In this study session, you have been introduced to the fundamentals of Networking. You
have also learnt the different types of Networking and its classification. You are advised
to go over this unit again since it is the basis for understanding the course.
In this study session, you have learnt that:
i. Computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of
computers and devices interconnected by communications channels that facilitate
communications among users and allows users to share resources.
ii. A telecommunication circuit is any line, conductor, or other conduit by which
information is transmitted.
iii. Types of telecommunication circuit are dedicated circuit, private circuit, or leased
line

5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

i. Identify the key problems with wired media.
ii. What is the relevance of ISP in internet connections?

6.0 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

i. Some of the key problems associated with wired networks include:
• Space: Wired-technology products, such as desktop computers, take up more
space than equivalent wireless options.
• Employee Mobility: Employees are restricted in their work location when
using wired office products.
• Safety: The physical requirements of a wired-technology product present
some opportunities for damage not noted in wireless products.
• Power: Wired units must have power to operate.

38
 ii. ISPs are responsible for making sure you can access the Internet, routing Internet
traffic, resolving domain names, and maintaining the network infrastructure that
makes Internet access possible.

7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.

a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/33KVlqx , http://bit.ly/32amjrb , http://bit.ly/2rRNhqO ,

http://bit.ly/388refZ , http://bit.ly/2Yl3K2P , http://bit.ly/2YqAt7b . Watch the video &

summarise in 1 paragraph

b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum

c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Introduction to Networking; In 2

paragraphs summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

8.0 References/Further Reading

Hafner, Katie. (1998). Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of The Internet.
"How Does the Internet Work?" http://tldp.org/HOWTO/Unix-and- Internet-
Fundamentals-HOWTO/internet.html. Retrieved SSJune 15, 2009.
Johna, Till, Johnson. "Net was born of economic necessity, not fear".
http://www.networkworld.com/columnists/2004/0607johnson.html. Retrieved
June 15, 2009.URL is sufficient attribution.
Leonard, Kleinrock (2005). The History of the Internet.
http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/personal_history.html. Retrieved 2009-
05-28.

39
 Study Session 2:
Data Links
Introduction
1.0 Objectives
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Introduction to Open System Interconnection (OSI ) Model
2.2 Data Link Layer
2.3 Categories of Data Link
2.4 Types of Data Link
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

Introduction
In the previous study session, you were introduced to the basic concept of networking.
In this study session, you will learn about another concept of networking- which is data
link.
In telecommunication, a data link is the means of connecting one location to another for
the purpose of transmitting and receiving digital information. It can also refer to a set of
electronics assembly, consisting of a transmitter and a receiver [two Data Terminal
Equipment (DTEs)] and the interconnecting data telecommunication circuit. These are
governed by a link protocol enabling digital data to be transferred from a data source to
a data sink.

40
1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes
At the end of this study session, you should be able to:
1. Discuss OSI model
2. Explain the term “data link”
3. Identify the various type of data link
4. State the relevance of data link to networking.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Introduction to Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model
OSI is not a physical model, though, it is a set of guidelines that application developers
can use to create and implement application that run on a network. It also provides a
framework for creating and implementing networking standards, devices and
internetworking schemes.
OSI has seven different layers, divided into two groups. The top three layers define how
the applications within the end stations will communicate with each other and with other
users. The bottom four layers define how data is transmitted end to end.
Table 1.2.1 below shows the layers of the OSI reference model
Table 1.2.1: OSI Reference Model
Layers Summary of Functions
7 Application Interacts with the operating systems and
Layer Applications
6 Presentation Transformation of data. Responsible for
layer functions like data compression, encryption,
etc.
5 Session layer Defines a connection from a user to a
network server or from a peer on a network
to another peer

41
 4 Transport Manages the flow of information from one
layer network node to another. Ensures that
packets are decoded in the proper
sequence and received logically
3 Networ Defines how data move from one point to
k layer another on a network. It determines what
goes into each packet and defines different
packet protocols.
2 Data link Defines standards that assign meaning to bits
Layer carried by the physical layer
1 Physical layer Defines the properties of the physical
medium used to make a network connection

The OSI model is fully discussed in other courses in computer network. However, data
link layer is expected to be fully discussed in this course.

2.2 Data Link Layer

The data link layer is the second layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI)
reference model. The data link layer defines the rules for accessing and using the
physical layer. The data link layer provides the physical transmission of the data and
handles error notification, network topology and flow control. This means that the data
link layer will ensure that messages are delivered to the proper device on a LAN using
hardware addresses and will translate messages from the Network layer into bits for the
physical layer to transmit.
The data link layer in the model combine packets and bytes into frames, it as well
provides access to media using MAC address. The data link layer does perform the error
detection but it should be noted that it does not perform the error correction process.
The data layer formats the message into pieces, each called a data frame, and adds a
customized header containing the hardware destination and source address.
42
2.3 Categories of Data Link
There are at least three categories of basic data-link configurations that can be conceived
of and used:
i. Simplex communications- referring to all communications in one direction only
e.g. radio transmission.
ii. Half-duplex communications - referring to communications in both directions,
but not both ways simultaneously, e.g. walkie-talkie.
iii. Duplex communications, communications in both directions simultaneously, e.g.
telephone conversation.

2.4 Types of Data Links

Let us consider these one after the other
a. Industrial Ethernet
Industrial ethernet is used to provide data link solutions for the communications and
automation industry. Traditional office grade ethernet cannot meet the reliability
demanded by industrial applications. A brief loss of service in an office environment
may not be such a big issue, but in an industrial environment it may represent significant
loss on your capital investment.
Industrial ethernet is specifically designed to operate in harsh environments such as
factory floor automation, process control, HVAC, medical, manufacturing. Typically,
industrial automation devices include, rugged case, din rail attachment, wide
temperature specification, broad power source input, these features give us a reliable
ethernet connection in demanding environments.

b. Radio modems
Radio modems are radio frequency transceivers for serial data communications. They
connect to serial ports RS232, RS422/485 and transmit to and receive signals from other
matching radio (point to point) or radios (multidrop) network.
Wireless radio modems are designed to be transparent to the systems within which they
43
operate. All communication appears to your system as if communicating across directly
connected cables; no special preparation of your data is needed. MaxStream units
provide you true plug-and-communicate wireless capability operating in the
internationally recognized 2.4 GHz license free band.
c. Ethernet to RS232, RS485 serial device servers
An Ethernet to RS232 or RS485 device server allows your network to enable virtually
any serial RS232/422/485 port device. They provide the ability to remotely monitor,
control or diagnose your equipment over your LAN or even WAN (internet/web) link.
Allowing you to maintain the existing investment you have made in serial interface plant
and machine equipment.
d. Wireless RS232 link
When creating an RS-232 wireless link, you can replace conventional expensive RS232
serial cable runs, allowing for an easy to use invisible connection. Handy wave bluetooth
is the cable replacement solution for RS-232. Simply plug one unit into your RS-232
device and the other into your PC for an instant wireless link with minimal setup and
also gives the added flexibility and mobility not available with traditional wired RS232
links.
e. GSM and GPRS
A GSM modem is a wireless modem that works with a GSM wireless network. A
wireless modem behaves like a dial-up modem. The main difference between them is
that a dial-up modem sends and receives data through a fixed telephone line while a
wireless modem sends and receives data through radio waves. GPRS modem is a GSM
modem which, additionally, supports the GPRS technology for data transmission. GPRS
stands for General Packet Radio Service.
It is a packet-switched technology that is an extension of GSM. (GSM is a circuit-
switched technology.) A key advantage of GPRS over GSM is that GPRS has a higher
data transmission speed. This Technology is ideal for M2M(machine to machine
communications) applications such as meter reading, remote maintenance, traffic
control systems, vending machines and building management systems HVAC
44
 f. Power Over Ethernet (POE)
Power Over Ethernet or POE technology describes any system to transmit electrical
power, along with data, to remote devices over standard twisted-pair cable in an Ethernet
network. The standard is IEEE 802.3af which calls for 48 Volts DC over two pairs of a
four-pair cable at a maximum current of 350 AMP for a maximum load power of
16Watts.
g. Outdoor Ethernet switches
An outdoor ethernet switch is specifically designed for the toughest industrial
environments. An outdoor switch is constructed from a rugged weather tight aluminum
case and the design usually carries an IP rating which provide a waterproof and dust-
tight connection. An outdoor Ethernet switch can be easily adopted in almost all kinds
of industrial applications and provides the most reliable solutions for your network in
outdoor environments, typical applications includes: railway, moving vehicles, factory
automation, and marine (DNV Approval).

In-text Question
What do you understand by the term “data link”?

Answer
A data link is a method for connecting one location to another in telecommunications, in order to
transmit and receive digital information. Data transfer happens over a certain link protocol that allows
data to be transferred from the source to the destination. In the OSI model for computer networking,
the data link essentially makes up the second layer. It offers procedures and functions for the transfer
of data and can also correct errors that occur in the physical layer.

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)

1. How relevant is data link to networking of computers?
2. State some protocols that are defined by the data link layer.

45
4.0 Conclusion and Summary
In this study session, you have been introduced to what is referred to as data link. You
have also learnt the different types of data link in use and as well as the relevance of
data link to networking.
In this study session, you have learnt about:
i. OSI model- which has 7 layers: application, presentation, session, transport,
network, data link and physical.
ii. Data link layer which defines rules for accessing and using physical layer
iii. 7 types of data link which includes industrial Ethernet, radio modems, Ethernet
to RS232, wireless RS232 link, GSM and GPRS, Power Over Ethernet (POE) and
outdoor Ethernet switches.

5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Which sublayer of the data link layer performs data link functions that depend upon
the type of medium?
2. Automatic repeat request error management mechanism is provided by which
sublayer.
3. The technique of temporarily delaying outgoing acknowledgements so that they can
be hooked onto the next outgoing data frame is called ______________

6.0 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

1. Media access control (MAC) deals with transmission of data packets to and
from the network-interface card, and also to and from another remotely shared
channel. The MAC sublayer also prevents collision using protocols like
CSMA/CD.
2. The logical link control is a sublayer of data link layer whose main function is
to manage traffic, flow and error control. The automatic repeat request error
management mechanism is provided by the LLC when an error is found in the
received frame at the receiver’s end to inform the sender to re-send the frame.
46
 3. Piggybacking

7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/2LmY03A , http://bit.ly/2PfWe55 ,
http://bit.ly/36cY4Lh , http://bit.ly/34Q6AiW, http://bit.ly/2OOqy89 . Watch the video
& summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum
c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Data Links; In 2 paragraphs summarise
their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

8.0 References/Further Reading

Mike, Meyers (2007). (6th Ed.). All in One CompTIA A+ Certification Exam Guide.
McGraw Hill.
http://www.apan.net/meetings/busan03/cs-history.htm.Retrieved December 25, 2005.
"APRICOT webpage". Apricot.net. 2009-05-04. http://www.apricot.net/.
Retrieved 2009-05-28.
"A Brief History of the Internet in China". China Celebrates 10 Years of Being
Connected to the Internet.
http://www.pcworld.idg.com.au/index.php/id;854351844;pp;2;fp;2;fpid;
6.1.1 Retrieved December 25, 2005.

47
 Study Session 3:
Deploying Physical Media

1.0 Learning Outcome

2.0 Main Content
2.1 Introduction to Physical Media
2.2 Physical Media Comparison
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

Introduction
In the previous study sessions, you have been introduced to network and data link layer
of the OSI reference model. This unit will introduce you to physical media used in the
networking of computer and it will, as well, type of physical media the twisted pair,
coaxial cable and fiber-optic cable teach you how to deploy the physical media. we also
compare the media- using the distance they can cover; their effective speed of
transferring data as our basis of comparison.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of this study session, you should be able to:
1. Explain the term physical media
2. Identify the various type of physical media
3. Identify which physical media is good for each of the network types.

48
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Introduction to Physical Media
In the OSI reference model, any physical means for transmitting data is referred to as
the physical media. The bottom of the OSI model’s physical layer provides an interface
to such media. Specifications for the physical media themselves are not part of the OSI
model.

2.2 Types of Physical Media

Let us look at these one after another.
a. Twisted pair - wire twisted to avoid crosstalk interference. It may be shielded
or unshielded.
i. UTP-Unshielded Twisted Pair. Normally UTP contains 8 wires or 4 pair; 100
meter maximum length; 4-100 Mbps speed.
ii. STP-Shielded Twisted Pair. 100 meter maximum length; 16-155 Mbps speed;
lower electrical interference than UTP.
b. Coaxial - two conductors separated by insulation such as TV 75 ohm cable;
maximum length of 185 to 500 meters; It is of two types, namely:
Thinnet - thinnet uses a British Naval Connector (BNC) on each end. Thinnet is part of
the RG-58 family of cable. Maximum cable length is 185 meters. Transmission speed
is 10Mbps. Thinnet cable should have 50 ohms impedance; and its terminator has 50
ohms impedance; barrel connector will have no impedance. Maximum thinnet nodes
are 30 on a segment. One end of each cable is grounded.
Thicknet - half inch rigid cable; maximum cable length is 500 meters. Transmission
speed is 10Mbps; it is expensive and is not commonly used- (RG-11 or RG-8). A
vampire tap or piercing tap is used with a transceiver attached to connect computers to
the cable. 100 connections may be made. The computer has an Attachment Unit
Interface (AUI) on its network card which is a 15 pin DB-15 connector. The computer
is connected to the transceiver at the cable from its AUI on its network card using a
drop cable. Maximum thicknet nodes are 100 on a segment. One end of each cable is
49
grounded.
The RG value for cable types refers to its size. Coax cable types are listed below.
i. RG-58 /U - 50 ohm, with a solid copper wire core for thin ethernet.
ii. RG-58 A/U - 50 ohm, with a stranded wire core.
iii. RG-58 C/U - Military version of RG-58 A/U.
iv. RG-59 - 75 ohm, for broadband transmission such as cable TV.
v. RG-62 - 93 ohm, primarily used for ArcNet.
vi. RG-6 - used for satellite cable (if you want to run a cable to a satellite).
vii. RG-8 - 50 ohm thick ethernet.
viii. RG-11 - 75 ohm thick ethernet.
c. Fiber-optic - data is transmitted using light rather than electrons. Usually there
are two fibers, one for each direction. Cable length of 2 Kilometers; speed from
100Mbps to 2Gbps. This is the most expensive and most difficult to install, but
is not subject to interference. There are two types of cables:
i. Single mode cables for use with lasers have greater bandwidth and cost more.
Injection laser diodes (ILD) work with single mode cable.
ii. Multimode cables for use with Light Emitting Diode (LED) drivers; all signals
appear to arrive at the same time. P intrinsic N diodes or photodiodes are used
to convert light to electric signals when using multimode.
Table 1.3.1: Types of Fiber Cable
Fiber thickness (microns) Cladding thickness (microns) Mode
8.3 125 single
62.5 125 multi
50 125 multi
100 140 multi

50
2.2 Physical Media Comparisons
Let us look at the features of different types of physical media in the table below.
Table 1.3.2: Comparing Physical Media
Media Distance(meter Speed Approx.
s) cost/station
UTP 100 4-100Mbps $90
STP 100 16-155Mbps $125
Thinnet 185 10Mbps $25
Thicknet 500 10Mbps $50
Fiber 2000 100Mbps- $250 (multimode)
2Gbps

In-text Question
Define physical media?

Answer
Physical media refers to the physical materials that are used to store or transmit information in data
communications.

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual Or Group Assignments)

1. Discuss the various types of physical media as regard the distance they can
cover.
2. State the features of 8 types of coaxial cable.
3. Explain the two types of fiber optic cable.

4.0 Conclusion and Summary

This study session has taken you through understanding the physical media and its
various types. In this unit, we also compared the media- using the distance they can
cover; their effective speed of transferring data as our basis of comparison. The next
unit will introduce you to network protocols. Protocol can be viewed as a language that
has to be understood by all the computers on a network.
51
Summary
In this study session, you have learnt that:
i. A physical medium is any physical means for transmitting data
ii. The 3 types of physical media are twisted pair, coaxial cable and fiber optic.

5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. How is the fiber optic medium better than coaxial cable?
2. Why are radio channels described to be an attractive medium?

6.0 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

1.
• Fiber optics are significantly faster than coaxial cables
• Fiber optics are eco-friendlier than coaxial cables
• Fiber optics are the technology of the future
• Fiber optics offer more secure communication than coaxial cables

2.
This is because radio channels can penetrate walls, can be used to provide connectivity
to mobile users and can also carry signals for long distances.

7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/2qjQSgS , http://bit.ly/2OPemny,
http://bit.ly/2qoNl0U, http://bit.ly/33OCoDt , http://bit.ly/2LnBhEg ,

http://bit.ly/2Pb9GaI . Watch the video & summarise in 1 paragraph

b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum
c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Deploying Physical Media; In 2
paragraphs summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.
52
8.0 References/Further Reading
David Roessner, Barry Bozeman, Irwin Feller, Christopher Hill, Nils Newman
(1997). The Role of NSF's Support of Engineering in Enabling
Technological Innovation.
http://www.sri.com/policy/csted/reports/techin/inter2.html.
Retrieved 2009-05-28.
Hauben, Ronda (2004). "The Internet: On its International Origins and Collaborative
Vision". Amateur Computerist 12 (2).
http://www.ais.org/~jrh/acn/ACn12-2.a03.txt. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
"RFC 675 - Specification of internet transmission control program". Tools.ietf.org.
http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc675. Retrieved 2009- 05-28.
Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (1996). Computer Networks. Prentice Hall.

53
 Study Session 4:
Network Protocols

1.0 Learning Outcome

2.0 Main Content
2.1 Introduction to Network Protocols
2.2 Network Protocol Overview
2.3 Types of Network Protocols
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

Introduction
In this study session, you will be taken through Network Protocol and its general
concepts: Network protocols, the Internet, Protocols and standards. First we give a
definition of data communications. Then we define networks as a highway on which
data can travel. The Internet is discussed as a good example of an internetwork (i.e., a
network of networks). Finally, we discuss different types of protocols, the difference
between protocols and standards, and the organizations that set those standards.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
i. Explain the meaning of network protocols
ii. State the types of network protocols.

54
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Introduction to Network Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that govern the communications between computers on a
network. These rules include guidelines that regulate the following characteristics of a
network: access method, allowed physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed of
data transfer.
Packets can be transmitted across networks or over telephone lines. In fact, network
protocols and several communication protocols use packet switching to establish a
connection and route information. The format of a packet depends on the protocol that
creates the packet the network computer must have a network protocol driver loaded.
This program may be referred to as the transport protocol, or just as protocol. It operates
between the adapter and the initial layer of network software to package and unpack
data for the LAN.

2.2 Network Protocol Overview

The OSI model, and any other network communication model, provides only a
conceptual framework for communication between computers, but the model itself
does not provide specific methods of communication. Actual communication is defined
by various communication protocols. In the context of data communication, a protocol
is a formal set of rules, conventions and data structure that governs how computers and
other network devices exchange information over a network. In other words, a protocol
is a standard procedure and format that two data communication devices must
understand, accept and use to be able to talk to each other.
In modern protocol design, protocols are "layered" according to the OSI 7 layer model
or a similar layered model. Layering is a design principle which divides the protocol
design into a number of smaller parts, each part accomplishing a particular sub-task
and interacting with the other parts of the protocol only in a small number of well-
defined ways. Layering allows the parts of a protocol to be designed and tested without
a combinatorial explosion of cases, keeping each design relatively simple. Layering
55
also permits familiar protocols to be adapted to unusual circumstances.
The header and/or trailer at each layer reflect the structure of the protocol. Detailed
rules and procedures of a protocol or protocol group are often defined by a lengthy
document. For example, IETF uses RFCs (Request For Comments) to define protocols
and updates to the protocols.
A wide variety of communication protocols exist. These protocols were defined by
many different standard organizations throughout the world and by technology vendors
over years of technology evolution and development. One of the most popular protocol
suites is TCP/IP, which is the heart of Internetworking communications. The IP-
Internet Protocol is responsible for exchanging information between routers, so that the
routers can select the proper path for network traffic; while TCP is responsible for
ensuring that data packets are transmitted across the network, reliably, and error free.
LAN and WAN protocols are also critical protocols in network communications. The
LAN protocols suite is for the physical and data link layers of communications over
various LAN media, such as ethernet wires and wireless radio waves. The WAN
protocol suite is for the lowest three layers and defines communication over various
wide-area media, such as fiber optic and copper cables.
Network communication has slowly evolved. Today's new technologies are based on
the accumulation of technologies over the years- which may be either still existing or
obsolete. As a result of this, the protocols which define network communication are
highly inter-related. Many protocols rely on others for operation. For example, many
routing protocols use other network protocols to exchange information between routers.
In addition to standards for individual protocols in transmission, there are now also
interface standards for different layers to talk to the ones above or below (usually
operating system specific). For example, Winsock and Berkeley socket between layers
4 and 5; NDIS and ODI between layers 2 and 3.
The protocols for data communication cover all areas as defined in the OSI model.
However, the OSI model is only loosely defined. A protocol may perform the functions
of one or more of the OSI layers, which introduces complexity to understanding
56
protocols relevant to the OSI 7 layer model. In real-world protocols, there is some
argument as to where the distinctions between layers are drawn; there is no one black
and white answer.
To develop a complete technology that is useful for the industry, very often, a group of
protocols are required in the same layer or across many different layers. Different
protocols often describe different aspects of a single communication; taken together,
these form a protocol suite. For example, Voice over IP (VOIP), a group of protocols
developed by many vendors and standard organisations, has many protocols across the
4 top layers in the OSI model.
Protocols can be implemented either in hardware or software or a mixture of both.
Typically, the lower layers are implemented in hardware, with the higher layers being
implemented in software. Protocols could be grouped into suites (or families, or stacks)
by their technical functions, or origin of the protocol introduction, or both. A protocol
may belong to one or multiple protocol suites, depending on how you categorise it. For
example, the Gigabit ethernet protocol IEEE 802.3z is a LAN (Local Area Network)
protocol and it can also be used in MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
communications.
Most recent protocols are designed by the IETF for internetworking communications
and by the IEEE for local area networking and metropolitan area networking. The ITU-
T contributes mostly to Wide Area Networking (WAN) and telecommunications
protocols. ISO has its own suite of protocols for internetworking communications,
which is mainly deployed in European countries.

57
2.3 Types of Network Protocols
The most common network protocols are as listed below.
1. Ethernet
2. Local talk
3. Token ring
4. FDDI
5. ATM

Figure 1.3.1: Commonly Used Network Symbols for Different Kinds of Network Protocols

Ethernet

The ethernet protocol is, by far, the most widely used. Ethernet uses an access method
called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection). This is a
system where each computer listens to the cable before sending anything through the
network. If the network is clear, the computer will transmit. If some other node is
already transmitting on the cable, the computer will wait and try again when the line is
clear.
Sometimes, two computers attempt to transmit at the same instant. When this happens
a collision occurs; each computer then backs off and waits a random amount of time
before attempting to retransmit. With this access method, it is normal to have collisions.
58
However, the delay caused by collisions and retransmitting is very small and does not
normally affect the speed of transmission on the network. The ethernet protocol allows
for linear bus, star, or tree topologies. Data can be transmitted over wireless access
points, twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable at a speed of 10 Mbps up to 1000 Mbps.

Fast ethernet
To allow for an increased speed of transmission, the ethernet protocol has developed a
new standard that supports 100 Mbps. This is commonly called fast ethernet. Fast
ethernet requires the use of different, more expensive network concentrators/hubs and
network interface cards. In addition, category 5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable is
necessary. Fast ethernet is becoming common in schools that have been recently wired.
Local talk
Local talk is a network protocol that was developed by Apple Computer, Inc. for
Macintosh computers. The method used by local talk is called CSMA/CA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance). It is similar to CSMA/CD except
that a computer signals its intent to transmit before it actually does so. Local talk
adapters and special twisted pair cable can be used to connect a series of computers
through the serial port.
The Macintosh operating system allows the establishment of a peer-to-peer network
without the need for additional software. With the addition of the server version of
AppleShare software, a client/server network can be established. The local talk protocol
allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies using twisted pair cable. A primary
disadvantage of local talk is speed. Its speed of transmission is only 230 Kbps.
Token ring
The token ring protocol was developed by IBM in the mid-1980s. The access method
used involves token-passing. In token ring, the computers are connected so that the
signal travels around the network from one computer to another in a logical ring. A
single electronic token moves around the ring from one computer to the next. If a
59
computer does not have information to transmit, it simply passes the token on to the
next workstation.
If a computer wishes to transmit and receives an empty token, it attaches data to the
token. The token then proceeds around the ring until it comes to the computer for which
the data is meant. At this point, the data is captured by the receiving computer. The
token ring protocol requires a star-wired ring using twisted pair or fiber optic cable. It
can operate at transmission speeds of 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps. Due to the increasing
popularity of ethernet, the use of token ring in school environments has decreased.
FDDI
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a network protocol that is used primarily to
interconnect two or more local area networks, often over large distances. The access
method used by FDDI involves token- passing. FDDI uses a dual ring physical
topology. Transmission normally occurs on one of the rings; however, if a break occurs,
the system keeps information moving by automatically using portions of the second
ring to create a new complete ring. A major advantage of FDDI is speed. It operates
over fiber optic cable at 100 Mbps.
ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a network protocol that transmits data at a
speed of 155 Mbps and higher. ATM works by transmitting all data in small packets of
a fixed size; whereas, other protocols transfer variable length packets. ATM supports a
variety of media such as video, CD-quality audio, and imaging. ATM employs a star
topology, which can work with fiber optic as well as twisted pair cable.
ATM is most often used to interconnect two or more local area networks. It is also
frequently used by Internet Service Providers (ISP) to utilise high-speed access to the
internet for their clients. As ATM technology becomes more cost-effective, it will
provide another solution for constructing faster local area networks.
Gigabit Ethernet
The most recent development in the Ethernet standard is a protocol that has a
transmission speed of 1 Gbps. Gigabit Ethernet is primarily used for backbones on a
network at this time. In the future, it will probably be used for workstation and server
60
connections also. It can be used with both fiber optic cabling and copper. The
1000BaseTX, the copper cable used for Gigabit Ethernet, became the formal standard
in 1999.

Table 1.3.1: Comparison of Network Protocols

Protocol Cable Speed Topology
Ethernet Twisted Pair, 10 Mbps Linear Bus,
Coaxial, Fiber Star, Tree
Fast Twisted Pair, 100 Mbps Star
Ethernet Fiber
LocalTalk Twisted Pair .23 Mbps Linear Bus or
Star

Token Twisted Pair 4 Mbps - 16 Star-Wired

Ring Mbps Ring
FDDI Fiber 100 Mbps Dual ring
ATM Twisted Pair, 155-2488 Linear Bus,
Fiber Mbps Star, Tree

In-text Question
Explain Network protocol?

Answer
A network protocol can be viewed as a common network communication standard, which is used to
define a method of exchanging data over a computer network. Network protocols define rules and
conventions for communication between different devices, participating in a computer network.
Examples of standard network protocols are TCP, UDP, ARP, HTTP, FTP.

61
3.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
1. What is the significance of network protocol?
2. Differentiate between 5 types of network protocols.
3. State the main features of FDDI and ATM

4.0 Conclusion and Summary

This study session has introduced basic rudiments of network protocols, under which
you have learnt different types of network protocols which include ATM, FDDI etc.

Summary
In this study session, you have learnt about:
i. Network protocol, which is a set of rules that governs
communication between computers on a network
ii. Types of network protocols, namely- ethernet, local talk, token ring, FDDI and
ATM
iii. Comparison between different network protocols.

5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What does VOIP stands for and what is it used for?

6.0 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

1. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), is a technology that allows you to make voice
calls using a broadband Internet connection instead of a regular (or analog) phone line.

62
7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/363zvjK , http://bit.ly/2L1cNRu ,
http://bit.ly/2Lmq1rT , http://bit.ly/32bs3Rt , http://bit.ly/2MJ9OiS ,
http://bit.ly/2NFcXzY. Watch the video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum
c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Network Protocols; In 2 paragraphs
summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

8.0 References/Further Reading

OGC-00-33R Department of Commerce: Relationship with the Internet Corporation
for Assigned Names and Numbers. Government Accountability Office. 7 July
2000. p. 5. http://www.gao.gov/new.items/og00033r.pdf.
"DDN NIC". IAB Recommended Policy on Distributing Internet Identifier Assignment.
http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc1174.txt. Retrieved December 26, 2005.

63
 MODULE 2: NETWORK DESIGN

Study Session 1 Harnessing Wi-Fi for User Mobility

Study Session 2 Building Internetworks Using TCP/IP and Routers
Study Session 3 Network Standards (IEEE 802 Standards)
Study Session 4 Implementing Security Best Practices

Study Session 1:
Harnessing Wi-Fi for User Mobility

Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Overview of Wi-Fi Technology
2.2 Introduction to Wi-Fi Technology
2.3 WLAN Performance Metrics
2.4 Testing Methodology for Wireless Networks
2.5 Test Setup and Sample Results
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

64
Introduction

In this study session, you will be taken through Wi-fi technology and its general
concepts. Differences between wired and wireless networks require metrics and also
you will learn the advantages of the technology over wired technology. This Study
Session shall also expose you to the WLan Performances metrics, test setup and sample
result and testing methodology for wireless networks.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to:
1. Define the concept of Wi-fi technology
2. Explain the details of what brought about Wi-fi technology.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Overview of Wi-Fi Technology
Testing techniques developed for wired devices and networks fall short when applied
to the WLAN market. The inherent instability of the unwired medium — air — in
which the wireless world operates and the constant mobility of the WLAN user make
the 802.11 protocol an order of magnitude more complex than equivalent wired
protocols result, the metrics used to benchmark wired protocols are only a starting point
for the WLAN industry.
Differences between wired and wireless networks require metrics and methodology for
performance benchmarking that address the intricacies of the 802.11 protocol. This
Study Session addresses wireless-specific functions central to business-critical
applications on a wi-fi infrastructure and includes typical results and interpretations.

2.2 Introduction to Wi-Fi Technology

The IEEE 802.11b standard is popularly known as “Wireless Fidelity” (or Wi-Fi- for
short). It has become widely popular for wireless LANs in office environments.

65
Proponents of this technology consider it great competition to third generation wireless
networks, which also provide high data rate, mobile internet access. Wi-Fi can be used
to provide broadband wireless internet access.
Access Points (APs) can be installed at various locations in the city. The APs are also
called “hotspot”. All the APs in a city can be interconnected through an ATM-based
backbone network. As the wireless device moves from one location to another, the
mobile device is connected to the nearest AP.

2.3 WLAN Performance Metrics

Wi-fi protocols address differences between wired and wireless networks, and the
implementation of the more advanced wireless protocol demands performance
validation. Algorithms used in a network's clients and APs (and the capacity of these
devices to process the algorithms) limit the network's performance. The objective of
the validation process and test metrics is to identify critical test parameters and find the
correct method of testing them.
Testing Ethernet network performance is essentially a measure of packet forwarding
rate. In addition to packet forwarding measurements, WLANs must undergo tests related
to the unstable physical layer and end-user mobility; including automatic data rate
adaptation, roaming, verification of security, QOS and overlapping BSSs, as well as
behavioral tests that measure performance under abnormal network conditions. The
primary focus of the testing effort should be parameters that eventually affect network
efficiency and operation.
Data rate adaptation- wired LANs support fixed data rates: 10/100/1000 Mb/s. Wireless
networks support multiple data rates: 11/5.5/2/1 Mb/s for 802.11b;
54/48/36/24/18/12/9/6 Mb/s for 802.11a and 802.11g. The critical difference is that
WLANs support dynamic rate adaptation and can operate at multiple data rates
automatically determined by the end point (AP or client).
In addition, because the 802.11 standard does not specify exact criteria for data rate
adaptation, the algorithms can vary from device to device. The rate adaptation
66
algorithm should be based on optimizing throughput; that is, when the number of errors
at a specific data rate increases to the point where throughput is severely affected, the
device should drop to a lower data rate to recover the best throughput at that distance
from the AP.
The challenge is how to measure this repeatedly, while creating a metric that can be set
as the golden standard. To measure throughput at fixed points, many vendors often use
an interference-free environment with a long, direct line-of-site area where they can
simulate data rate adaptation by wheeling a client up and down on a cart. This method,
however, lacks accurate rate adaptation data and is less efficient than newer devices
that offer controlled RF environments and accurate signal attenuation through test setup
automation. While characterizing range vs. data rate, the test should simultaneously
characterize range vs. throughput and range vs. packet error rate.
Roaming- as a client moves out of range of one AP, it dissociates from the AP and must
associate and authenticate with another. If the client predicts this roam will occur by
noticing the drop in signal and searching for an alternate AP before it is actually
disassociated from the first, it can optimise the roam time and network disruption
caused by the roam. The client device makes the decision to roam based on its position
relative to different APs and their signal strengths. The client might periodically analyse
signal strength of the APs that surround it and decide which one to associate with if it
needs to roam.
Load-sharing protocols used by some WLAN network vendors depart from the
traditional client-based decision process, orchestrating client devices to associate with
specific APs and spreading the load evenly among APs and optimising the entire
network throughput. In addition, the IEEE is advancing its work on roaming through
better RF measurement (802.11k) and fast roaming processes (802.11r). As the roaming
process increases in complexity, it is critical to have standard roaming metrics for
testing WLAN networks and equipment.
Roaming is critical because it takes time, which can cause data loss that can ultimately
disrupt a communication session. Data loss is particularly important for time-sensitive
67
enterprise applications, such as VoWLAN, that are especially susceptible to packet
delay caused by roaming. Roaming metrics include roaming time, packet loss and
session continuity. Roaming time can be broken down into the following stages-
scanning, associating to the new AP, authentication with the new AP and data flow.
Analyzing the time of each phase of this process will help ensure the most efficient
roam time.
Packet forwarding- forwarding rate is a function of a device: in wired networks, the
ethernet switch; in WLANs, the AP. Packet forwarding rate testing is always done at the
highest signal strength and at the highest data rate because this puts the most demand
on the device and measures its packet processing power in the most extreme case.

Like wired throughput tests, a wireless packet forwarding test varies the packet size to
ensure the ability of the device to work with diverse traffic; but unlike wired devices,
there are other factors to consider. The most critical is security, because wireless
network devices must encrypt each packet. This additional overhead must be added to
evaluate its effect on the packet forwarding rate. Another important factor is client
capacity. Running the test with a large number of users stresses the AP's ability to
handle a large number of users, each sending a portion of the bandwidth. This also
affects how the AP functions under such conditions.
Security- this is a critical consideration for enterprise networks; because they are
susceptible to intruders, wireless networks have more stringent security requirements
than their wired counterparts. Wireless security protocols (802.11i) rely heavily on
authentication and encryption, which depend on the processing power of the AP and
client, and cryptography accelerators for data encryption. The efficiency with which
the devices handle key management and encryption will have an effect on performance
measurements, such as forwarding rate and roaming.
When a client initially accesses the network or roams between APs, authentication
occurs using protocols such as EAP-TLS, EAP-TTLS and LEAP. Complex key
derivation algorithms can overload APs if multiple simultaneous authentication
68
requests are made. Authentication of wireless networks is tested by measuring how
efficiently and quickly an AP manages simultaneous authentication requests.
Encryption protocols used in Wi-Fi, such as WEP, TKIP and AES/CCMP, can also
impact throughput performance. The security metric is performed by making a series
of comparative throughput measurements using different encryption methods.
Quality of Service (QOS) - because 802.11 is a shared media protocol without QOS,
WLANs cannot prioritise real-time applications such as voice and video, over data
applications. QOS protocols for WLANs must account for jitter, delay and packet loss,
which have required minimums for real-time applications including VOIP and
multimedia streaming. Jitter, or inter-packet delay, is particularly critical in packetised
voice.

2.4 Testing Methodology for Wireless Networks

Traditionally, wireless system designers have had a variety of testing options. Most are
home-grown or custom-built, and include isolated screen rooms for RF control, large
open spaces for testing mobility and expensive off-the-shelf meters that focus on point-
to-point tests of the physical layer. Another approach is emerging for integrated
chassis- based Wi-fi testing. The older methods are costly, and in many cases do not
provide the systems level configuration needed to accurately and usefully provide
relevant information about the metrics discussed above.
Isolated screen rooms for controlling RF interference — WLAN system developers
reduce the effects of RF interference by conducting tests in a large screen room that
isolates devices under test from extraneous RF interference. It is the wireless equivalent
of a "clean room." Although screen rooms can eliminate interference effects, they
cannot test real- world network conditions such as mobility and roaming. Screen rooms
can be expensive to erect and maintain; and are not portable, which limits their use and
effectiveness.

69
2.5. Test Setup and Sample Results
The roaming test is an example that shows the efficiency that can be achieved using a
chassis-based test platform. Using two test modules — a WLA and an RFM — a phone
or a PC client is connected between the two APs through two 80 dB programmable
attenuators. The attenuators are programmed to force the client to roam in a controlled
way from one AP to another. Data collection is performed on the source and destination
channel simultaneously by the integrated dual-channel WLA module. The roaming test
is fully automated and can be configured to repeat the measurements for a set period.
One attenuator is initially set to minimum and the other to maximum so that the client
receives a strong signal from AP1 and associates with it; while AP2 is out of the client's
range. The attenuator between AP1 and the client is then gradually increased,
eventually making AP1 invisible to the client while the attenuator between the client
and AP2 is gradually decreased, "moving" AP2 within range and forcing a roam. The
ranges and the rate of change of attenuators are configurable within the test script. At
the end of the roaming test, the test script tabulates the details of each roam.
This automated roaming test implementation provides accurate time measurements and
identifies specific time intervals in a way that emulates real-life roaming to the clients
and access points: gradual signal strength decrease and increase. The entire test can be
repeated as many times as is needed, and multiple roams can be performed in a short
period without human involvement.

In-text Question
What do you understand by the term “Wi-fi?”

Answer
Wi-Fi is the name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to provide
wireless high-speed Internet and network connections. A common misconception is that the term Wi-
Fi is short for "wireless fidelity," however this is not the case. Wi-Fi is simply a trademarked phrase
that means IEEE 802.11x

70
3.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
1. In a tabular form, compare and contrast Wi-fi and the WLAN.
2. State and explain the metrics for testing WLAN

4.0 Conclusion and Summary

This Study Session introduced you to Wi-Fi technology and also taught the advantage
of the technology over wired technology. This Study Session has also exposed you to
the testing methodology for wireless networks.

Summary
In this Study Session, you have learnt that:
i. The IEEE 802.11b standard is popularly known as ‘Wireless Fidelity’ (or Wi-
Fi).
ii. Wi-fi protocols address the differences between wired and wireless networks
iii. Wi-fi can be used to provide broadband wireless internet access.
iv. WLAN must be tested continually; the primary focus of the testing effort should
be parameters that eventually affect network efficiency and operation.
v. Wi-fi technology has become popular for wireless LANs in office environment

5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Wireless networking, or Wi-Fi, can be used to connect computers in a home, and

many cities are using the technology to offer free or low-cost Internet access to
residents. What’s another name for Wi-Fi?

2. What are the factors that can affect transmission rate in Digital Subscriber Line
(DSL)

71
6.0 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions
1. 802.11 networking
2. Because DSL is made of twisted wire copper pair, the gauge of twisted pair line i.e.
the protection and electrical interference would affect the transmission rate in DSL.
Unlike DSL, FTTP is not really affected by these factors.

7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/387L5vS , http://bit.ly/2rdBxin ,
http://bit.ly/34ZLcbb , http://bit.ly/2NDFUft , http://bit.ly/33Njqx8 ,
http://bit.ly/3445nEJ , http://bit.ly/33L2Aid . Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph.
b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum
c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Harnessing Wi-Fi for user mobility; In 2
paragraphs summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

8.0 References/ Further Reading

“NASA Successfully Tests First Deep Space Internet”. NASA media release 8-298,
November 18, 2008 Archived.
Prasad, K. V. (2009). Principles of Digital Communication Systems and Computer
Networks. Dreamtech Press.
http://www.azimuthsystems.com/

72
 Study Session 2:
Building Internetworks Using Transport Control Protocol (TCP)/Internet
Protocol (IP) and Routers

Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 TCP Technology
2.1.1 Internet Protocol
2.2 Routing in IP Environments
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

Introduction
In this study session, you will be taken through Transport Control Protocol and its
general concepts. The language of the internet is Transport Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP). No matter what type of computer platform or software is being used,
the information must move across the internet in this format. This protocol calls for
data to be grouped together, in bundles, called network packets.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to:
1. Explain the fundamentals of the TCP/IP
2. State the relevance of TCP/IP in internetworks.

73
2.0 Main Content
2.1 TCP Technology
TCP is a connection−oriented transport protocol that sends data as an unstructured
stream of bytes. By using sequence numbers and acknowledgment messages, TCP can
provide a sending node with delivery information about packets transmitted to a
destination node. Where data has been lost in transit from source to destination, TCP
can retransmit the data until either a timeout condition is reached or until successful
delivery has been achieved.
TCP can also recognize duplicate messages and will discard them appropriately. If the
sending computer is transmitting too fast for the receiving computer, TCP can employ
flow control mechanisms to slow data transfer. TCP can also communicate delivery
information to the upper−layer protocols and applications it supports. All these
characteristics make TCP an end−to−end reliable transport protocol. TCP is specified
in RFC 793.

Figure 2.2. 1: TCP/IP Protocol Suite in Relation to the OSI Reference Model

74
 Figure 2.2.2: Important Internet Protocols in Relation to the OSI Reference
Model

2.1.1 Internet Protocol (IP)

IP is the primary layer 3 protocol in the internet suite. In addition to internetwork
routing, IP provides error reporting and fragmentation and re-assembly of information
units called datagrams for transmission over networks with different maximum data
unit sizes. IP represents the heart of the internet protocol suite (note: the term IP in the
section refers to IPv4 unless otherwise stated explicitly).
IP addresses are globally unique, 32−bit numbers assigned by the network information
center. Globally unique addresses permit IP networks anywhere in the world to
communicate with each other. An IP address is divided into two parts. The first part
designates the network address while the second part designates the host address. The
IP address space is divided into different network classes.
Class A networks are intended mainly for use with a few very large networks, because
they provide only 8 bits for the network address field. Class B networks allocate 16
bits, and Class C networks allocate 24 bits for the network address field. Class C
networks only provide 8 bits for the host field however, so the number of hosts per
75
network may be a limiting factor. In all three cases, the left most bit(s) indicate the
network class. IP addresses are written in dotted decimal format; for example, 34.0.0.1.
Figure 2.2.3 below shows the address formats for Class A, B, and C IP networks.

Figure 2.2.3: Address Formats for Class A, B, and C IP Networks

IP networks also can be divided into smaller units called subnetworks or ‘subnets’.
Subnets provide extra flexibility for the network administrator. For example, assume
that a network has been assigned a Class A address and all the nodes on the network
use a Class A address. Further assume that the dotted decimal representation of this
network's address is 34.0.0.0. (All zeros in the host field of an address specify the entire
network). The administrator can subdivide the network using subnetting. This is done
by "borrowing" bits from the host portion of the address and using them as a subnet
field, as depicted in Figure 2.2.4 below.

Figure 2.2.4: "Borrowing" Bits

76
If the network administrator has chosen to use 8 bits of subnetting, the second octet of
a Class A IP address provides the subnet number. In our example, address 34.1.0.0
refers to network 34, subnet 1; address
34.2.0.0 refers to network 34, subnet 2, and so on.
The number of bits that can be borrowed for the subnet address varies. To specify how
many bits are used to represent the network and the subnet portion of the address, IP
provides subnet masks. Subnet masks use the same format and representation technique
as IP addresses. Subnet masks have ones in all bits except those that specify the host
field. For example, the subnet mask that specifies 8 bits of subnetting for Class A
address 34.0.0.0 is 255.255.0.0. The subnet mask that specifies 16 bits of subnetting
for Class A address 34.0.0.0 is 255.255.255.0. Both of these subnet masks are pictured
in Figure 2.5 below. Subnet masks can be passed through a network on demand so that
new nodes can learn how many bits of subnetting are being used on their network.

Figure 2.2.5: Subnet Masks

77
Traditionally, all subnets of the same network number use the same subnet mask. In
other words, a network manager would choose an eight−bit mask for all subnets in the
network. This strategy is easy to manage for both network administrators and routing
protocols. However, this practice wastes address space in some networks. Some subnets
have many hosts and some have only a few, but each consumes an entire subnet
number. Serial lines are the most extreme example, because each has only two hosts
that can be connected via a serial line subnet. As IP subnets have grown, administrators
have looked for ways to use their address space more efficiently.
One of the techniques of subnetting is called Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSM).
With VLSM, a network administrator can use a long mask on networks with few hosts
and a short mask on subnets with many hosts. However, this technique is more complex
than making them all one size; and addresses must be assigned carefully.
Of course in order to use VLSM, a network administrator must use a routing protocol
that supports it. Cisco routers support VLSM with Open Shortest Path First (OSPF),
Integrated Intermediate System to Intermediate System (Integrated IS−IS), Enhanced
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (Enhanced IGRP), and static routing. On some
media, such as IEEE 802 LANs, IP addresses are dynamically discovered through the
use of two other members of the internet protocol suite: Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP) and Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP).
ARP uses broadcast messages to determine the hardware (MAC layer) address
corresponding to a particular network−layer address. ARP is sufficiently generic to
allow use of IP with virtually any type of underlying media access mechanism. RARP
uses broadcast messages to determine the network−layer address associated with a
particular hardware address. RARP is especially important to diskless nodes, for which
network−layer addresses usually are unknown at boot time.

2.2 Routing in IP Environments

An internet is a group of interconnected networks. The internet, on the other hand, is
the collection of networks that permits communication between most research
78
institutions, universities, and many other organisations around the world. Routers
within the internet are organized hierarchically. Some routers are used to move
information through one particular group of networks under the same administrative
authority and control. (Such an entity is called an autonomous system).
Routers used for information exchange within autonomous systems are called interior
routers, and they use a variety of Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs) to accomplish this
end. Routers that move information between autonomous systems are called exterior
routers; they use the Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) or Border Gateway Protocol
(BGP).

Figure 2.2.6: Representation of the Internet Architecture

Routing protocols used with IP are dynamic in nature. Dynamic routing requires the
software in the routing devices to calculate routes. Dynamic routing algorithms adapt
to changes in the network and automatically select the best routes. In contrast with
dynamic routing, static routing calls for routes to be established by the network
79
administrator. Static routes do not change until the network administrator changes
them. IP routing tables consist of destination address/next hop pairs.
In-text Question
Explain the TCP/IP model of networking.

Answer
The TCP/IP Reference Model. TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol.
It is the network model used in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules
which govern every possible communication over a network.

3.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

1. With the aid of diagram, explain internet architecture.
2. What are the differences between the Class A, Class B and Class
3. C IP networks?

4.0 Conclusion
This Study Session has taken you through the TCP/IP networks, its model and
implementation procedure.
In this Study Session, you have learnt that:
i. TCP is a connection−oriented transport protocol that sends data
ii. As an unstructured stream of bytes
iii. IP is the primary layer 3 protocol in the internet protocol suite and IP represents
the heart of the protocol
iv. One of the techniques of subnetting is called Variable Length Subnet Masks
(VLSM); with VLSM, a network administrator can use a long mask on networks
with few hosts and a short mask on subnets with many hosts
v. IP networks also can be divided into smaller units called subnetworks or subnets.
Subnets provide extra flexibility for the network administrator
vi. Routing protocols used with IP are dynamic in nature.

80
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
1. How is the sending and receiving data managed in TCP?
2. Describe communication in TCP.

6.0 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

1. TCP provides stream oriented delivery between hosts communicating via an IP
network and there are no message boundaries. TCP can concatenate data from a number
of send () commands into one stream of data and still transmit it reliably.

2. Data can flow both the directions at the same time during a TCP communication
hence, it is full-duplex. This is the reason why TCP is used in systems that require full-
duplex operation such as e-mail systems.

7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/2RlfbGu , http://bit.ly/2DJLHKr ,
http://bit.ly/2DJtKvn , http://bit.ly/36241u7 , http://bit.ly/368H88F. Watch the video &
summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum
c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Building Internetworks using TCP/IP and
Routers; In 2 paragraphs summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

81
8.0 References/Further Reading
"Events in British Telecoms History". Events in British
Telecomms History. Archived from the original on 2003-04-05.
http://web.archive.org/web/20030405153523/http://www.sigtel.com/tel_
hist_brief.html. Retrieved November 25, 2005.
A Brief History of Internet. http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml. Retrieved
2009-05-28.
Prasad, K. V. (2009). Principles of Digital Communication Systems and Computer
Networks. Dreamtech Press.

82
 Study Session 3:
Network Standards (IEEE 802 Standards)

Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Overview of IEEE 802
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

Introduction
The IEEE 802 Standard comprises a family of networking standards that cover the
physical layer specifications of technologies from Ethernet to wireless. IEEE 802 is
subdivided into 22 parts that cover the physical and data-link aspects of networking.
The better known specifications are 802.3 Ethernet, 802.11 Wi-Fi, 802.15
Bluetooth/ZigBee, and 802.16. All the 802.11 specifications use the Ethernet protocol
and Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) for path
sharing. The original modulation used in 802.11 was phase-shift keying (PSK).
However, other schemes, such as complementary code keying (CCK), are used in some
of the newer specifications.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to:
i. State what the IEEE 802 standard stands for
ii. Explain the various IEEE 802 standards and their descriptions.

83
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Overview of IEEE 802
Specifically, the IEEE 802 standards are restricted to networks carrying variable-size
packets. (By contrast, in cell relay networks, data are transmitted in short, uniformly
sized units called cells. Isochronous networks, where data is transmitted as a steady
stream of octets, or groups of octets, at regular time intervals, are also out of the scope
of this standard). The number 802 was simply the next free number IEEE could assign,
though “802” is sometimes associated with the date the first meeting was held —
February 1980.
The services and protocols specified in IEEE 802 map to the lower two layers (data
link and physical) of the seven-layer OSI networking reference model. In fact, IEEE
802 splits the OSI data link layer into two sub-layers named Logical Link Control
(LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC), so that the layers can be listed like this:
i. data link layer
ii. physical layer
The IEEE 802 family of standards is maintained by the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards
Committee (LMSC). The most widely used standards are for the ethernet family, token
ring; wireless LAN, bridging and virtual bridged LANs. An individual working group
provides the focus for each area. Table 3.1 below presents different IEEE network
standards and their descriptions.

84
Table 2.3.1: IEEE Network Standards and their Descriptions
Name Description Note
IEEE 802.1 Bridging (networking) and Network
Management
IEEE 802.2 LLC Inactive
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet
IEEE 802.4 Token bus Disbanded
IEEE 802.5 Defines the MAC layer for a Token Ring Inactive

IEEE 802.6 MANs Disbanded

IEEE 802.7 Broadband LAN using Coaxial Cable Disbanded
IEEE 802.8 Fiber Optic TAG Disbanded
IEEE 802.9 Integrated Services LAN Disbanded
IEEE 802.10 Interoperable LAN Security Disbanded
IEEE Wireless LAN (WLAN) & Mesh (Wi- Fi
802.1 certification)
1
a/b/g/n
IEEE 802.12 100BaseVG Disbanded
IEEE 802.13 Unused
IEEE 802.14 Cable modems Disbanded
IEEE 802.15 Wireless PAN
IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth certification
IEEE 802.15.2 IEEE 802.15 and IEEE 802.11
Coexistence
IEEE 802.15.3 High-Rate wireless PAN
IEEE 802.15.4 Low-Rate wireless PAN (e.g. ZigBee)
IEEE 802.15.5 Mesh networking for WPAN

85
 IEEE 802.16 Broadband Wireless Access (WiMAX
certification)
IEEE 802.16.1 Local Multipoint Distribution Service
IEEE 802.17 Resilient packet ring
IEEE 802.18 Radio Regulatory TAG
IEEE 802.19 Coexistence TAG
IEEE 802.20 Mobile Broadband Wireless Access
IEEE 802.21 Media Independent Handoff
IEEE 802.22 Wireless Regional Area Network
IEEE 802.23 Emergency Services Working Group New(March,
2010

In-text Question
What do you understand by IEEE 802?

Answer
IEEE 802 is a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area network and metropolitan area
network. By contrast, in cell relay networks data is transmitted in short, uniformly sized unit called
cell.

3.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

1. Describe the importance of IEEE 802 standards.
2. State all the working group of the IEEE 802 standard and their description.

4.0 Conclusion and Summary

In this Study Session, you learnt that the IEEE 802 standards are restricted to networks
carrying variable-size packets. You also learnt about the services and protocols
specified in IEEE 802.

86
Summary
In this Study Session, you have learnt that:
i. The services and protocols specified in IEEE 802 map to the lower two layers
(data link and physical) of the seven-layer OSI networking reference model
ii. The IEEE 802 family of standards is maintained by the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN
Standards Committee (LMSC).
iii. IEEE 802 standards are widely used for the Ethernet family, token ring; wireless
LAN, bridging and virtual bridged LANs.
iv. There are variations of IEEE 802 standards.

5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Describe an Ethernet Frame?

6.0 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

1. The Ethernet frame has a header that contains the source and destination MAC
address. Each MAC address is of 48 bits.

7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/2PcYev3 , http://bit.ly/2rTycoD ,
http://bit.ly/351zqN6 , http://bit.ly/2sLTCVd , http://bit.ly/2YgZdyp ,
http://bit.ly/2LjttU4 . Watch the video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum
c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Network Standards (IEEE 802 Standards);
In 2 paragraphs summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

87
8.0 References/Further Reading
The IEEE standard Sourcebook.
"The First Network Email". The First Network Email.
http://openmap.bbn.com/~tomlinso/ray/firstemailframe.html. Retrieved
December 23, 2005.

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 Study Session 4:
Implementing Security Best Practices

Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Overview of Best Network Security
2.2 Strategies for Best Network Security
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

Introduction
Network security involves maintaining Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability
(CIA) of network. Confidentiality involves preventing unauthorized disclosure of
resources or information on the network. Integrity means prevention of unauthorized
modification of resources or information on the network. Integrity involves prevention
of unauthorized denial of resources or information on the computer system.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of this session, you should be able to:
1. Explain what network security is all about
2. State the best network security
3. Highlight the features of best security practices.

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2.0 Main Content
2.1 Overview of Best Network Security
Efficient network security is needed for corporations, universities, schools, public
libraries, internet cafes and other applications where administrator has to secure and
maintain a lot of network workstations located in different places. Administrator does
not need to physically visit workstations to change security settings or install patches.
An efficient network security programme is needed for securing, protecting, and
maintaining PC workstations within a corporate network. There exist network-based
password-protected security software that allows you to completely secure
workstations over your network as well as maintain them by uploading and installing
any executable patches remotely. They support tons of security restrictions, options and
tweaks to control access to every bit of windows.
You can deny access to each individual component of several control panel applets,
including display, network, passwords, printers, system and internet options; disable
the boot keys, context menus, Disk Operating System (DOS) windows, registry editing,
internet and network access. You can also hide desktop icons, individual drives, start
menu items, and taskbar; apply password protection to windows and restrict users to
running specific applications only, control internet usage and much more. In total, best
network security supports over 600 different security restrictions, options and tweaks
that allow you to restrict access to almost every corner of windows.
After installing the remote client service application on your workstations, the
maintenance becomes absolutely hassle-free. You just connect your administrator's
computer to the net from any place and remotely change security settings, upload and
execute patches as well as schedule reboots, shutdowns, and windows explorer restarts
just with a click of the mouse. The best solution for corporations, universities, schools,
public libraries, internet cafes etc., is to upload and install any executable patches
remotely, apply security restrictions, options and tweaks. It supports over 600 different
security restrictions.

90
2.2. Strategies for Best Network Security
The ten (10) key strategies for ensuring efficient network security are as listed below.
i. Create security training and awareness programme within the organisation. Let
the personnel in your organisation be aware of:
I. Emerging threats
II. Possible consequences of a single security breach.
III. Security requirement
There must be regular security training. Collaborations with other cyber
security organisations are also necessary.
ii. Have an efficient access control system
In order to control insider threats, there must be clear definition of roles and
responsibilities in organizations. Efficient authorization system should be implemented
in order to limit the activities of personnel.
iii. Implement trusted and efficient intrusion prevention and
detection systems
iv. To effectively present cyber-attacks, a trusted and adaptive intrusion prevention
and detection system must be implemented. Nowadays, it is also necessary to
implement intrusion forecasting system.
v. Identify and document all resources on the network
vi. All categories of resources on the network must be well documented and their
status monitored and reported.
vii. All connections to the network must be known, documented and monitored
viii. Identify and monitor all connections (cable, wireless, local or internet) and
ensure that these connections are well protected. All unwanted or unnecessary
connections should be disconnected.
ix. Have an effective programme for the risk analysis and incident building
x. A periodic and thorough analysis of potential risks to network resources and
vulnerability assessment is an essential requirement for effective cyber security
management.
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 xi. Prevent unknown applications
xii. Implement strategies that disallow any unknown application to run on your
system.
xiii. Use security applications from reliable vendors
xiv. Trusted security tools from known vendors should be used. The vendors
must implement security features in form of patches and upgrades.
xv. Establish effective configuration management processes
xvi. Since changes in hardware and software configurations can introduce
vulnerabilities, an assessment of the security implications of all changes should
be carried out.
xvii. Ensure periodic evaluation of all security apparatus
xviii. Organisations should ensure periodic testing and evaluation of all security
apparatus.

In-text Question
What is cyber security?

Answer
Cyber-security is the practice of defending computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems,
networks, and data from malicious attacks. It's also known as information technology security or
electronic information security.

3.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

1. Why do we need to protect a network?
2. Describe how the network within your organization is protected.

4.0 Conclusion and Summary

This Study Session discussed the security issues in a network; and you have also learnt
about the best security practices. In the next module we would be going through
enterprise network design the creation process and how to plan these networks.

92
Summary
In this Study Session, you have learnt that:
i. Network security involves maintaining confidentiality, integrity and availability
(CIA) of network
ii. Efficient network security is needed for corporations, universities, schools,
public libraries, internet cafes and other applications where administrator has to
secure and maintain a lot of network workstations located in different places.
iii. There are certain key strategies required for ensuring best network security
practices

5.0 Self-Assessment Exercise

1. Describe the Network layer firewall.

6.0 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

1. Firewalls are available as hardware appliances, as software-only, or a combination
of the two. In every case, the purpose of a firewall is to isolate your trusted internal
network (or your personal PC) from the dangers of unknown resources on the Internet
and other network connections that may be harmful. The firewall prevents unauthorized
access to your internal, trusted network from outside threats.

7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/380fHQ5 , http://bit.ly/36d5Qor ,
http://bit.ly/2UjBGuL , http://bit.ly/2RjwszD , http://bit.ly/2OPFD9j ,
http://bit.ly/2Rjful1. Watch the video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum
c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Implementing Security best practices; In
2 paragraphs summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

93
8.0 References/Further Reading
http://www.azimuthsystems.com/
NASA Successfully Tests First Deep Space Internet. NASA media release 08-298,
November 18, 2008 Archived.

94
 MODULE 3: ENTERPRISE NETWORK

Study Session 1 Creating Enterprise Network

Study Session 2 Planning and Selection of Enterprise Network
Study Session 3 LAN and WAN

Study Session 1:
Creating Enterprise Network

Introduction
1.0 Objectives
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Overview of Enterprise Network
2.2 Predefined Enterprise Network
2.2.1 Residual Networks
2.3 Threat to Enterprise Network
2.3.1 Types of Threat
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

95
Introduction
This Study Session introduces you to enterprise network. An enterprise network is an
enterprise's communications backbone that helps connect computers and related
devices across departments and workgroup networks, facilitating insight and data
accessibility. An enterprise network reduces communication protocols, facilitating
system and device interoperability, as well as improved internal and external enterprise
data management. The key purpose of an enterprise network is to eliminate isolated
users and workgroups. All systems should be able to communicate and provide and
retrieve information.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to:
1. Explain enterprise network
2. Describe predefined enterprise network.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Overview of Enterprise Network
An enterprise private network is a network built by an enterprise to interconnect various
company sites, e.g., production sites, head offices, remote offices, shops, in order to
share computer resources. Enterprise networks are used for configuring access rules in
an enterprise policy that can be applied to any array in the enterprise and for configuring
enterprise network rules that apply to all arrays in the enterprise. Only enterprise
networks can be used to create enterprise-level rules. Enterprise networks can also be
used for defining array-level access and publishing rules and for defining array-level
network rules. However, you cannot use array-level networks when creating enterprise-
level rules.
Any number of user-defined enterprise networks can also be included in a network
defined in an array by including references to them. An enterprise network which its
set of IP address range corresponds exactly to the IP addresses included in a protected
96
array-level network, such as the Internal network, defined in one array can be used to
reference that network in all the other arrays of the enterprise.
When you configure enterprise networks, you specify only the IP address ranges and
do not specify any of the other properties that you would define for array-level
networks. In particular, you cannot configure Network Load Balancing or Cache Array
Routing Protocol (CARP) for an enterprise network. The IP addresses that are included
in an enterprise network are excluded from the default external network in each array
in the enterprise, even if the enterprise network is not included in any network defined
in the array.

2.2 Predefined Enterprise Networks

The following predefined enterprise networks are created upon installation:
i. External
ii. Local Host
iii. Quarantined VPN Clients
iv. VPN Clients
These predefined enterprise networks implicitly define the same IP address sets as their
array-level counterparts. They can be used for defining rules in an enterprise policy and
for defining enterprise network rules. When an enterprise policy is assigned to an array,
each predefined enterprise network in a rule will be interpreted as the array-level
network of the same name. For example, you can create an enterprise access rule that
applies to requests sent to the local host enterprise network. When a request is handled
in an array to which the enterprise policy containing this access rule is assigned, the
rule will apply to the IP addresses in the local host network on the array member
handling the request.

2.2.1 Residual Networks

IP addresses that belong to a configurable enterprise network, but do not belong to any
configurable array-level network are considered to be part of a residual network.
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2.3 Threat to Enterprise Network
Today, there is an ever-growing dependency on computer networks for business
transactions. With the free flow of information and the high availability of many
resources, managers of enterprise networks have to understand all the possible threats
to their networks. These threats take many forms, but all result in loss of privacy to
some degree and possibly malicious destruction of information or resources that can
lead to large monetary losses.

2.3.1 Types of Threat

Listed below are some common types of threats- especially when the enterprise
network is connected to the internet.
a. Insider threats
An insider attack involves someone from the inside, such as a disgruntled employee,
attacking the network. Insider attacks can be malicious or not malicious. Malicious
insiders intentionally eavesdrop, steal, or damage information; use information in a
fraudulent manner; or deny access to other authorised users. This can be controlled
using efficient authentication and authorization systems and IDS.
b. Malware
One of the biggest threats to computer users on the internet today is malware. Malware
are malicious codes that can cause distortion on your browser and eventually cripple
your system. They can hijack your browser, redirect your search attempts, serve up
nasty pop-up ads, track what web sites you visit, and prevent you from performing
certain functions. Examples are worm, viruses, Trojan horse, spyware, adware, dialers,
hijackers, etc. They are controlled using frequently updated and highly rated antivirus,
antispyware, etc. Efficient management of patches, SPAM filters and two-way
authentication are also used for their control.
c. Socially engineered attacks
Most traditional social engineering attacks capitalize on this vulnerability. Examples
are phishing, pharming, masquerading. General technical controls such as a firewall,
98
internet content filtering, antivirus software, anti-spam software, security awareness
and patch management can help reduce or eliminate many phishing attacks.
d. Authentication attacks
An attacker tries to crack the passwords stored in a network account database or a
password-protected file. Examples include dictionary, a brute-force, shoulder surfing,
key logging and hybrid attacks. They are controlled using robust and multifactor
authentication and authorization systems.

In-text Question
What is Malware?

Answer
Malware is short for “malicious software” - computer programs designed to infiltrate and damage
computers without the users consent. “Malware” is the general term covering all the different types
of threats to your computer safety such as viruses, spyware, worms, trojans, rootkits and so on.

3.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

1. Discuss the three types of threat to enterprise network.
2. What do you understand by enterprise network?

4.0 Conclusion and Summary

This Study Session has taken you through the rudiment of enterprise network. It has
also introduced you to residual networks.

Summary
In this Study Session, you have learnt that:
i. An enterprise private network is a network built by an enterprise to interconnect
various company sites, e.g., production sites, head offices, remote offices, shops,
in order to share computer resources.
ii. Common types of threats to enterprise network are insider attacks, socially
engineered, malware and authentication attacks.
99
iii. Predefined enterprise network are used for defining rules in an enterprise policy
and for defining enterprise network rules.

5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What do you understand by Denial-of-service attack?
2. What is DNS spoofing?

6.0 Answers to Self-Assessment Question

1. In a Denial of Service attack, the attacker won’t let the victims access the network
by using a certain method that ensures that an essential network resource is unavailable
to the victim. The methods that the attacker can use are vulnerability attack, bandwidth
flooding and connection flooding.

2. In DNS spoofing, also known as DNS cache poisoning, an attacker gets the valid
credentials from a victim by spoofing the intended resource, and tricking the victim to
give his/her valid authorization credentials.

7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/2Yj0iWl , http://bit.ly/388zNr9 , http://bit.ly/2RlhxoO ,

http://bit.ly/2sDwN5U , http://bit.ly/2sDwN5U , http://bit.ly/33U3ppf . Watch the video & summarise

in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum
c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Creating Enterprise Network; In 2
paragraphs summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

100
8.0 References/Further Reading
Abbate, Janet (1999). Inventing the Internet. Cambridge: MIT. Bemer, Bob, "A History
of Source Concepts for the Internet/Web".

101
 Study Session 2:
Planning and Selection of Enterprise Network

Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Overview
2.2 Steps to Effective Network Planning Design
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

Introduction
This Study Session gives you an overview of network and the steps involved in
planning and selecting enterprise network. Enterprise network is an important
component for building corporate information systems. Furthermore, dramatic changes
of computing and communication technologies make it possible for enterprise network
to run the whole business process. Network enterprise can maximize the potential of
the network resources.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to:
1. Highlight how to make proper planning for every phase of an enterprise
network
2. Explain the design phases in enterprise networks.

102
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Overview
Network planning and design methodology describes a process with 9 specific steps
and a sequence for those activities. It is an engineering life cycle that supports technical
initiatives such as windows migration, IP telephony and wireless design, to name a few
examples. The methodology begins with examining company business requirements.
It is absolutely essential that you understand the company business model, business
drivers and how they are growing from a business perspective. That will build the
foundation for a design proposal that serves the business, technical and operational
requirements of the company.

2.2 Steps to Effective Network Planning and Design

Here, let us look at the following steps.
Step 1- Business requirements
Any design project starts with an understanding of what the company does and what
they need to accomplish from a business perspective. This begins with an
understanding of their business model, which really describes how their company
works from an operational and business perspective to generate revenues and reduce
costs. Many vendors today have conducted their own return on investment (ROI)
studies for new implementations such as unified communications and telephony. It is
an effective sales tool that illustrates the cost benefits compared with investment over
a specified period of time.

Some typical business drivers are listed below.

i. Reduce operating costs
ii. Generate revenue
iii. Client satisfaction
iv. Employee productivity

103
This is a list of some typical project business requirements.
i. Budget constraints
ii. Office consolidations
iii. Company mergers and acquisitions
iv. Business partner connectivity
v. Telecommuter remote access
vi. New offices and employees
vii. New data center applications
viii. Reduce network outage costs
ix. Cost effective network management
x. Vendor contracts
Step 2- Design requirements
Now that you have learnt the basic business requirements of the company, you can
determine the standard and specific design requirements. The design requirements
process is focused on defining requirements from a technical perspective. Those
requirements along with the business requirements will build the framework that is used
to define infrastructure, security and management. Design requirements are defined as
standard and miscellaneous. The standard design requirements are generic and
represent those considered with many design projects. Miscellaneous requirements are
those that are not defined with any of the standard requirements.
Standard design requirements are:
i. Performance
ii. Availability
iii. Scalability
iv. Standards compatibility
v. Rapid deployment

104
Step 3- Network assessment

A network assessment is conducted after we have finished the business and design
requirements of the company. A network assessment provides a quick snapshot of the
current network with an examination of the infrastructure, performance, availability,
management and security. That information is utilised for making effective strategy
recommendations and design proposals to the client concerning specific information
systems modifications.
The network assessment model has three sequential activities, which are- assessment,
analysis and recommendations. The current network is examined using five primary
surveys, namely- infrastructure, performance, availability, management and security.
When the surveys are completed, the information collected is then reviewed for trends,
problems and issues that are negatively affecting the network.
Step 4- Infrastructure selection

After doing a network assessment, we are ready to start selecting specific infrastructure
components for the network design. This phase starts building the infrastructure with a
specific sequence that promotes effective equipment selection and design. It is
important that you consider business requirements, design requirements and the
network assessment when building your infrastructure.
The following numbered list describes the specific infrastructure components and their
particular sequence.
a) Enterprise WAN topology
b) Campus topology
c) Traffic model
d) Equipment selection
e) Circuits
f) Routing protocol design
g) Addressing
h) Naming conventions
105
 i) IOS Services
j) Domain name services
k) DHCP services

Step 5: Security strategy

We must now define a security strategy for securing the infrastructure. The need for
enterprise network security should not be ignored with the proliferation of the Internet.
Companies are continuing to leverage the public infrastructure for connecting national
and international offices, business partners and new company acquisitions. The security
requirements and network assessment recommendations should drive the selection of
security equipment, protocols and processes. It identifies what assets must be protected,
what users are allowed access and how those assets will be secured.
Step 6- Network management strategy
This section will define a network management strategy for managing all equipment
defined from infrastructure and security. It is necessary to define how the equipment is
going to be monitored and determine if the current management strategy is adequate or
if new applications, equipment, protocols and processes must be identified.
Management components are then integrated with infrastructure and security to finish
building the proposed design. These primary elements comprise any well-defined
management strategy and should be considered when developing your strategy.
i. Management groups
ii. SNMP applications
iii. Monitored devices and events
Step 7- Proof of concept
All infrastructure, security and management components must now be tested with a
proof of concept plan. It is important to test the current design, configuration and IOS
versions in a non-production environment or on the production network with limited
disruption. Implementation of newer network modules at a router, for instance, could
require that you change the current IOS version that is implemented. Making those
106
changes can affect WAN or campus modules already installed at production routers.
That is the real value of doing a proof of concept and certifying that the new equipment
and IOS versions integrate with each device as well as the network.
The following list describes the advantages of doing a proof of concept with your
network design. The proof of concept test results should be examined and used to
modify current infrastructure, security and management specifications before
generating a design proposal. The proof of concept model suggested here involves
prototype design, equipment provisioning, defining tests, building equipment scripts
and examining test results.
i. Prototype design
ii. Provision of equipment
iii. Define tests
iv. Build equipment scripts
v. Review test results

Step 8- Design proposal/review

With the proof of concept finished, you are now ready to build a design proposal for
the design review meeting. Your intended audience could be the Director, CIO, CTO,
Senior network engineer, Consultant or anyone that is approving a budget for the
project. It is important to present your ideas with clarity and professionalism. If a
presentation is required, PowerPoint slides work well and could be used to support
concepts from the design proposal document. The focus is on what comprises a
standard design proposal and the sequence for presenting that information.
The working design proposal is presented to the client after addressing any concerns
from proof of concept assurance testing. The design review is an opportunity for you
to present your design proposal to the client and discuss any issues. It is an opportunity
for the client to identify concerns they have and for the design engineer to clarify issues.
The focus is to agree on any modifications, if required, and make changes to the
infrastructure, security and management before implementation starts. Business and
107
design requirements can change from when the project started which sometimes will
necessitate changes to infrastructure, security and management specifications. Any
changes should then go through proof of concept testing again before final changes to
the design proposal.

Step 9- Implementation

The final step entails defining an implementation process for the specified design. This
describes a suggested implementation methodology of the proposed design, which
should have minimal disruption to the production network. As well, it should be
efficient and as cost effective as possible. As with previous methodologies there is a
sequence that should be utilised as well.
Once the implementation is finished, the network has to be monitored to checkmate
problems which may arise. Design and configuration modifications are then made to
address any problems or concerns.

In-text Question
What does Enterprise Network mean?

Answer
An enterprise network reduces communication protocols, facilitating system and device
interoperability, as well as improved internal and external enterprise data management. An enterprise
network is also known as a corporate network.

3.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

1. What are the possible consequences of lack of effective network planning?
2. State and explain the phases involved in creating an enterprise network

108
4.0 Conclusion and Summary
In this Study Session, you have learnt the necessary steps to consider in implementing
an enterprise network.

Summary
In this Study Session, you have learnt that:
i. Network planning and design methodology is an important activity towards
having an efficient network
ii. Network planning and design involve nine specific steps, namely- identification
of business requirements, design requirements, network assessment,
infrastructure selection, security strategy, network management strategy, proof
of concept and implementation.

5.0 Self-Assessment Exercise

1. You have an IP address of 172.16.13.5 with a 255.255.255.128 subnet mask. What
is your class of address, subnet address, and broadcast address?

6.0 Answer to Self-Assessment Questions

1. We know that the prefix 172 lies in class B (128 to 191) of IPv4 addresses. From the
subnet mask, we get that the class is divided into 2 subnets: 172.16.13.0 to
172.16.13.127 and 172.16.13.128 to 172.16.13.255. The IP 172.16.13.5 lies in the first
subnet. So the starting address 172.16.13.0 is the subnet address and last address
172.16.13.127 is the broadcast address.

109
7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/2Pc3U8K , http://bit.ly/2Pgf4ZQ ,

http://bit.ly/2RqEFSy , http://bit.ly/2RlwlUc , http://bit.ly/32hvfLH , http://bit.ly/363q9Es. Watch the

video & summarise in 1 paragraph

b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum
c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Planning and Selection of Enterprise
Network; In 2 paragraphs summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

8.0 References/Further Reading

Krol, Ed. (1992). Whole Internet User's Guide and Catalog. O'Reilly & Associates,
1992.
Scientific American Special Issue on Communications, Computers, and Networks,
September, 1991.
http://www.eBookmall.com
Prasad, K. V. (2009). “Principles of Digital Communication Systems and Computer
Networks”, Dreamtech Press.

110
 Study Session 3:
Local Area Network (LAN) And Wide Area Network (WAN)

Introduction
1.0 Objectives
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Understanding WAN and LAN
2.2 Difference between LAN and WAN
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

Introduction

Computers networked together in a self-contained group form a Local Area Network or

LAN. A LAN typically is contained within a single building or a group of neighbouring
buildings. Two computers linked together at home are the simplest form of a LAN.
Several hundred computers cabled together across several buildings at school form a
more complex LAN. LANs are usually connected with coaxial or CAT5 cable.
On the other hand, a WAN is geographically large. It is often formed by the joining
together of LANs in distant places. A national banking organization, for example, may
use a WAN to connect all of its branches across the country. The difference between
LANs and WANs is getting blurry as fiber optic cables have allowed LAN technologies
to connect devices many kilometers apart. WANs are usually connected using the
internet, ISDN landlines or satellite.

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1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes
At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the background of LAN and WAN
2. Explain the differences between LAN and WAN
3. State the relationship between LAN and WAN.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Understanding WAN and LAN
A Local Area Network (LAN) exists in a house or a university campus, while a Wide
Area Network (WAN) exists across many office buildings separated by a vast distance.
The office buildings in a WAN may be in different countries or even continents. For
example, the headquarters building may be in USA, the regional office building may be
in UK, and the branch office building may be in India. The workers in the three buildings
can use WAN to collaborate with one another. The internet can also be considered as a
WAN.

2.2 Differences between LAN and WAN

One of the differences between LAN and WAN is the speed of the network. The maximum
speed of a LAN can be 10 megabits per second, while the speed of a WAN can go up to
150 megabits per second. This means the speed of a WAN, is one-tenth of the speed of a
LAN. A WAN is usually slower because it has lower bandwidth.
Computers in a LAN can share a printer, if they are all in the same LAN. On the other
hand, a WAN cannot share a printer, so a computer in one country cannot use a printer in
another country. A LAN does not need a dedicated computer to direct traffic to and from
the internet, unlike a WAN that needs a special-purpose computer, whose only purpose
is to send and receive data from the internet.
Another basis for comparing LAN and WAN is the cost of the network. A WAN is more
expensive than a LAN. It is easier to expand a LAN than a WAN. The equipment needed
for a LAN is a Network Interface Card (NIC), a switch and a hub. On the other hand, the
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equipment needed to connect a WAN to the internet is a modem and a router. The modem
may be a cable modem or a DSL modem that is connected to a wall jack, while the router
should be configured so that it can handle the packets traveling between the WAN and
the internet.
Also, between LAN and WAN, there is a difference in the networking standard used. A
LAN uses the Ethernet standard, while a WAN uses the t1 standard. Before Ethernet, the
protocols used for LAN were Attached Resource Computer Network (ARCNET) and
token ring. The protocols used for WAN are frame relay and Asynchronous Transfer
Mode (ATM). Another protocol for WAN is Packet Over SONET/SDH (POS), where
SONET stands for Synchronous Optical Networking and SDH stands for Synchronous
Digital Hierarchy.
The first WAN protocol was x.25, while an advanced WAN protocol is multiprotocol label
switching (mpls). The hardware in a LAN is connected with 10base-t cable connectors,
while a WAN is connected via leased lines or satellites. Furthermore, a LAN is easy to set
up, as you need to slip the NIC into the PCI slot (for desktop computers) or PCMCIA
slot (for laptop computers). You also need to install the driver for the NIC. The NIC can
be connected to the network using the RJ45 port.
On the other hand, a WAN is very difficult to set up. There is often an appliance to
optimize the WAN. There is also a device to cache WAN data, so workers in the branch
office can quickly access documents. The router also has quality of service (QoS) built
in, so that it gives priority to certain kinds of traffic.
There are various topologies available in LAN and WAN networking. The most common
topologies in LAN and WAN networks are ring and star. The ring topology is a network
in which every node (every computer) is connected to exactly two other nodes. The star
topology is a network in which all the nodes (called leaf nodes or peripheral nodes) are
connected to a central node.

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In-text Question
What is the Differences between a LAN and WAN?

Answer
A LAN (local area network) is a group of computers and network devices connected together, usually
within the same building. ... A WAN connects several LANs, and may be limited to an enterprise (a
corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public.

3.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

1. Discuss the differences between the LAN and the WAN classes.
2. Discuss other types of networks apart from LAN and WAN

4.0 Conclusion and Summary

This Study Session has taken you through the nitty-gritty of Local Area Network and
Wide Area Network classes. It also examined the relationship between LAN and WAN
and also the differences between the two types of network.

Summary

In this Study Session, you have learnt that:

1. A local area network (LAN) exists in a house or a university campus, while a
wide area network (WAN) exists across many office buildings separated by a
vast distance.
2. One of the differences between LAN and WAN, is the speed of the network.
3. Between LAN and WAN, as well, there is a difference in the networking standard
used.

5.0 Self-Assessment Exercise

1. What do you understand by Network topology.
2. Describe the Wide Area Network

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6.0 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions
1. Topology in networks is the structure or pattern in which each and every node in the
network is connected. There are many topologies in networking like bus, tree, ring, star,
mesh, and hybrid topology. There is no particular best topology and a suitable topology
can be chosen based on the kind of application of the network.
2. This network extends over a large geographical area. WANs are used to connect cities,
states or even countries. A wireless connection is required to build a WAN. The best
example of WAN is the Internet.

7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/2Yfdjk1 , http://bit.ly/2RlSdPk , http://bit.ly/2Rjo831 ,
http://bit.ly/2RqqNIl, http://bit.ly/38aWaN1 . Watch the video & summarise in 1 paragraph

b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum

c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Advanced WAN and LAN Classes; In 2
paragraphs summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

8.0 References/Further Reading

"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Internet
Prasad, K. V. (2009). Principles of Digital Communication Systems and Computer
Networks. Dreamtech Press.

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 MODULE 4: COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Study Session 1 Modem and Modulation Concepts

Study Session 2 Multiplexers
Study Session 3 Digital Technologies
Study Session 4 Signal Transmission and Impairment
Study Session 5 ISDN
Study Session 6 DSL
Study Session 7 SONET
Study Session 8 Packet Switching
Study Session 9 Internet and TCP/IP

Study Session 1:
Modem and Modulation Concepts

Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 History
2.2 Significance of Digital Modulation
2.3 Analog Modulation Methods
2.4 Digital Modulation Methods
2.5 Common Digital Modulation Techniques
2.6 Fundamental Digital Modulation Methods
2.7 Modulator and Detector Principles of Operation
2.8 List of known Digital Modulation Techniques
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
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6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

Introduction

A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier signal

to encode digital information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the
transmitted information. The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily
and decoded to reproduce the original digital data. Modems can be used over any means
of transmitting analog signals, from driven diodes to radio. The most familiar example
is a voice band modem that turns the digital data of a personal computer into modulated
electrical signals in the voice frequency range of a telephone channel. These signals can
be transmitted over telephone lines and demodulated by another modem at the receiver
side to recover the digital data.

Modulation is the process of facilitating the transfer of information over a medium.

Sound transmission in air has limited range for the amount of power your lungs can
generate. To extend the range your voice can reach, we need to transmit it through a
medium other than air, such as a phone line or radio. The process of converting
information (voice in this case) so that it can be successfully sent through a medium
(wire or radio waves) is called modulation.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to:
1. Define a modem
2. Explain modulation
3. State the types of modulation
4. Describe common digital modulation techniques.

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2.0 Main Content
2.1 History
News wire services in 1920s used multiplex equipment that met the definition, but the
modem function was incidental to the multiplexing function, so they are not commonly
included in the history of modems. Modems grew out of the need to connect teletype
machines over ordinary phone lines instead of more expensive leased lines which had
previously been used for current loop-based teleprinters and automated telegraphs.
George Stibitz connected a New Hampshire teletype to a computer in New York City
by a subscriber telephone line in 1940.
In 1943, IBM adapted this technology to their unit record equipment and was able to
transmit punched cards at 25 bits/second. Mass-produced modems in the United States
began as part of the SAGE air-defense system in 1958; connecting terminals at various
airbases, radar sites, and command-and-control centers to the SAGE director centers
scattered around the U.S. and Canada. SAGE modems were described by AT&T's Bell
Labs as conforming to their newly published Bell 101 dataset standard. While they ran
on dedicated telephone lines, the devices at each end were no different from
commercial acoustically coupled Bell 101, 110 baud modems.
In the summer of 1960, the name Data-phone was introduced to replace the earlier term
digital subset. The 202 data-phone was a half-duplex asynchronous service that was
marketed extensively in late 1960. In 1962, the 201A and 201B data-phones were
introduced. They were synchronous modems using two-bit-per-baud phase-shift keying
(PSK). The 201A operated half-duplex at 2,000 bit/s over normal phone lines, while
the 201B provided full duplex 2,400 bit/s service on four-wire leased lines, the send
and receive channels running on their own set of two wires each.
The famous Bell 103A dataset standard was also introduced by Bell Labs in 1962. It
provided full-duplex service at 300 baud over normal phone lines. Frequency-shift
keying was used with the call originator transmitting at 1,070 or 1,270 Hz and the
answering modem transmitting at 2,025 or 2,225 Hz. The readily available 103A2 gave
an important boost to the use of remote low-speed terminals such as the KSR33, the
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ASR33, and the IBM 2741. AT&T reduced modem costs by introducing the originate-
only 113D and the answer-only 113B/C modems.

2.2 Significance of Digital Modulation

The aim of digital modulation is to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog band
pass channel; for example over the public switched telephone network (where a band
pass filter limits the frequency range to between 300 and 3400 Hz), or over a limited
radio frequency band. The aim of analog modulation is to transfer an analog baseband
(or low pass) signal, for example an audio signal or TV signal, over an analog band
pass channel, for example a limited radio frequency band or a cable TV network
channel.
Analog and digital modulation facilitate Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM),
where several low pass information signals are transferred simultaneously over the
same shared physical medium, using separate pass band channels. The aim of digital
baseband modulation methods, also known as line coding, is to transfer a digital bit
stream over a baseband channel, typically a non-filtered copper wire such as a serial
bus or a wired local area network.
The aim of pulse modulation methods is to transfer a narrowband analog signal, for
example a phone call over a wideband baseband channel or, in some of the schemes, as
a bit stream over another digital transmission system. In music synthesizers,
modulation may be used to synthesis waveforms with a desired overtone spectrum. In
this case the carrier frequency is typically in the same order or much lower than the
modulating waveform. See for example frequency modulation synthesis or ring
modulation.

2.3 Analog Modulation Methods

In analog modulation, the modulation is applied continuously in response to the analog
information signal.

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 Figure 4.1.1: Analog Modulation Signal

A low-frequency message signal (top) may be carried by an AM or FM radio wave.

Common analog modulation techniques are as listed below.
i. Amplitude Modulation (AM)- the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in
accordance to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal
ii. Double-Sideband Modulation (DSB)
iii. Double-sideband modulation with carrier (DSB-WC) is used on the AM radio
broadcasting band
iv. Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC)
v. Double-sideband reduced carrier transmission (DSB-RC)
vi. Single-sideband modulation (SSB, or SSB-AM),
vii. SSB with carrier (SSB-WC)
viii. SSB suppressed carrier modulation (SSB-SC)
ix. Vestigial sideband modulation (VSB, or VSB-AM)
x. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
xi. Angle modulation
xii. Frequency Modulation (FM)- here the frequency of the carrier signal is varied in
accordance to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
xiii. Phase Modulation (PM)- here the phase shift of the carrier signal is varied in

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 accordance to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal
The accompanying figure shows the results of (amplitude-) modulating a signal onto a
carrier (both of which are sine waves). At any point along the y-axis, the amplitude of
the modulated signal is equal to the sum of the carrier signal.

2.4 Digital Modulation Methods

In digital modulation, an analog carrier signal is modulated by a digital bit stream.
Digital modulation methods can be considered as digital-to- analog conversion, and the
corresponding demodulation or detection as analog-to-digital conversion. The changes
in the carrier signal are chosen from a finite number of M alternative symbols (the
modulation alphabet).
Figure 4.1.2: Schema of 4 Baud (8 bps) Data Link

A simple example- a telephone line is designed for transferring audible sounds- for
example tones, and not digital bits (zeros and ones). Computers may however
communicate over a telephone line by means of modems, which are representing the
digital bits by tones, called symbols. If there are four alternative symbols
(corresponding to a musical instrument that can generate four different tones, one at a
time), the first symbol may represent the bit sequence 00, the second 01, the third 10
and the fourth 11. If the modem plays a melody consisting of 1000 tones per second,
the symbol rate is 1000 symbols/second, or baud. Since each tone (i.e., symbol)

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represents a message consisting of two digital bits in this example, the bit rate is twice
the symbol rate, i.e. 2000 bits per second. This is similar to the technique used by dialup
modems as opposed to DSL modems.

2.5 Common Digital Modulation Techniques

These are listed below:
i. Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK)
ii. Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK)
iii. Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
i. Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK)
In ASK, the amplitude of the carrier is changed in response to information, and all else
is kept fixed. Bit 1 is transmitted by a carrier of one particular amplitude. To transmit
0, we change the amplitude keeping the frequency constant. On-Off Keying (OOK) is
a special form of ASK.

Advantages
Scheme is simple, so it is easy to implement transmitter and receiver with several
components.
Low bandwidth requirements

Disadvantages
ASK is heavily effected by noise and interference and can be easily demodulated.
ii. Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK)
In FSK, we change the frequency in response to information, one particular frequency
for 1 and another frequency for 0 as shown below for the same bit sequence. In the
example below, frequency f1 for bit 1 is higher than f2 used for the 0 bit.

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Advantages
FSK is insensitive to channel fluctuations and not easily
effected by noise.
Resilient to signal strength variations
Does not require linear amplifiers in the transmitter
Disadvantages
FSK is a low performance type of digital modulation.

iii. Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)

In PSK, we change the phase of the sinusoidal carrier to indicate information. Phase,
in this context, is the starting angle at which the sinusoid starts. To transmit 0, we shift
the phase of the sinusoid by 180. Phase shift represents the change in the state of the
information in this case.

Advantages
PSK, phase shift keying enables data to be carried on a radio communications signal in
a more efficient manner than Frequency Shift Keying ( FSK), and some other forms of
modulation.

Disadvantages
Implementation is complex and expensive.

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2.6 Fundamental Digital Modulation Methods
The most fundamental digital modulation techniques are based on keying:
i. In the case of PSK (phase-shift keying), a finite number of phases are used.
ii. In the case of FSK (frequency-shift keying), a finite number of frequencies are
used.
iii. In the case of ASK (amplitude-shift keying), a finite number of amplitudes are
used.
iv. In the case of QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation), a finite number of at
least two phases, and at least two amplitudes are used.
In QAM, an in-phase signal (the I signal, for example a cosine waveform) and a
quadrature phase signal (the Q signal, for example a sine wave) are amplitude
modulated with a finite number of amplitudes, and summed. It can be seen as a two-
channel system, each channel using ASK. The resulting signal is equivalent to a
combination of PSK and ASK.
In all of the above methods, each of these phases, frequencies or amplitudes are
assigned a unique pattern of binary bits. Usually, each phase, frequency or amplitude
encodes an equal number of bits. This number of bits comprises the symbol that is
represented by the particular phase, frequency or amplitude.
If the alphabet consists of M = 2N alternative symbols, each symbol represents a
message consisting of N bits. If the symbol rate (also known as the baud rate) is fS
symbols/second (or baud), the data rate is NfS bit/second.
For example, with an alphabet consisting of 16 alternative symbols, each symbol
represents 4 bits. Thus, the data rate is four times the baud rate. In the case of PSK,
ASK or QAM, where the carrier frequency of the modulated signal is constant, the
modulation alphabet is often conveniently represented on a constellation diagram,
showing the amplitude of the I signal at the x-axis, and the amplitude of the Q signal at
the y-axis, for each symbol.

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2.7 Modulator and Detector Principles of Operation
PSK and ASK, and sometimes also FSK, are often generated and detected using the
principle of QAM. The I and Q signals can be combined into a complex-valued signal
I+jQ (where j is the imaginary unit). The resulting so called equivalent low-pass signal
or equivalent baseband signal is a complex-valued representation of the real-valued
modulated physical signal (the so called pass band signal or RF signal). These are the
general steps used by the modulator to transmit data.
1. Group the incoming data bits into code words, one for each symbol that will be
transmitted.
2. Map the code words to attributes, for example amplitudes of the I and Q signals
(the equivalent low pass signal), or frequency or phase values.
3. Adapt pulse shaping or some other filtering to limit the bandwidth and form the
spectrum of the equivalent low pass signal, typically using digital signal
processing.
4. Perform Digital-to-Analog Conversion (DAC) of the I and Q signals (since,
today, all of the above is normally achieved using Digital Signal Processing
DSP).
5. Generate a high-frequency sine wave carrier waveform, and perhaps also a
cosine quadrature component. Carry out the modulation, for example by
multiplying the sine and cosine wave form with the I and Q signals, resulting in
that the equivalent low pass signal is frequency shifted into a modulated pass
band signal or RF signal. Sometimes this is achieved using DSP technology, for
example direct digital synthesis using a waveform table, instead of analog signal
processing. In that case, the above DAC step should be done after this step.
6. Amplification and analog band pass filtering to avoid harmonic distortion and
periodic spectrum.

125
At the receiver side, the demodulator typically performs the following functions.
1. Band pass filtering.
2. Automatic Gain Control- AGC (to compensate for attenuation, for example
fading).
3. Shifting the RF signal to the equivalent baseband I and Q signals, or to an
Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal, by multiplying the RF signal with a local
oscillator sine wave and cosine wave frequency (see the super heterodyne
receiver principle).
4. Sampling an Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC) Sometimes before or instead
of the above point, for example, by means of under sampling.
5. Equalisation filtering; for example a matched filter, compensation for multipath
propagation, time spreading, phase distortion and frequency selective fading, to
avoid symbol interference and symbol distortion.
6. Detection of the amplitudes of the I and Q signals, or the frequency or phase of
the IF signals.
7. Quantization of the amplitudes, frequencies or phases to the nearest allowed
symbol values.
8. Mapping of the quantized amplitudes, frequencies or phases to code words (bit
groups).
9. Parallel-to-serial conversion of the code words into a bit stream.
10.Pass the resultant bit stream on for further processing such as removal of any
error-correcting codes.
As is common to all digital communication systems, the design of both the modulator
and demodulator must be done simultaneously. Digital modulation schemes are
possible because the transmitter-receiver pair have prior knowledge of how data is
encoded and represented in the communications system. In all digital communication
systems, both the modulator at the transmitter and the demodulator at the receiver are
structured so that they perform inverse operations.
Non-coherent modulation methods do not require a receiver reference clock signal that
126
is phase synchronized with the sender carrier wave. In this case, modulation symbols
(rather than bits, characters, or data packets) are asynchronously transferred. The
opposite is coherent modulation.

2.8 List of Known Digital Modulation Techniques

The most common digital modulation techniques are listed below.
I. Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)-
i. Binary PSK (BPSK), using M=2 symbols
ii. Quadrature PSK (QPSK), using M=4 symbols
iii. 8PSK, using M=8 symbols
iv. 16PSK, using M=16 symbols
v. Differential PSK (DPSK)
vi. Differential QPSK (DQPSK)
vii. Offset QPSK (OQPSK)
viii. π/4–QPSK

II. Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK)-

i. Audio Frequency-Shift Keying (AFSK)
ii. Multi-Frequency Shift Keying (M-ary FSK or MFSK)
iii. Dual-Tone Multi-Frequency (DTMF)
iv. Continuous-Phase Frequency-Shift Keying (CPFSK)
III. Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK)
IV. On-Off Keying (OOK), the most common ASK form
- M-ary vestigial sideband modulation, for example 8VSB
4. Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) - a combination of
PSK and ASK-
- Polar modulation like QAM a combination of PSK and ASK.
5. Continuous Phase Modulation (CPM) methods-
- Minimum-Shift Keying (MSK)
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 - Gaussian Minimum-Shift Keying (GMSK)
6. Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing
(OFDM) modulation-
- Discrete Multi-Tone (DMT) - including adaptive
modulation and bit-loading.
7. Wavelet modulation
8. Trellis Coded Modulation (TCM), also known as trellis modulation
9. Spread-spectrum techniques
- Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
- Chirp Spread Spectrum (CSS) according to IEEE 802.15.4a CSS
uses pseudo-stochastic coding
- Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) applies a
special scheme for channel release

In-text Question
What is digital modulation?

Answer
Digital modulation schemes transform digital signals like the one shown below into waveforms that
are compatible with the nature of the communications channel. There are two major categories of
digital modulation.

3.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

1. How does the modem perform its function?
2. Explain what you understand by the term “modulation”.
3. Describe the different types of modulation.

4.0 Conclusion
In this Study Session, you have been introduced to the fundamental concepts of modem
and modulation. You also learnt about types of modulation; you were also introduced
to various methods of modulation. This knowledge will boost your understanding of
128
ICT concepts.
Summary
In this Study Session, you have learnt that:
i. A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier
signal to encode digital information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal
to decode the transmitted information.
ii. The aim of digital modulation is to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog
channel
iii. Common digital modulation techniques are Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK),
Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK) and Phase-Shift Keying (PSK).

5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Differentiate between Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK) and Frequency- Shift Keying
(FSK).

6.0 Answer to Self-Assessment Question

1. In amplitude-shift keying (ASK), the modulated wave represents the series of bits by
shifting abruptly between high and low amplitude. In frequency-shift keying (FSK),
the bit stream is represented by shifts between two frequencies.

7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/3677uYj , http://bit.ly/2sMMIiz , http://bit.ly/2sNsvt3 ,
http://bit.ly/2PbiFbP , http://bit.ly/33LZdHJ . Watch the video & summarise in 1 paragraph

b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum

c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Modem and Modulation Concepts; In 2
paragraphs summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

129
8.0 References/Further Reading
Barry, J. R. E.; Lee, A. & Messerschmidt, D.G. (2004). Digital Communication.
Kluwer Academic Publishers.

130
 Study Session 2:
Multiplexers
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Types of Multiplexing
2.1.1 Space Division Multiplexing
2.1.2 Frequency-Division Multiplexing
2.1.3 Time-Division Multiplexing
2.1.4 Code-Division Multiplexing
2.2 Relation to Multiple Access
2.3Application Areas
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

Introduction
In electronics, a multiplexer or mux is a device that selects one of several analog or
digital input signals and forwards the selected input into a single line. A multiplexer of
2n inputs has n select lines, which are used to select which input line to send to the
output. An electronic multiplexer makes it possible for several signals to share one
device or resource- for example, one A/D converter or one communication line, instead
of having one device per input signal.
On the other end, a demultiplexer (or demux) is a device taking a single input signal
and selecting one of many data-output-lines, which is connected to the single input. A
multiplexer is often used with a complementary demultiplexer on the receiving end. An
electronic multiplexer can be considered as a multiple-input, single-output switch, and
131
a demultiplexer as a single-input, multiple-output switch.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of a multiplexer
2. Describe the types of multiplexers
3. State the areas of applications of multiplexers.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Types of Multiplexing
Multiplexing technologies may be divided into several types, all of which have
significant variations, namely- Space-Division Multiplexing (SDM), Frequency-
Division Multiplexing (FDM), Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM), and Code Division
Multiplexing (CDM). Variable bit rate digital bit streams may be transferred efficiently
over a fixed bandwidth channel by means of statistical multiplexing, for example
packet mode communication. Packet mode communication is an asynchronous mode
time-domain multiplexing which resembles time- division multiplexing.
Digital bit streams can be transferred over an analog channel by means of code-division
multiplexing (CDM) techniques such as frequency- hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
and direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS). In wireless communications,
multiplexing can also be accomplished through alternating polarization
(horizontal/vertical or clockwise/counterclockwise) on each adjacent channel and
satellite, or through phased multi-antenna array combined with a Multiple-input
multiple-output communications (MIMO) scheme.

2.1.1 Space-Division Multiplexing

In wired communication, space-division multiplexing simply implies different point-
to-point wires for different channels. Examples include an analogue stereo audio cable,
with one pair of wires for the left channel and another for the right channel, and a multi-
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pair telephone cable. Another example is a switched star network such as the analog
telephone access network (although inside the telephone exchange or between the
exchanges, other multiplexing techniques are typically employed) or a switched
Ethernet network. A third example is a mesh network. Wired space-division
multiplexing is typically not considered as multiplexing.
In wireless communication, space-division multiplexing is achieved by multiple
antenna elements forming a phased array antenna. Examples are Multiple-Input and
Multiple-Output (MIMO), Single-Input and Multiple-Output (SIMO) and Multiple-
Input and Single-Output (MISO) multiplexing. For example, a IEEE 802.11n wireless
router with N antennas makes it possible to communicate with N multiplexed channels,
each with a peak bit rate of 54 Mbit/s, thus increasing the total peak bit rate with a factor
N. Different antennas will give different multi-path propagation (echo) signatures,
making it possible for digital signal processing techniques to separate different signals
from each other. These techniques may also be utilized for space diversity (improved
robustness to fading) or beam-forming (improved selectivity) rather than multiplexing.

2.1.2 Frequency-Division Multiplexing

Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM): The spectrums of each input signal are
swifted in several distinct frequency ranges.

Figure 4.2. 1: Frequency-Division Multiplexing

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Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) is inherently an analog technology. FDM
achieves the combining of several digital signals into one medium by sending signals
in several distinct frequency ranges over that medium.
One of FDM's most common applications is cable television. Only one cable reaches a
customer's home but the service provider can send multiple television channels or
signals, simultaneously, over that cable to all subscribers. Receivers must tune to the
appropriate frequency (channel) to access the desired signal.
A variant technology, called Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM) is used in
optical communications.

2.3.1 Time-Division Multiplexing

Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a digital technology. TDM involves sequencing
groups of a few bits or bytes from each individual input stream, one after the other, and
in such a way that they can be associated with the appropriate receiver. If done
sufficiently and quickly, the receiving devices will not detect that some of the circuit
time was used to serve another logical communication path.

Figure 4.2. 2: Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Consider an application requiring four terminals at an airport to reach a central

computer; each terminal communicates at 2400 bps, so rather than acquire four
individual circuits to carry such a low-speed transmission, the airline has installed a
pair of multiplexers. A pair of 9600 bps modems and one dedicated analog

134
communications circuit from the airport ticket desk back to the airline data center are
also installed.

2.1.3 Code-Division Multiplexing

Code division multiplexing is a technique in which each channel transmits its bits as a
coded channel-specific sequence of pulses. This coded transmission typically is
accomplished by transmitting a unique time-dependent series of short pulses, which are
placed within chip times within the larger bit time. All channels, each with a different
code, can be transmitted on the same fiber and asynchronously demultiplexed. Other
widely used multiple access techniques are Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
and Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA).
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM) techniques are used as an access technology,
namely Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), in Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS) standard for the third generation (3G) mobile
communication identified by the ITU. Another important application of the CDMA is
the Global Positioning System (GPS).
However, the term Code Division Multiple Access is also widely used to refer to a group
of specific implementations of CDMA defined by Qualcomm for use in digital cellular
telephony, which include IS-95 and IS-2000. The two different uses of this term can be
confusing. Actually, DMAA (the Qualcomm standard) and UMTS have been competing
for adoption in many markets.

Figure 4.2.3: Telecommunication Multiplexing

135
2.2 Relation to Multiple Access
A multiplexing technique may be further extended into a multiple access method or
channel access method, for example TDM into Time-Division Multiple Access
(TDMA) and statistical multiplexing into Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA). A
multiple access method makes it possible for several transmitters connected to the same
physical medium to share its capacity.
Multiplexing is provided by the physical layer of the OSI model, while multiple access
also involves a media access control protocol, which is part of the data link layer. The
transport layer in the OSI model as well as TCP/IP model provides statistical
multiplexing of several application layer data flows to/from the same computer.

2.3 Application Areas

Let us consider the following areas.
a. Telegraph
The earliest communication technology- using electrical wires, and therefore sharing
an interest in the economies afforded by multiplexing, was the electric telegraph. Early
experiments allowed two separate messages to travel in opposite directions
simultaneously, first using an electric battery at both ends, then at only one end.
i. Émile Baudot developed a time-multiplexing system of multiple Hughes
machines in the 1870s.
ii. In 1874, the quadruplex telegraph developed by Thomas Edison transmitted two
messages in each direction simultaneously, for a total of four messages transiting
the same wire at the same time.
iii. Several workers were investigating acoustic telegraphy, a frequency-division
multiplexing technique, which led to the invention of the telephone.
b. Telephony
In telephony, a customer's telephone line now typically ends at the remote concentrator
box down the street, where it is multiplexed along with other telephone lines for that
neighborhood or other similar area. The multiplexed signal is then carried to the central
136
switching office on significantly fewer wires and for much further distances than a
customer's line can practically go. This is likewise also true for Digital Subscriber Lines
(DSL).
Fiber In The Loop (FITL) is a common method of multiplexing, which uses optical
fiber as the backbone. It not only connects POTS phone lines with the rest of the PSTN,
but also replaces DSL by connecting directly to ethernet wired into the home.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode is often the communications protocol used.
Since all of the phone (and data) lines have been clumped together, none of them can
be accessed except through a demultiplexer. This provides for more-secured
communications, though they are not typically encrypted.

The concept is also now used in cable TV, which is increasingly offering the same
services as telephone companies. IPTV also depends on multiplexing.
c. Video processing
In video editing and processing systems, multiplexing refers to the process of
interleaving audio and video into one coherent MPEG transport stream (time-division
multiplexing).
In digital video, such a transport stream is normally a feature of a container format
which may include metadata and other information, such as subtitles. The audio and
video streams may have variable bit rate. Software that produces such a transport
stream and/or container is commonly called a statistical multiplexor or muxer. A
demuxer is a software that extracts or, otherwise, makes available for separate
processing the components of such a stream or container.
d. Digital broadcasting
In digital television and digital radio systems, several variable bit-rate data streams are
multiplexed together to a fixed bit rate transport stream by means of statistical
multiplexing. This makes it possible to transfer several video and audio channels
simultaneously over the same frequency channel, together with various services.
In the digital television systems, this may involve several Standard Definition
137
Television (SDTV) programmes (particularly on DVB-T, DVB-S2, ISDB and ATSC-
C), or one HDTV, possibly with a single SDTV companion channel over 6 to 8 MHz-
wide TV channel. The device that accomplishes this is called a statistical multiplexer.

In several of these systems, the multiplexing results in an MPEG transport stream. The
newer DVB standards DVB-S2 and DVB-T2 has the capacity to carry several HDTV
channels in one multiplex. Even the original DVB standards can carry more HDTV
channels in a multiplex if the most advanced MPEG-4 compressions hardware is used.
On communications satellites which carry broadcast television networks and radio
networks, this is known as Multiple Channels Per Carrier or MCPC. Where
multiplexing is not practical (such as where there are different sources using a single
transponder), single channel per carrier mode is used.
Signal multiplexing of satellite TV and radio channels is typically carried out in a
central signal playout and uplink center, such as ASTRA Platform Services in
Germany, which provides play out, digital archiving, encryption, and satellite uplinks,
as well as multiplexing, for hundreds of digital TV and radio channels. In digital radio,
both the Eureka 147 system of digital audio broadcasting and the in-band on-channel
HD Radio, FMeXtra, and digital radio mondiale systems can multiplex channels. This
is essentially required with DAB-type transmissions (where a multiplex is called an
ensemble), but is entirely optional with IBOC systems.
e. Analog broadcasting
In FM broadcasting and other analog radio media, multiplexing is a term commonly
given to the process of adding subcarriers to the audio signal before it enters the
transmitter, where modulation occurs. Multiplexing in this sense is sometimes known
as MPX, which in turn is also an old term for stereophonic FM, seen on stereo systems
since the 1960s.

138
In-text Question
What is multiplexer?

Answer
A multiplexer (or mux) is a device that combines several analog or digital input signals and forwards
them into a single output line. An electronic multiplexer can be considered as a multiple-input, single-
output switch, and a demultiplexer as a single-input, multiple-output switch.

3.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

1. How is space-division multiplexing is achieved in wireless communication?
2. Describe the implementation of FDM in cable television
3. How is multiplexing related to OSI model?

4.0 Conclusion and Summary

In this Study Session, you have been introduced to the fundamental concepts of
Multiplexers. You also learnt about the types of multiplexers. You were also introduced
to the various application areas of multiplexers. All these will go a long way to enrich
your understanding of this course as a whole.

Summary
In this Study Session, you have learnt that:
i. A multiplexer is a device that selects one of several analog or digital input signals
and forwards the selected input into a single line
ii. Types of multiplexing are Space-Division Multiplexing (SDM), Frequency-
Division Multiplexing (FDM), Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM), and Code
Division Multiplexing (CDM).
iii. Some application areas of multiplexing are telegraphy, telephony, video
processing, digital broadcasting, analog broadcasting.

139
5.0 Self-Assessment Exercise
1. What do you understand by the word multiplexing?
2. Describe the transmission rate in TDM

6.0 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

1. Multiplexing is a method using which one can send multiples signals through a
shared medium at the same time. This helps in using less resources and thus saving the
cost of sending messages.

2. In TDM the transmission rate provided by the path that is multiplexed and will
always be greater than the sum of transmission rates of the single sources. This happens
because the transmission rate is provided to each source only for a small period of time.

7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/2YgWvsC , http://bit.ly/34PlQg3 ,
http://bit.ly/388CMzS , http://bit.ly/2OSfXsZ , http://bit.ly/2qpZyCA ,
http://bit.ly/2rWJl84. Watch the video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum
c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Multiplexers; In 2 paragraphs summarise
their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

8.0 References/Further Reading

"Federal Standard 1037C: Glossary of Telecommunications Terms". Institute for
Telecommunication Services. http://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-
1037c.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-19.
Morris, Mano M. & Charles, Kime, R. (2008). Logic and Computer Design
Fundamentals (4 Ed.). Prentice Hall.
140
Voice and Data Communications.
http://www.perlfect.com/articles/select.shtml.

141
 Study Session 3:
Digital Technologies

Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 History
2.2 Properties of Digital Information
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

Introduction

A digital system is a data technology that uses discrete (discontinuous) values. By

contrast, non-digital (or analog) systems use a continuous range of values to represent
information. Although digital representations are discrete, the information represented
can be either discrete, such as numbers, letters or icons, or continuous, such as sounds,
images, and other measurements of continuous systems. The word digital comes from
the same source as the word digit and digitus (the Latin word for finger), as fingers are
used for discrete counting. It is most commonly used in computing and electronics,
especially where real-world information is converted to binary numeric form as in
digital audio and digital photography.

142
1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes
At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of a digital system
2. State the properties of digital information.
2.0 Main Content
2.1 History
Although digital signals are generally associated with the binary electronic digital
systems used in modern electronics and computing, digital systems are actually ancient,
and need not be binary or electronic. Below are some examples of digital signals that
are neither binary nor electronic.
i. Written text in books (due to the limited character set and the use of discrete
symbols - the alphabet in most cases)
ii. An abacus was created sometime between 1000 BC and 500 BC; it later became
a form of calculation frequency. Nowadays it can be used as a very advanced,
yet, basic digital calculator that uses beads on rows to represent numbers. Beads
only have meaning in discrete up and down states, not in analog in-between
states.
iii. A beacon is perhaps the simplest non-electronic digital signal, with just two
states (on and off). In particular, smoke signals are one of the oldest examples of
a digital signal, where an analog "carrier" (smoke) is modulated with a blanket
to generate a digital signal (puffs) that conveys information.
iv. Morse code uses six digital states—dot, dash, intra-character gap (between each
dot or dash), short gap (between each letter), medium gap (between words), and
long gap (between sentences)—to send messages via a variety of potential
carriers such as electricity or light, for example using an electrical telegraph or a
flashing light.
v. The Braille system was the first binary format for character encoding, using a
six-bit code rendered as dot patterns.
vi. Flag semaphore uses rods or flags held in particular positions to send messages
143
 to the receiver watching them some distance away.
vii. International maritime signal flags have distinctive markings that represent
letters of the alphabet to allow ships to send messages to each other.
viii. More recently invented, a modem modulates an analog "carrier" signal (such as
sound) to encode binary electrical digital information, as a series of binary digital
sound pulses. A slightly earlier, surprisingly reliable version of the same concept
was to bundle a sequence of audio digital "signal" and "no signal" information
(i.e. "sound" and "silence") on magnetic cassette tape for use with early home
computers.

2.2 Properties of Digital Information

All digital information possesses common properties that distinguish it from analog
communication methods. Let us consider these one by one.
i. Synchronization- since digital information is conveyed by the sequence in
which symbols are ordered, all digital schemes have some method for
determining the beginning of a sequence. In written or spoken human languages
synchronization is typically provided by pauses (spaces), capitalization, and
punctuation. Machine communications typically use special synchronization
sequences.
ii. Language- all digital communications require a language, which in this context
consists of all the information that the sender and Receiver of the digital
communication must both possess, in advance, in order for the communication
to be successful. Languages are generally arbitrary and specify the meaning to
be assigned to particular symbol sequences, the allowed range of values, methods
to be used for synchronization, etc.
iii. Errors- disturbances (noise) in analog communications invariably introduce
some, generally small deviation or error between the intended and actual
communication. Disturbances in a digital communication do not result in errors
unless the disturbance is so large as to result in a symbol being misinterpreted as
144
 another symbol or disturb the sequence of symbols. It is therefore, generally,
possible to have an entirely error-free digital communication. Furthermore,
techniques such as check codes may be used to detect errors and guarantee error-
free communications through redundancy or retransmission. Errors in digital
communications can take the form of substitution errors in which a symbol is
replaced by another symbol, or insertion/deletion errors in which an extra
incorrect symbol is inserted into or deleted from a digital message. Uncorrected
errors in digital communications have unpredictable and generally large impact
on the information content of the communication.
iv. Copying- because of the inevitable presence of noise, making many successive
copies of an analog communication is not feasible because each generation
increases the noise. Since digital communications are generally error-free, copies
of copies can be made indefinitely.
v. Granularity- when a continuously variable analog value is represented in digital
form there is always a decision as to the number of symbols to be assigned to
that value. The number of symbols determines the precision or resolution of the
resulting datum. The difference between the actual analog value and the digital
representation is known as quantization error.

In-text Question
What is analog signal?

Answer
An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time-varying feature (variable) of the signal
is a representation of some other time varying quantity, i.e., analogous to another time varying signal.

4.0 Conclusion and Summary

In this Study Session, you have been introduced to the fundamental concepts of digital
technologies. You have also learnt the history of digital technologies and some of the
properties of digital technologies.

145
Summary
In this Study Session, you have learnt that:
i. A digital system is a data technology that uses discrete (discontinuous) values;
and that non-digital (or analog) systems use a continuous range of values to
represent information.
ii. Digital signals are generally associated with the binary electronic digital systems
used in modern electronics and computing
iii. Some properties of digital information are synchronization, language
requirement, low errors, high replication capability and granularity.

5.0 Self-Assessment Exercise

1. What happens after the signal is passed through the analog to digital converter in a
DSP?
2. What do you understand by Spectrum Analysis?

6.0 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

1. When the signal is converted from analog to digital it is a sequence of binary numbers
which is stored in the RAM. A user defined code that is usually stored in the ROM
performs mathematical and other manipulations after which it is converted back into
analog signals.
2. Spectrum analysis is the process of examining a signal to determine its frequency
content. Algorithms such as discrete Fourier transform (DFT) and FPGA is used to
analyze the frequency content of an input signal.

146
7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/34RvOxf , http://bit.ly/2LocrUN , http://bit.ly/2RkUUAA ,
http://bit.ly/33LdQet , http://bit.ly/33RUi8i . Watch the video & summarise in 1 paragraph

b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum

c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Digital Technologies; In 2 paragraphs
summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

8.0 References/Further Reading

Clark, David D. (1988). "The Design Philosophy of the DARPA Internet Protocols".
Computer Communications Review, 18(4), pp. 106– 114.
"Internet History: People". Internet History People.
http://www.unc.edu/depts/jomc/academics/dri/pioneers2d.html.
Retrieved July 3, 2006.
"The Risks Digest". Great moments in e-mail history.
http:/catless.ncl.ac.uk/Risks/20.25.html#subj3. Retrieved April 27, 2006.

147
 Study Session 4:
Signal Transmission and Impairment

Introduction
1.0 Learning Objectives
2.0 Main Content
2.1Types of Impairment
2.1.1 Attenuation
2.1.2 Delay Distortion
2.1.3 Noise
2.2 Noise Types
2.3 Bit Error Rate
2.4 Analog and Digital Transmission
2.4.1 Advantages of Digital Transmission over Analogue
2.5 Signal Transmission Analysis
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

Introduction
Transmission impairment is a property of a transmission medium which causes the
signal to be degraded, reduced in amplitude, distorted or contaminated. Impairment can
introduce errors into digital signals. Examples of transmission impairments are
attenuation, delay distortion, and several sources of noise including, thermal noise,
impulse noise, and inter-modulation noise. It is important to understand transmission
impairments for several reasons.
Understanding the source of a transmission impairment like attenuation or dispersion
148
will enable the user to partially correct for (equalize the signal) these effects.
Understanding the source of transmission impairments (dispersion, attenuation, impulse
noise, and thermal noise) can also help the user understand some of the constraints
placed on the transmission of data as a result of these effects. Such constraints include
the maximum length of network links, the choice of physical transmission media, the
choice of encoding methods, and the data rate supported by the medium.
Attenuation is a property of the transmission medium. It measures how much energy is
absorbed and/or radiated from the traveling signal due to its interaction with the
transmission medium. Attenuation is measured as a function of the distance traveled
through the transmission medium. The transmission medium absorbs energy because
the signal is influenced by small impurities within it. Such impurities have different
sizes and distributions depending on the type of medium. Impurities of different sizes
effect different frequencies in the signal.
The effect of attenuation is, therefore, a function of frequency. The frequency variation
of attenuation can be partially corrected or equalized by applying corrections based on
a physical model. When a signal is attenuated, its amplitude is reduced. The
interpretation of a received signal depends on being able to tell the difference between
different signal levels. If the amplitude is reduced too much by attenuation it becomes
impossible to accurately tell the difference between the different signal levels, and the
information in the signal is lost.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to:
i. Define transmission impairment
ii. Describe the types of transmission impairment
iii. State the effects of noise
iv. Explain the bit error rate
v. Highlight the differences between analog and digital transmission.

149
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Types of Impairment
The different types of impairment which shall be treated in details in this Study Session
are:
i. Attenuation
ii. Delay distortion
iii. Noise
Let us now consider this one after the other.

2.1.1 Attenuation
Signal amplitude decrease along a transmission medium. This is known as signal
attenuation. Amplifiers (in case of analog signals) or repeaters (in case of digital signal)
are inserted at intervals along the medium to improve the received signal as closed as to
its original level. Attenuation and amplification are measured in decibel (db), which is
expressed as a constant number of decibels per unit distance.

Figure 4.4.1: Attenuated and Amplified Signal along the Transmission Media

2.1.2 Delay Distortion

The various frequency components in digital signal arrive at the receiver with varying
delays, resulting in delay distortion. As bit rate increase, some of the frequency

150
components associated with each bit transition are delayed and start to interfere with
frequency components associated with a later bit, causing inter-symbol interference,
which is a major limitation to maximum bit rate.

Figure 4.4.2: Velocity of Propagation of a Signal through Guided Media

2.1.2 Noise
Signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is a parameter used to quantify how much noise there is in a
signal. A high SNR means a high power signal relative to noise level, resulting in a
good-quality signal.
S/N is given
as S/Ndb = 10
log10 S/N
Where S = average signal power
N = noise power

151
2.2 Noise Types
Here, we are going to consider some common examples. Atmospheric noise
i. Lightning - static discharge of clouds
ii. Solar noise - sun’s ionised gases
iii. Cosmic noise - distant stars radiate high frequency signal
Gaussian noise
Thermal noise- generated by random motion of free electrons
Impulse noise - sudden bursts of irregularly pulses
Crosstalk- this is interference generated when magnetic fields or current nearby wires
interrupt electrical current in a wire. As electrical current travels through a wire, the
current generates a magnetic field. Magnetic field from wires that are closed together
can interfere with each other. Shielding the wire and twisting wire pairs around each
other help decrease crosstalk

NEXT (near-end crosstalk)

interference in a wire at the transmitting end of a signal sent on a different wire FEXT
(far-end crosstalk)
interference in a wire at the receiving end of a signal sent on a different wire

Figure 4.4.3: Effect of Noise

152
Impulse noise is the primary source of error for digital data. A sharp spike of energy of
0.01 seconds duration will not destroy any voice data, but will wash out many bits of
digital data.

2.3 Bit Error Rate

1. BER (Bit Error Rate) is the probability of a single bit
being corrupted in a define time interval.
2. BER of 10-5 means on average 1 bit in 10-5 will be corrupted
3. A BER of 10-5 over voice-graded line is typical.
4. BER of less than 10-6 over digital communication is common.
A Bit Error Rate (BER) is a significant measure of system performance in terms of noise.
A BER of 10-6, for example, means that one bit of every million may be destroyed
during transmission. Several factors that affect BER are as listed below.
i. Bandwidth
ii. S/N
iii. Transmission medium
iv. Transmission distance
v. Environment
vi. Performance of transmitter and receiver

2.4 Analog and Digital Transmission

Analog signal is characterized by being continuously variable along amplitude and
frequency. Digital signal is characterized by series of discrete pulses, representing one
and zero bits. Table4.1 presents the comparison between analog and digital
transmission.

153
 Table 4.4.1: Analog and Digital Transmissions
Analog Digital
Data continuous (e.g., voice) discrete (e.g., text)
Signal continuous electromagnetic sequence of voltage
waves pulses

Used mainly for transmitting Used mainly internally

data across a network. within computers.
Transmission Transmission of analog signals Transmission that is
without regards to their content concerned with the
(the data may be analog or content of the signal.
binary). The signals become Repeaters are used to
weaker (attenuated) with the overcome attenuation.
distance. Amplifiers may be A repeater recovers the
used to strengthen the signals, digital pattern from the
but as side effect they also boost signal it gets, and
the noise. This might not be a resubmits a new signal.
problem for analog data, such as
voice, but is a problem for
digital data.

2.4.1 Advantages of Digital Transmission over Analog

i. Technology- there is a drop in cost due to LSI and VLSI
ii. Data integrity- repeaters allow longer distances over lines of lesser quality.
iii. Capacity utilization- digital techniques can be more easily and cheaply utilized,
through multiplexing, available transmission links of high bandwidth.
iv. Security and privacy- encryption techniques are more readily applied to digital
data
v. Integration- simplified, if digitized data is used everywhere.

2.5 Signal Transmission Analysis

The analysis of electrical signals is a fundamental problem for many engineers and
scientists. Even, if the immediate problem is not electrical, the basic parameters of
interest are often changed into electrical signals by means of transducers. Common
transducers include accelerometers and load cells in mechanical work, EEG electrodes
154
and blood pressure probes in biology and medicine, and pH and conductivity probes in
chemistry. The rewards for transforming physical parameters to electrical signals are
great, as many instruments are available for the analysis of electrical signals in the time,
frequency and modal domains. The powerful measurement and analysis capabilities of
these instruments can lead to rapid understanding of the system under study.

In-text Question
What is noise?

Answer
Noise is unwanted sound judged to be unpleasant, loud or disruptive to hearing. ... Acoustic noise is
any sound in the acoustic domain, either deliberate (e.g., music or speech) or unintended. In contrast,
noise in electronics may not be audible to the human ear and may require instruments for detection.

3.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

a. What do you understand by transmission impairment?

b. What is the difference between FEXT and NEXT?
c. What do you understand by the term “noise”?

4.0 Conclusion and Summary

In this Study Session, you have been introduced to the fundamental concepts of
transmission impairment. You also learnt the types of transmission impairments. You
were also introduced to bit error rate and some of the major differences between analog
and digital transmissions.

Summary
In this Study Session, you have learnt that:
1. Transmission impairment is a property of a transmission medium which causes
the signal to be degraded, reduced in amplitude, distorted or contaminated.
2. Examples of transmission impairments are attenuation, delay distortion, and
noise
155
 3. Types of noise include thermal noise, impulse noise, and inter- modulation
noise
4. Analog signal is characterized by being continuously variable along amplitude
and frequency. Digital signal is characterized by series of discrete pulses,
representing one and zero bits.

5.0 Self-Assessment Exercise

What do you understand by Data compression?

6.0 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

Data compression is a process that reduces the number of binary words needed to
represent a given analog signal. Since analog to digital conversion produces a huge
amount of data, for transmission it is a necessity that data is compressed.

7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/2RlqcHQ , http://bit.ly/2PqolyX ,
http://bit.ly/2qq0YwU , http://bit.ly/2LCr0ED , http://bit.ly/34QoJNA ,
http://bit.ly/2qjsufi. Watch the video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum
c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN); In 2 paragraphs summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

8.0 References/Further Reading

Friedhelm, Hillebrand (2002). GSM and UMTS- The Creation of Global Mobile
Communications (Ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
"Brazil, Russia, India and China to Lead Internet Growth Through 2011".Clickz.
com.
http://clickz.com/showPage.html?page=3626274. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
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 Study Session 5:
Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN)

Introduction
1.0 Objectives
2.0 Main CONTENTS
2.1 What is ISDN?
2.2 History
2.3 Components of ISDN
2.3.1 ISDN Access Types
2.4 ISDN Devices
2.5 ISDN Interfaces
2.5.1 The R Interface
2.5.2 The S Interface
2.5.3 The T Interface
2.5.4 The U interface
2.6 How Does ISDN work?
2.7 The Usefulness of ISDN
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

Introduction
This Study Session will describe the general concept of ISDN. Integrated Services
Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication standards for simultaneous digital
transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over the traditional
circuits of the public switched telephone network. The telephone system was viewed
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as a way to transport voice, with some special services available for data. The key
feature of ISDN is that it integrates speech and data on the same lines, adding features
that were not available in the classic telephone system. The ISDN standards define
several kinds of access interfaces, such as Basic Rate Interface (BRI), Primary Rate
Interface (PRI), Narrowband ISDN (N-ISDN), and Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN).

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to:
1. Explain the term ISDN
2. Describe ISDN interfaces
3. Discuss how ISDN works
4. State the usefulness of ISDN

2.0 Main Content

2.1 What is Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)?
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a digital communications technology
that enables a small business or an individual to connect directly to the internet and
other sites/users (for videoconferencing, for instance). ISDN provides a standard
interface for voice, fax, video, graphics, and data – all on a single telephone line.
“Integrated services” refers to ISDN's ability to deliver two simultaneous connections,
in any combination of voice, fax, data, and video, over a single line. Multiple devices
can be attached to the line, and used as needed.
“Digital” refers to the fact that it is a purely digital transmission, as opposed to the
analog transmission method used by conventional telephone lines.
“Network” refers to the fact that ISDN is not simply a point-to-point connection like a
leased telephone line – ISDN networks extend from the local telephone exchange to the
remote user, and include all the switching equipment in between. If your ISDN
equipment includes analog capabilities, you can also connect to telephones, fax
machines, and analog modems – even though they may be connected to standard analog
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telephone lines.
ISDN service is provided by the same companies that provide telephone service – you
get much faster, more dependable connections for voice, fax, data, and video – all
through a single connection. While not new (ISDN has been in use for over 15 years),
the advent of international standards has made ISDN viable as telephone companies
around the world have upgraded their equipment to these ISDN standards. It is now
commonly available in Europe, Japan, Australia, and from most major North American
telephone companies – AT&T, MCI, and Sprint can provide long-distance ISDN lines
for global connections. One of the reasons for its widespread use is that it works on the
ordinary copper wire already in place in the telephone system.
One advantage of ISDN over other digital communications technologies is its ability to
handle all types of information such as voice, computer data, studio-quality sound, and
video.

2.2 History
The early phone network consisted of a pure analog system that connected telephone
users directly by a mechanical interconnection of wires. This system was very
inefficient, was very prone to breakdown and noise, and did not lend itself easily to
long-distance connections. Beginning in the 1960s, the telephone system gradually
began converting its internal connections to a packet-based, digital switching system.
Today, nearly all voice switching in the United States (U.S.) is digital within the
telephone network. Still, the final connection from the local central office to the
customer equipment was, and still largely is, an analog Plain-Old Telephone Service
(POTS) line.
A standard movement was started by the International Telephone and Telegraph
Consultative Committee (CCITT), now known as the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU). The ITU is a United Nations organisation that
coordinates and standardizes international telecommunications. Original
recommendations of ISDN were in CCITT Recommendation I.120 (1984) which
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described some initial guidelines for implementing ISDN.
Local phone networks, especially the regional Bell operating companies, have long
hailed the system, but they had been criticized for being slow to implement ISDN. One
good reason for the delay is the fact that the two major switch manufacturers, Northern
Telecom (now known as Nortel Networks), and AT&T (whose switch business is now
owned by Lucent Technologies), selected different ways to implement the CCITT
standards. These standards didn't always inter-operate. This situation has been likened
to that of earlier 19th century railroading- "people had different gauges, different
tracks... nothing worked well".
In the early 1990s, an ‘industry-wide’ effort was initiated to establish a specific
implementation for ISDN in the U.S. Members of the industry agreed to create the
National ISDN 1 (NI-1) standard so that end users would not have to know the brand
of switch they are connected to in order to buy equipment and software compatible with
it. However, there were problems agreeing on this standard. In fact, many western states
would not implement NI-1. Both Southwestern Bell and U.S. West (now Qwest) said
that they did not plan to deploy NI-1 software in their central office switches due to
incompatibilities with their existing ISDN
networks.
Ultimately, all the Regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs) did support NI-1. A
more comprehensive standardization initiative, National ISDN 2 (NI-2), was later
adopted. Some manufacturers of ISDN communication equipment- such as Motorola
and U. S. Robotics (now owned by 3Com), worked with the RBOCs to develop
configuration standards for their equipment. These kinds of actions, along with more
competitive pricing, inexpensive ISDN connection equipment, and the desire for people
to have relatively low-cost high-bandwidth internet access have made ISDN more
popular in recent years.
Most recently, ISDN service have largely been displaced by broadband internet service,
such as xDSL and cable modem service. These services are faster, less expensive, and
easier to set up and maintain than ISDN. Still, ISDN has its place, as backup to dedicated
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lines, and in locations where broadband service is not yet available

2.3 Components of ISDN

While individual operating companies and ministries will define the specific services,
within the ISDN architecture the ITU standards define a number of component parts
and functions as listed below.
1. ISDN Channels
2. Access Types
3. Devices
4. Interfaces
5. Protocols
ISDN Channels
A CHANNEL is the basic unit of ISDN service. The ISDN Standards define three basic
types of channels:
1. Bearer channels (B channels)
2. Delta (or "Demand") channels (D channels)
3. High-capacity channels (H channels)
B Channel
A B channel is a 64-Kbps unit of clear digital bandwidth. Based on the data rate
required to carry one digital voice conversation, a B channel can carry any type of
digital information (voice, data, or video) with no restrictions on format or protocol
imposed by the ISDN carrier.

D Channel
A D channel is a signaling channel. It carries the information needed to connect or
disconnect calls and to negotiate special calling parameters (i.e., automatic number ID,
call waiting, data protocol). The D channel can also carry packet-switched data using
the X.25 protocol.
The D channel is not a clear channel. It operates according to a well- defined pair of
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layered protocols:
i. Q.921 (LAPD) at the data link layer (Layer 2)
ii. Q.931 at the upper layers (Layers 3 and above)
The data rate of a D channel varies according to the type of access it serves-a basic rate
access D channel operates at 16 Kbps and a primary rate access D channel operates at
64 Kbps.
Signaling on the D Channel
The ISDN D channel carries all signaling between the customer's terminal device and
the carrier's end switching office. Signaling information with end-to-end significance
(i.e., which must be received by the terminal device at a call's destination, such as
Automatic Calling Number Identification information) travels between the carrier's
switching offices on the carrier's common-channel signaling network and on to the
destination terminal, through the receiving user's D channel.
H Channel
An H channel is a special, high-speed clear channel. H channels, designed primarily
for full-motion color video, are not yet in common use. There are currently three kinds
of H channel:
i. H0 ("H-zero")
ii. H11 ("H-one-one")
iii. H12 ("H-one-two")
An H0 channel operates at 384 Kbps (roughly one fourth of a North American primary
rate access or one fifth of a European primary rate access). An H1 channel operates at
1.536 Mbps and occupies one whole North American primary rate access. An H12
channel occupies an entire European primary rate access.

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2.3.1 ISDN Access Types
ISDN offers two general types of access:
1. BASIC RATE ACCESS (BRA)
2. PRIMARY RATE ACCESS (PRA)
These differ from one another by the amount of information they can carry.
Basic rate access
Basic rate access is based on new technology conceived especially for ISDN. Designed
to provide service to individual users or small businesses, basic rate access provides
two 64-Kbps B channels and one 16-Kbps D channel (referred to as 2B+D). In other
words, it provides transmission facilities for one voice conversation (one B channel),
one medium-speed data session (the other B channel), and the signaling exchanges
needed to make them work (the D channel).
Two B channels at 64 Kbps plus one D channel at 16 Kbps equals 144K bps. The ISDN
basic rate transmission protocol uses an additional 48 Kbps of bandwidth for
maintenance and synchronization, so an ISDN basic rate access actually uses 192 Kbps.
Primary rate access
Primary rate access, which is based on pre-ISDN digital carrier technology, is designed
to provide high-capacity service to large customers for applications such as PBX-to-
PBX trunking. There are two kinds of primary rate access: 23B+D and 30B+D. Each
depends on the kind of digital carrier available in a given country.
In North America and Japan, 23B+D primary rate access operates at 1.544 Mbps
and offers 23 B channels plus 1 64-Kbps D channel (usually located in time-slot 23),
or 4 H0 channels, or 1 H11 channel. In most of the rest of the world, 30B+D primary
rate access operates at 2.048 Mbps and offers 30 B channels plus 1 64-Kbps D
channel (located in time-slot 16), or 5 H0 channels, or 1 H12 channel.

2.4 ISDN Devices

In the context of ISDN standards, standard devices refer not to actual hardware, but to
standard collections of functions that can usually be performed by individual hardware
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units. The ISDN standard devices are listed below.
i. Terminal Equipment (TE)
ii. Terminal Adapter (TA)
iii. Network Termination 1 (NT1)
iv. Network Termination 2 (NT2)
v. Exchange Termination (ET)
Terminal Equipment (TE)
A TE is any piece of communicating equipment that complies with the ISDN standards.
Examples include digital telephones, ISDN data terminals, Group IV Fax machines,
and ISDN-equipped computers. In most cases, a TE should be able to provide a full
basic rate access (2B+D), although some TEs may use only 1B+D or even only a D
channel.
Terminal Adapter (TA)
A TA is a special interface-conversion device that allows communicating devices that
don't conform to ISDN standards to communicate over the ISDN. The most common
TAs provide basic rate access and have one RJ-type modular jack for voice and one RS-
232 or V.35 connector for data (with each portable to connect to either of the available
B channels). Some TAs have a separate data connector for the D channel.
Network Termination (NT1 and NT2)
The NT devices, NT1 and NT2, form the physical and logical boundary between the
customer's premises and the carrier's network. NT1 performs the logical interface
functions of switching and local-device control (local signaling). NT2 performs the
physical interface conversion between the dissimilar customer and network sides of the
interface. In most cases, a single device, such as a PBX or digital multiplexer, performs
both physical and logical interface functions. In ISDN terms, such a device is called
NT12 ("NT-one-two") or simply NT.
Exchange Termination (ET)
The ET forms the physical and logical boundary between the digital local loop and the
carrier's switching office. It performs the same functions at the end office that the NT
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performs at the customer's premises.
In addition, the ET:
i. Separates B channels, placing them on the proper interoffice trunks to their
ultimate destinations
ii. Terminates the signaling path of the customer's D channel, converting any
necessary end-to-end signaling from the ISDN D- channel signaling protocol to
the carrier's switch-to- switch trunk signaling protocol

2.5 ISDN Interfaces (Standard Reference Points)

The ISDN standards specify four distinct interfaces in the customer's connection to the
network: R, S, T, and U, as discussed in subsection 2.4.1 through 2.4.4
From the standards viewpoint, these are not "real" physical interfaces, but simply
‘standard reference points’ where physical interfaces may be necessary. However, in
common practice, the names of reference points are used to refer to physical interfaces.
2.4.1 The R Interface

The interface at reference point R is the physical and logical interface between a non-
ISDN terminal device and a Terminal Adapter (TA). The R interface is not really part
of the ISDN; it can conform to any of the common telephone or data interface standards.
2.4.2 The S Interface
The interface at reference point S is the physical and logical interface between a TE (or
TA) and an NT. The S interface uses four wires and employs a bipolar transmission
technique known as Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI). A special feature of the S
interface is the "short passive bus" configuration, which allows up to eight ISDN
devices (TE or TA) to contend for packet access to the D channel in a prioritised, round-
robin fashion. Only one device at a time can use a given B channel.
2.4.3 The T Interface
The interface at reference point T is the physical and logical interface between NT1
and NT2, whenever the two NTs are implemented as separate pieces of hardware. The

165
specification for the T interface is identical to the specification for the S interface. In
most implementations, NT1 and NT2 exist in the same physical device, so there is no
real T interface.
2.4.4 The U Interface
The interface at reference point U is the physical and logical interface between NT (or
NT2) and the ISDN carrier's local transmission loop. It is also the legal demarcation
between the carrier's loop and the customer's premises. The U interface is implemented
with two wires and uses a special quaternary signal format (i.e., four possible electrical
states, with one pulse encoding a predefined combination of 2 bits) called 2B1Q.
Quaternary encoding allows the U interface to carry data with a logical bit rate of 192
Kbps over a signal with a physical pulse rate of only 96 Kbps. The slower pulse rate is
better suited to the less-predictable environment of the outside-plant loop carrier
system.

2.5 How Does ISDN Work?

The simplest ISDN connection (called Basic Rate or BRI) consists of two 64 Kbps
(kilobits-per-second) data channels (called B-channels) plus a 16 Kbps control channel
(called the D-channel). This is sometimes referred to as “2B+D.” On the other end of
the spectrum is primary rate ISDN (called PRI) with 23 B-channels plus a D- channel
(i.e.: “23B+D”).
To connect to the ISDN line, you need a black-box called an NT1 Network Terminator
– a power supply (which you also need) is often built-in. You will also need a Terminal
Adapter (often called a “TA”) to connect non-ISDN equipment (such as your computer
or fax machine) to the line – these are also available as plug-in cards for PC’s. Some
TA’s work as Ethernet bridges so that you can connect your LAN directly to the ISDN
line.

166
2.6 The Usefulness of ISDN
One of the most common uses for this technology today is videoconferencing. By using
from one to four BRI lines, a videoconference can be established between two or more
sites – the more lines, the faster the connection. For a videoconference application,
higher connection speed translates to higher resolution and video frame rates. The
telephone company infrastructure allows these connections to be made in a similar
fashion to dialing a telephone. While video conferencing has been around for a long
time, in the past it has primarily been confined to large corporations.
The ability to transmit quality voice and video over long distances used to require
expensive equipment and costly leased lines – these could only be justified by the
largest of companies. Due to this dependency on leased lines, videoconferences were
point-to-point (e.g. headquarters may be, permanently, linked to a manufacturing
plant) Videoconferencing on the scale of teleconferencing was simply impractical.
The advent of new low-cost videoconference hardware that can utilize ISDN is rapidly
changing this. Both desktop conferencing (a participant uses a PC equipped with a
microphone, a small video camera, and an ISDN interface) and true videoconferencing
(where more sophisticated equipment and remote control cameras allow group
participation) have become as easy to set up as voice conferencing. Due to ISDN's
versatility, videoconferences can include the sharing of graphic images and
presentations, computer applications, documents, and computer files. This capability is
proving popular for telecommuting, long distance meetings, workgroup collaboration,
security and surveillance, and dozens of other innovative applications.
In-text Question
What does ISDN Mean?

Answer
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication standards for simultaneous
digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over the traditional circuits of
the public switched telephone network.

167
4.0 Conclusion and Summary
In this Study Session, you have been introduced to the fundamental concepts of ISDN.
You have also learnt the different components and interfaces of ISDN.

Summary
In this Study Session, you have learnt about:
1. The term ISDN
2. ISDN interfaces
3. How ISDN works
4. The usefulness of ISDN.

5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What is access signaling?
2. Describe the Information bearing channels in ISDN.

6.0 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

1. Access signaling supports traffic between the end user and the network. It defines
how end users obtain access to the PSTN and the ISDN for communication or services.

2. The ISDN interface is divided into three different types of channels. Information
bearing channels called bearer channels (B channels) are used exclusively for end user
traffic (voice, data and video).

168
7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/2RlqcHQ , http://bit.ly/2PqolyX ,
http://bit.ly/2qq0YwU , http://bit.ly/2LCr0ED , http://bit.ly/34QoJNA ,
http://bit.ly/2qjsufi . Watch the video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum
c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Digital Subscriber Line (DSL); In 2
paragraphs summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

8.0 References/Further Reading

Friedhelm, Hillebrand (2002). GSM and UMTS: The Creation of Global Mobile
Communications (Ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
Sodiya, A. S. (2008). Digital Communication and Computer Network – An
Introduction (A handbook).
"Brazil, Russia, India and China to Lead Internet Growth Through 2011".
Clickz.com.
http://clickz.com/showPage.html?page=3626274. Retrieved 2009-05-28.

169
 Study Session 6:
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

Introduction
1.0 Objectives
2.0 Main Content
2.1 What is Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)?
2.2 History of DSL
2.3 Features of DSL
2.4 Benefits of DSL
2.5 How DSL works
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

Introduction
DSL is a specialized and problem-oriented language. Contrary to a General Purpose
Language (GPL) (e.g. UML, Java or C#), a DSL serves to accurately describe a domain
of knowledge. The interest to combine a DSL and a transformation function is to raise
the abstraction level of software. A DSL user concentrates her/his efforts on domain
description while complexity, design and implementation decisions and details are
hidden. The stake is to improve productivity and software quality.
However, what is the next consensus beyond this general definition? An experience
consists in starting the development of a DSL editor coupled to a generator. Quickly, the
issue of the variants of DSL editors and generators emerges. Regarding the language, is
it a tree-based DSL or a set of data without real structure? Is it a graphical or textual
notation? Is it a declarative or imperative style? Answers to most of these questions will
170
be provided in this Study Session

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to:
1. Explain the term DSL
2. State the features of DSL
3. Illustrate how DSL works
4. Highlight the advantages and disadvantages of DSL

2.0 Main Content

2.1 What is DSL?
DSL is a telephone loop technology that uses existing copper phones lines, and provides
a dedicated, high speed internet connection. The big advantage of some DSLs (notably
ADSL), is that they can co-exist on the same line with a traditional voice service such as
"POTS" (Plain Old Telephone Service), and even ISDN. This is accomplished by
utilising different frequency ranges above the voice range (voice is up to 4 KHz).
Essentially, this gives two lines in one- one for voice, and one for internet connectivity.
When all is working normally, there should be no interference between the two "lines".
This gives DSL a potentially broad consumer base, and helps minimise costs for service
providers.
DSL is positioned for the Home and Small Office (SOHO) market that is looking for
high speed internet access at reasonable prices. Since it also typically provides
dedicated, "always on" access, it can be used for interconnecting low to mid-range
bandwidth servers, and provides a great access solution for small LANs. It is also great
for those Linux power users that just want a fat pipe).
Phone companies, and other independent telecommunications providers (CLECs), are
now deploying DSL to stay ahead of the cable companies - the main consumer and
SOHO competition for DSL providers. This mad rush to get "a piece of the pie" is
bringing much competition (a good thing!), much diversity, and some confusion, into
171
the consumer market. The DSL provider (often, but not always, the phone company)
will provide the DSL infrastructure. This will include your line, the DSLAM, and
physical connection to the outside world. From there, it is typically picked up by an ISP,
who provides the traditional internet services.
Consumer DSL plans are typically "best effort" services. While boasting speeds
approaching T1, and even surpassing that in some cases, it is not necessarily as reliable
as T1, however. Business class DSL offers more reliability at a higher cost than
consumer plans, and is a good compromise where both reliability and bandwidth are at
a premium. All in all, the cost of DSL compared to traditional telecom services, such as
T1, is attractive and substantially more affordable for home and small business users.
DSL providers often do not have service contracts for home users, while business class
DSL services typically do include similar SLAs (Service Level Agreements) to that
offered for a T1 line.
The downside is that DSL is not available everywhere. Availability, and available bit
rate (speed), are purely a function of where you live, where the telecom firm has installed
the prerequisite hardware, how far you are from the DSLAM/CO, and the quality of your
phone line (loop). Not all loops are created equal, unfortunately. The primary limitation
is distance.

2.2 History of DSL

Implementation of digital subscriber line technology originally was part of the
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) specification published in 1984 by the
CCITT and ITU as part of recommendation I.120, later reused as ISDN Digital
Subscriber Line (IDSL). Engineers have developed higher-speed DSL facilities such as
High (bit rate) Digital Subscriber Line (HDSL) and Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line
(SDSL) to provide traditional Digital Signal 1 (DS1) services over standard copper pair
facilities.
Consumer-oriented Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), first tested at Bellcore
in 1988, was designed to operate on existing lines already conditioned for BRI ISDN
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services. This itself is a switched digital service (non-IP), though most Incumbent Local
Exchange Carriers (ILECs) provide Rate-Adaptive Digital Subscriber Line (RADSL) to
work on virtually any available copper pair facility—whether conditioned for BRI or
not.
The development of DSL, like many other forms of communication, can be traced back
to Claude Shannon's 1948 seminal paper- 'A Mathematical Theory of Communication''.
Employees at Bellcore (now Telcordia Technologies) developed ADSL in 1988 by
placing wide-band digital signals above the existing (baseband]) analog voice signal
carried between Telephone Company (central offices) and customers on conventional
(twisted pair) cabling facilities. A DSL circuit provides ''digital service''. The underlying
technology of transport across DSL facilities uses high-frequency (sinusoidal - carrier
wave) modulation, which is an analog signal transmission.
A DSL circuit terminates at each end in a (modem) which modulates patterns of Binary
digit (bits) into certain high-frequency impulses for transmission to the opposing
modem. Signals received from the far-end modem are demodulated to yield a
corresponding bit pattern that the modem retransmits, in digital form, to its interfaced
equipment, such as a computer, router, switch, etc.
Unlike traditional dial-up modems, which modulate bits into signals in the 300–
3400  Hz baseband (voice service), DSL modems modulate frequencies from
4000  Hz to as high as 4  MHz. This frequency band separation enables
DSL service and plain old telephone service (POTS) to coexist on the same copper pair
facility. Generally, higher bit rate transmissions require a wider frequency band, though
the ratio of bit rate to bandwidth are not linear due to significant innovations in digital
signal processing.
Early DSL service required a dedicated dry loop, but when the U.S. Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) required ILECs to lease their lines to competing
DSL service providers, shared-line DSL became available. Also known as DSL over
(Unbundled Network Element), this unbundling of services allows a single subscriber
to receive two separate services from two separate providers on one cable pair. The DSL
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service provider's equipment is co-located in the same central office as that of the ILEC
supplying the customer's pre-existing voice service. The subscriber's circuit is then
rewired to interface with hardware supplied by the ILEC which combines a DSL
frequency and POTS frequency on a single copper pair facility.
On the subscriber's end of the circuit, inline low-pass DSL filters (splitters) are installed
on each telephone to filter the high-frequency "hiss" that would otherwise be heard.
Conversely, High-pass filters already incorporated in the circuitry of DSL modems filter
out voice frequencies. Although ADSL and RADSL modulation do not use the voice-
frequency band, nonlinear elements in the phone could otherwise generate audible inter-
modulation and may impair the operation of the data modem in the absence of low-pass
filters.

2.3 Features of DSL

Let us look at these in relation to the following
1. Language feature
2. Transformation feature
3. Tool feature
4. Process feature
At the root level, language and transformation are mandatory features because they are
parts of the DSL definition. Tool is also mandatory because it serves to automate
transformation from a domain, the problem space, down to lower abstraction levels, the
solution space. Process is optional because it can be undefined or implicit.

Figure 4.6.1: Root of the DSL Feature Model

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2.4 Benefits of DSL
Fast DSL access allows you to download images, videos and other large files at
lightning-fast speeds.
It is always on- there is no waiting to get connected, no busy signals, no dialing required
with DSL.
No extra phone line necessary- DSL technology uses your existing phone line,
allowing you to share phone and Internet on the same line — at the same time. You can
also use other devices as usual on your telephone line. DSL won’t interfere.
Fast internet connection- you will be able to download information, graphics and video
from the internet at speeds up to 2.3 Mb/s; and, you can upload information as fast as
2.3 Mb/s.
Dedicated line- you will be the only person using your connection and line. Unlike
cable or modems, you do you not share your connection with other users, so your
Internet speed will be more private, stable and will have fewer delays.
Available in limited areas- DSL users must be within a certain radius of the area
telephone switch.
In essence, DSL has the following advantages:
i. the speed is much higher than a regular modem
ii. DSL does not necessarily require new wiring
iii. the company that offers DSL will usually provide the modem as part of the
installation
Disadvantages of DSL
1. The service is not available everywhere
2. The connection is fast for receiving data than it is for
sending data over the internet
3. A DSL works better when you are closer to the
provider’s central office

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2.5 How DSL Works
DSL is an innovative technology that allows your computer to transmit information over
existing phone line, but at a higher frequency than telephones, fax machines and other
devices. Since it utilizes the higher frequencies, you can use the same phone line for
telephone calls and your internet connection at the same time, without any interference.
Your telephone calls will still be clear and crisp, and your Internet connection will seem
like lightning compared to a 56K modem connection.

In-text Question
What is DSL?

Answer
DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Line. Users get a high speed bandwidth connection from a phone
wall jack on an existing telephone network. DSL works within the frequencies that the telephone
doesn't so you can use the Internet while making phone calls

3.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of DSL?

4.0 Conclusion and Summary

A DSL is a problem-oriented language, which- combined to transformation tools, such
as generators, serves to raise the abstraction level of software and ease software
development; but beyond this general definition, DSL and DSL tool variants are
numerous. The reason of a DSL feature model is to formalize DSL and DSL tool
variants.
A first application of this feature model is a DSL tool factory, which applies variations
during production of DSL tools. A second application is the selection of pertinent DSL
families among all possible families from the feature model. A third application is the
definition of DSL tool foundations. A fourth usage is the selection of DSL tools. The
feature model, combined with classification criteria, contains needed information to
evaluate DSL tools. DSL feature model is in the scope of domain analysis of DSLs. Its
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clarification becomes a prerequisite for long-term and large scale DSL developments.

Summary
In this Study Session, you have learnt that:
i. The implementation of Digital Subscriber Line technology originally was part of
the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) specification published in 1984
by the CCITT and ITU as part of recommendation I.120, later reused as ISDN
Digital Subscriber Line (IDSL)
ii. DSL is a telephone loop technology that uses existing copper phones lines, and
provides a dedicated, high speed Internet connection
iii. DSL feature model consist of language, transformation, tool, process
iv. DSL is an innovative technology that allows your computer to transmit
information over existing phone line, but at a higher frequency than telephones,
fax machines and other devices
v. A DSL is a problem-oriented language, which- combined with transformation
tools, such as generators, serves to raise the abstraction level of software and ease
software development

5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What is "cross talk" in DSL technology?
2. What do you understand by "bridged taps" in DSL technology?

6.0 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

1. Crosstalk occurs when a signal transmitted on one copper twisted pair in a bundle
radiates and potentially interferes with and degrades the transmission on another pair.

2. These are unterminated extensions of the loop, which cause additional loop loss with
loss peaks surrounding the frequency of the quarter wavelength of the extension length.
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7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/2YflOeV , http://bit.ly/2DJXb0v , http://bit.ly/2sIXHtb ,
http://bit.ly/2LCrDht , http://bit.ly/2LmxAyM . Watch the video & summarise in 1 paragraph

b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum

c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Digital Subscriber Line (DSL); In 2
paragraphs summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

8.0 References/Further Reading

ANT, Apache Project, http://ant.apache.org/
ATL, Atlas Transformation Language, official web-site.
http://www.sciences.univnantes.fr/lina/atl.
Bass, L.; Clements, P. & Kazman, R. (2003). Software Architecture in Practice .Addison
Wesley.
Czarnecki, K. & Eisenecker, U. W. (2000). Generative Programming.
Addison-Wesley.
Czarnecki, K. & Helsen, S. (2003). “Classification of Model Transformation
Approaches”. OOPSLA 2003, Workshop on Generative Techniques in the
Context of Model-Driven Architecture.
‘Eclipse’.http://www.eclipse.org/gmf/
Greenfield, J.; Short, K.; Cook, S. & Kent, S. (2004). Software Factories, Assembling
applications with Patterns, Models, Framework, and Tools. Wiley.
IEEE. ‘IEEE Recommended Practice for Architectural Description of Software-
Intensive Systems’. IEEE Std 1471-2000, 21 September 2000.

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 Study Session 7:
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

Introduction
1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Definition of SONET
2.2 Inception of SONET
2.3 SONET Standards
2.4 SONET Topology
2.4.1 Point to Point Configuration
2.4.2 Hubbed Configuration
2.4.3 Linear Add/Drop configuration
2.4.4 Self-healing ring configuration
2.5 SONET Equipment Layers
2.6 The Importance of Synchronized Timing
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

Introduction
In today’s business world, each industry is looking for different ways to create
competitive advantages to deliver information, products and services in a more timely
and cost effective manner. End-to-end SONET (Synchronous Optical Networking)
network solutions are one important ingredient in creating a competitive edge. As a
convergence technology, SONET provides for the unification of voice, data and video
over the same transport service.
179
This Study Session gives you an operational overview of SONET (Synchronous Optical
Networking). Here, an important point to remember is this- SONET is a powerful,
highly scalable technology. Although it may appear to be complex, most of what goes
on in a SONET network is transparent to the user. Also, this Study Session briefly
discusses Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM) for awareness purposes only, since
WDM is another high performance transport technology that also leverages fiber optics.

SONET is a transport technology, designed to provide enterprise and government users

–as well as service providers – a network infrastructure with survivability
characteristics, so that business operations can continue uninterrupted. SONET’s self-
healing fiber optic ring functionality enables automatic network recovery due to
failures that can be caused by a fiber optic cable cut, lost signal, or degraded signal (e.g.
due to aging laser) or node/system failure. SONET is also a technology that is designed
to ensure network traffic is restored within 60 milliseconds in the event of a failure.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to:
1. Define the term SONET
2. State the standards of SONET
3. Discuss the topology of SONET
4. Describe the SONET equipment layers
5. Explain SONET synchronization and timing

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Definition of SONET
Synchronous optical network (SONET) is a standard for optical telecommunications
transport formulated by the Exchange Carriers Standards Association (ECSA) for the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), which sets industry standards in the
U.S. for telecommunications and other industries. The comprehensive SONET
180
standard is expected to provide the transport infrastructure for worldwide
telecommunications for at least the next two or three decades.

2.2 Inception of SONET

SONET was conceived of and written about back in the early 1980’s, when submitted
to the members of American National Standard Institute (ANSI) T1 Committee as a
universal transport system. In the mid-1980’s, the T1 Committee further enhanced the
standard to arrive at the Synchronous Transport Signal One (STS-1) as the base-
signaling rate. Around this time, the ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union-
Telecommunications standard) (formerly CCITT) adopted SONET as the basis of or
its international standard referred to as SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) transport
system, where the STS-1 rate (51.84Mbps) was to be a factor of 3 in terms of the
European base rate of 155.52Mbps.

2.3 SONET Standards

The base standard for SONET is the T1.105-1991 American National Standard (ANSI)
for Telecommunications- Digital Hierarchy-Optical Interface Rates and Formats
Specification (SONET). SONET standards define rates and formats as well as optical
interfaces. The following American National Standards Institute (ANSI) specifications
provide the primary standards, which define SONET:
1. ANSI T1.106-1998 specification for optical parameters
2. ANSI T1.102-1993specification for electrical parameters
3. ANSI T1.105-1991 specification for multiplexing
methods to map existing Digital Signals (e.g. DS1) into
SONET payload signals
4. ANSI T1.105-1991 specification for criteria for optical
line automatic
5. Protection switching
6. ANSI T1.105-1991 specification for overhead channels
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 to support standard
7. Operation, Administration and Provisioning (OAM&P)

2.4 SONET Topology

SONET technology enables a number of different network topologies to solve
networking requirements, including survivability, cost, and bandwidth efficiencies.
The following provides a description of 3 different SONET configurations, which are
deployed in a variety of enterprise situations. SONET configurations include:
1. Point-to-point configuration
2. Hubbed configuration
3. Linear add/drop configuration
4. Ring configuration

2.4.1 Point-to-Point Configuration

SONET point-to-point configurations create a simple topology that terminates a

SONET payload at each point of a fiber optic cable span. Point-to-point configurations
are typically deployed in transport applications, which require a single SONET
multiplexer in a single route. Point-to-point configurations can be enhanced to increase
survivability by deploying a protection path (second fiber span) over a different path
between two or more SONET multiplexers.

2.4.2 Hubbed Configuration

Hubbed configurations consolidate traffic from multiple sites onto a single optical
channel, which then can be forwarded to another site. This topology is often used in
applications where the user wants to consolidate traffic from multiple satellite sites to
a single site such as corporate headquarters, before extending it, in some cases to a
central office. This topology helps to reduce the number of hops as well as the
equipment required to create a multisite topology.

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2.4.3 Linear Add/Drop Configuration
In the asynchronous digital signal hierarchy environment, every time a digital signal is
accessed the entire signal needs to be multiplexed/demultiplexed, costing time and
money at each site along a given path. However, a linear add/drop configuration enables
direct access to VTS/STS channels at each intermediate site along a fiber optic path.
Therefore the linear add/drop configuration eliminates the need to process
(multiplex/demultiplex) the entire optical signal for pass- through traffic.

2.4.4 Self-Healing Ring Configuration

In a self-healing ring configuration, a mechanism referred to as automatic protection
switching is employed. There are two types of protection ring-the first is UPSR
(Unidirectional Path Switched Ring), the other is BLSR (Bi-Directional Line Switched
Ring). Each of these is discussed later. The self-healing ring configuration is the most
commonly deployed SONET topology in mission critical government and enterprise
backbones, due to its survivability characteristics.
Automatic protection switching is a mechanism provided within the SONET
specification that is designed to provide duplicate finer span paths. In this
configuration, a backup fiber span (protection ring) is enabled when and if there is a
failure within the fiber span currently carrying traffic on a SONET network.
It should be noted that during normal operating conditions, both fiber spans are always
active, and a SONET multiplexer selects which fiber span to receive traffic, based on
an internal algorithm (e.g. based on which fiber module was installed in the multiplexer
first). The SONET standard specifies that the protection ring should automatically
become the fiber span (ring) the SONET multiplexer receives traffic from within 60
milliseconds (unnoticeable to the user) in the event of a failure on the other fiber span.

183
2.4.6 SONET Equipment Layers
SONET defines the end-to-end connection as being made up of 3 different equipment
layers, including Path Terminating Equipment (PTE), Line Terminating Equipment
(LTE), and Section Terminating Equipment (STE).
a. Path Terminating Equipment (PTE)
STS (Synchronous Transport Signal) path terminating equipment provides the
multiplexing and demultiplexing functions within a SONET network. Path terminating
equipment can originate access, modify, or terminate path overhead in any
combination.
b. Line Terminating Equipment (LTE)
SONET line terminating equipment provides the function that originates and terminates
line signals. SONET line terminating equipment can originate, access, modify, or
terminate line overhead in any combination
c. Section Terminating Equipment (STE)
A SONET “section” is any two neighboring SONET network elements. SONET section
terminating equipment can be a network element or a SONET regenerator. SONET
section terminating equipment can originate, access, modify, or terminate section
overhead in any combination

2.4 Importance of Synchronized Timing

Network timing between SONET devices is an integral part of maintaining accurate
information transmitted over a SONET network. In the earlier days of networking, the
method used in timing was Asynchronous. In Asynchronous timing each switch runs
its own clock. In Synchronous timing, switches can use a single common clock to
maintain timing. This single common clock is referred to as a Primary Reference
Source (PRS) or Master Clock.
Synchronous timing maintains better accuracy than Asynchronous timing because it
uses a single common clocking scheme to maintain timing. This accurate timing often
becomes important to government and enterprise applications, particularly when they
184
are running time sensitive applications (e.g. video streaming applications). There are
three methods typically used in obtaining synchronous timing in SONET multiplexers
(e.g. Lucent DDM-2000 Multiplexer), they are:
i. Timing from an onboard internal oscillator
ii. Timing from an incoming optical signal from a high-speed interface
iii. Timing from an external source coming from a DS1 timing reference that can be
stratum 3 or higher clocking

In-text Question
What is SONET?

Answer
Synchronous optical networking (SONET) is a standardized digital communication protocol that is
used to transmit a large volume of data over relatively long distances using a fiber optic medium.
With SONET, multiple digital data streams are transferred at the same time over optical fiber using
LEDs and laser beams.

3.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

1. Explain SONET topologies.

4.0 Conclusion and Summary

In this Study Session, you have been introduced to the fundamental concepts of
SONET. You also learnt the historical background of SONET, the various standards of
SONET and the various topologies of SONET.

Summary
In this Study Session, you have learnt that:
i. SONET is a transport technology, designed to provide enterprise and
government users as well as service providers
ii. SONET is a network infrastructure with survivability
characteristics, so that business operations continue uninterrupted

185
iii. Synchronous optical network (SONET) is a standard for optical
telecommunications transport formulated by the Exchange Carriers Standards
Association (ECSA) for the American National Standards Institute (ANSI),
which sets industry standards in the U.S. for telecommunications and other
industries
iv. State the standards of SONET
v. The base standard for SONET is the T1.105-1991 American National Standard
(ANSI) for Telecommunications- Digital Hierarchy-Optical Interface Rates and
Formats Specification (SONET)
vi. SONET consist of 3 different equipment layers, including Path Terminating
Equipment (PTE), Line Terminating Equipment (LTE), and Section Terminating
Equipment (STE).

5.0 Self-Assessment Exercise

1. Describe the function of the path layer of SONET.
2. Describe how the photonic layer of the SONET similar to the OSI model.
3. Describe the electrical signal of SONET.

6.0 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

1. The path layer in SONET is responsible for finding the path of the signal across the physical
line to reach the optical destination. It is ideally expected to find the shortest and the most
reliable path to the destination.
2. The photonic layer in SONET is like the physical layer of the OSI model. It is the lowest
layer among the four layers of SONET namely the photonic, the section, the line, and the path
layers.
3. SONET defines the electrical signal as STS-N (Synchronous Transport Signal Level-N)
and the optical signal as OC-N (Optical Carrier Level-N). The building block of SONET is
the STS-1/OC-1 signal, which is based on an 8-kHz frame rate and operates at 51.84 Mbps.

186
7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add (http://bit.ly/2rYBiri , http://bit.ly/2r4NwyU ,
http://bit.ly/2rfU65p , http://bit.ly/384bASZ , http://bit.ly/2RkUUAA ,
http://bit.ly/360gfDF. Watch the video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum
c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Synchronous Optical Network (SONET);
In 2 paragraphs summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

8.0 References/Further Reading

"About Rand". Paul Baran and the Origins of the Internet.
http://www.rand.org/about/history/baran.html. Retrieved January 14, 2006.
"How does the Internet Work?". http://tldp.org/HOWTO/Unix-and- Internet-
Fundamentals-HOWTO/internet.html. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
Johna Till Johnson. "Net was born of economic necessity, not fear".
http://www.networkworld.com/columnists/2004/0607johnson.ht ml. Retrieved
June 15, 2009.URL is sufficient attribution
Leonard Kleinrock (2005). The history of the Internet.
http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/personal_history.html. Retrieved 2009-
05-28.

187
 Study Session 8:
Packet Switching

Introduction
1.0 Objectives
2.0 Main Content
2.1 History
2.2 Definition of Packet Switching
2.3 Advantages
2.4 Disadvantages
2.5 Packet Switching Methods
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

Introduction
Packet switching is the basis for the Internet Protocol (IP). In packet switching,
information flows are broken into variable-size packets (or fixed-size cells as in the
case of ATM). These packets are sent, one by one, to the nearest router, which will look
up the destination address, and then forward them to the corresponding next hop. This
process is repeated until the packet reaches its destination. The routing of the
information is thus done locally.
Routing decisions are independent of other decisions in the past and in other routers;
however, they are based on network state and topology information that is exchanged
among routers using BGP, IS-IS or OSPF. The network does not need to keep any state
to operate, other than the routing tables. The forwarding mechanism is called store-and-
forward because IP packets are completely received and stored in the router while being
188
processed, and then transmitted. Additionally, packets may need to be buffered locally
to resolve CONTENTION for resources. If the system runs out of buffers, packets are
dropped.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to:
1. Define the term Packet Switching
2. State the advantages and disadvantages of packet switching
3. State various packet switching methods.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 History
The concept of switching small blocks of data was first explored by Paul Baran in the
early 1960s. Independently, Donald Davies at the National Physical Laboratory in the
UK had developed the same ideas. Leonard Kleinrock conducted early research in
queueing theory which would be important in packet switching, and published a book
in the related field of digital message switching (without the packets) in 1961. He also,
later played a leading role in building and management of the world's first packet
switched network, the ARPANET.
Baran developed the concept of message block switching during his research at the
RAND Corporation for the US Air Force into survivable communications networks,
first presented to the Air Force in the summer of 1961 as briefing B-265Baran's P-2626
paper described a general architecture for a large-scale, distributed, survivable
communications network.
The paper focuses on three key ideas: first, use of a decentralized network with multiple
paths between any two points; and second, dividing complete user messages into what
he called ''message blocks'' (later called packets); then third, delivery of these messages
by store and forward switching.
Licklider at the Information Processing Technology Office, both wide- area network
189
evangelists, and it helped influence Lawrence Roberts to adopt the technology when
Taylor put him in charge of development of the ARPANET. Baran's work was similar
to the research performed independently by Donald Davies at the National Physical
Laboratory, UK. In 1965, Davies developed the concept of packet-switched networks
and proposed development of a UK wide network. He gave a talk on the proposal in
1966, after which a person from the Ministry of Defense told him about Baran's work.
A member of Davies' team met Lawrence Roberts at the 1967 Association for
Computing Machinery (ACM) Symposium on Operating System Principles.
Interestingly, Davies had chosen some of the same parameters for his original network
design as Baran, such as a packet size of 1024 bits. In 1966, Davies proposed that a
network should be built at the laboratory to serve the needs of NPL and prove the
feasibility of packet switching.
The NPL Data Communications Network entered service in 1970. Roberts and the
ARPANET team took the name "packet switching" itself from Davies's work. The first
computer network and packet switching network deployed for computer resource
sharing was the Octopus Network at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory that
began connecting four CDC 6600 (Control Data 6600 computers) to several shared
storage devices including an IBM 2321 Data Cell.

2.2 Packet Switching Definition

Packet switching is dividing of messages into packets before they are sent, transmitting
each packet individually, and then reassembling them into the original message once
all of them have arrived at the intended destination. Packets are the fundamental unit
of information transport in all modern computer networks, and increasingly in other
communications networks as well. Each packet, which can be of fixed or variable size
depending on the protocol, consists of a header, body (also called a payload) and a
trailer. The body contains a segment of the message being transmitted.

190
2.3 Advantages of Packet Switching
The following are some advantages of packet switching:
i. Share link usage and greater link efficiency
ii. Links can transmit at different rates
iii. Under heavy load, calls can still be accepted but with greater delay
iv. Can prioritize packet transmission

2.4 Disadvantages of Packet Switching

Despite its great advantages, packet switching has the following disadvantages:
i. Packet delay at each node (Processing, Queuing, Transmission)
ii. A packet can acquire jitter while passing through the network
iii. Packets may contain metadata i.e Higher overhead than circuit Switching (e.g.,
telephone system)
iv. More processing required at each node in the network.

2.5 Packet Switching Methods

Datagram (Connectionless)
This method has the following characteristics:
i. Each packet carries a header with full destination address.
ii. Each packet is treated independent of other packets.
iii. Each network node chooses the next hop for each packet.
Virtual Circuit Switching (Connection-Oriented)
This method has the following characteristics:
1. Each packet header contains a virtual circuit identifier (VCI)
2. Each node routes packets based on the VCI field
3. A preplanned route is established before sending packets
4. Faster routing

191
Source Routing: Full path stored in packet.
Exercise 1: What are the advantages and disadvantages of the
packet switching methods?

In-text Question
What is Packet Switch?

Answer
Packet switching is a method of grouping data that is transmitted over a digital network into packets.

3.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

1. State the advantages and the disadvantages of Packet Switching.
2. What do you understand by the term “Datagram”

4.0 Conclusion and Summary

In this Study Session, you have been introduced to the fundamental concepts of Packet
switching. You also learnt the advantages and disadvantages of packet switching. You
were also introduced to various packet switching methods.

Summary
In this Study Session, you have learnt that:
1. The concept of switching small blocks of data was first explored by Paul Baran
in the early 1960s
2. Packet switching is dividing of messages into packets before they are sent,
transmitting each packet individually, and then reassembling them into the
original message once all of them have arrived at the intended destination
3. Packet switching methods datagram, virtual circuit and source routing.

192
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
1. If there are N routers from source to destination, what is the total end to end delay
in sending packet P(L-> number of bits in the packet R-> transmission rate)
2. Describe circuit switching.

6.0 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

1. The equation to find the end to end delay when no. of bits, transmission rate and
no. of routers is given by (N*L)/R. The total end to end delay, that is, nodal delay is
the sum of all, the processing delay, queuing delay, transmission delay and
propagation delay.

2. Circuit switching is connection oriented and is always implemented in the physical

layer. Once a path is set, all transmission occurs through the same path. It is used
since the early times in telephonic systems.

7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/33JS8HO , http://bit.ly/2rhIa34 , http://bit.ly/2Lo914v ,

http://bit.ly/2LoXe5V , http://bit.ly/34Po1Ad , http://bit.ly/33PnKfl. Watch the video & summarise

in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum
c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Packet Switching.; In 2 paragraphs
summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

193
8.0 References/Further Reading
Ronda Hauben (2001). From the ARPANET to the Internet.
http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/other/tcpdigest_paper.txt.
Retrieved 2009-05-28.
"NORSAR and the Internet". NORSAR. http://www.norsar.no/pc-5-30- NORSAR-and-
the-Internet.aspx. Retrieved 2009-06-05.
"History of X.25, CCITT Plenary Assemblies and Book Colors". Itu.int.
http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/studygroups/com17/history.html.
Retrieved 2009-06-05.
Prasad, K. V. (2009). “Principles of Digital Communication Systems and Computer
Networks”, Dreamtech Press.

194
 Study Session 9:
Internet and TCP/IP

Introduction
1.0 Objectives
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Historical Background
2.1.1 Internet Standard Process
2.2 TCP/IP Terminologies
2.2 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
2.3 Network Interface Layer
2.4 Internet Layer Interface
2.5 Application Layer Interface
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
7.0 References/Further Reading

Introduction
The '''internet protocol suite''' is the set of communication protocols used for the internet
and other similar networks. It is commonly also known as '''TCP/IP''', named from two
of the most important protocols in it- the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the
Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two networking protocols defined in this
standard.
Modern IP networking represents a synthesis of several developments that began to
evolve in the 1960s and 1970s, namely the internet and local area networks, which
emerged during the 1980s, together with the advent of the World Wide Web(WWW)
in the early 1990s. The internet protocol suite consists of four abstraction layers. From
195
the lowest to the highest layer, these are the link layer, the internet layer, the transport
layer, and the application layer.
The link layer contains communication technologies for the local network the host is
connected to directly, the link. It provides the basic connectivity functions interacting
with the networking hardware of the computer and the associated management of
interface-to-interface messaging. The internet layer provides communication methods
between multiple links of a computer and facilitates the interconnection of networks.
As such, this layer establishes the internet. It contains primarily the internet protocol,
which defines the fundamental addressing namespaces, IPv4 Internet Protocol Version
4 (IPv4) and IPv6|Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) used to identify and locate hosts
on the network. Direct host-to-host communication tasks are handled in the transport
layer, which provides a general framework to transmit data between hosts using
protocols like the transmission control protocol and the user datagram.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to:
1. Describe the internet standards process
2. Define common terms used in TCP/IP
3. State the advantages of including TCP/IP components in windows
4. Explain how the TCP/IP protocol suite maps to the Department of Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and Open System
Interconnection (OSI) models.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Historical Background
The internet protocol suite resulted from research and development conducted by the
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the early 1970s. After
initiating the pioneering ARPANET in 1969, DARPA started work on a number of other
data transmission technologies. In 1972, Robert E. Kahn joined the DARPA information
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processing technology office, where he worked on both satellite packet networks and
ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being able to
communicate across both.
In the spring of 1973, Vinton Cerf, the developer of the existing ARPANET Network
Control Program (NCP) protocol, joined Kahn to work on open-architecture
interconnection models with the goal of designing the next protocol generation for the
ARPANET. By the summer of 1973, Kahn and Cerf had worked out a fundamental
reformulation, where the differences between network protocols were hidden by using
a common [[internetwork protocol]], and, instead of the network being responsible for
reliability, as in the ARPANET, the hosts became responsible.
The design of the network included the recognition that it should provide only the
functions of efficiently transmitting and routing traffic between end nodes and that all
other intelligence should be located at the edge of the network, in the end nodes. Using
a simple design, it became possible to connect almost any network to the ARPANET,
irrespective of their local characteristics, thereby solving Kahn's initial problem. One
popular expression is that TCP/IP, the eventual product of Cerf and Kahn's work, will
run over "two tin cans and a string''.
A computer, called a router, is provided with an interface to each network. It forwards
packets back and forth between them. Originally a router was called ''gateway'', but the
term was changed to avoid confusion with other types of gateway (computer
networking) computers. The idea was worked out in more detailed form by Cerf's
networking research group at Stanford within 1973–74, resulting in the first TCP
specification.
The internet protocol suite resulted from research and development conducted by the
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the early 1970s. After
initiating the pioneering ARPANET in 1969, DARPA started work on a number of other
data transmission technologies. In 1972, Robert E. Kahn joined the DARPA information
processing technology office, where he worked on both satellite packet networks and
ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being able to
197
communicate across both. In the spring of 1973, Vinton Cerf, the developer of the
existing ARPANET Network Control Program (NCP) protocol, joined Kahn to work on
open-architecture interconnection models with the goal of designing the next protocol.

2.2 Internet Standard Process

TCP/IP is the protocol of the Internet, it has evolved based on fundamental standards
that have been created and adopted over more than 30 years. The future of TCP/IP is
closely associated with the advances and administration of the Internet as additional
standards continue to be developed. Although, no one organization owns the Internet
or its technologies, several organizations oversee and manage these new standards,
such as the Internet Society and the Internet Architecture Board.
The Internet Society (ISOC) was created in 1992 and is a global organization
responsible for the internetworking technologies and applications of the internet.
Although the society’s principal purpose is to encourage the development and
availability of the internet, it is also responsible for the further development of the
standards and protocols that allow the Internet to function. The ISOC sponsors the
Internet Architecture Board (IAB), a technical advisory group that sets internet
standards, publishes RFCs, and oversees the Internet standards process. The IAB
governs the following bodies:
i. The Internet Assigned Number Authority (IANA) oversees and coordinates the
assignment of protocol identifiers used on the Internet.
ii. The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) coordinates all TCP/IP- related
research projects.
iii. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) solves technical problems and
needs as they arise on the internet and develops internet standards and protocols.
IETF working groups define standards known as RFC.

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2.3 TCP/IP Terminology
The internet standards use a specific set of terms when referring to network elements
and concepts related to TCP/IP networking. Common terms and concepts in TCP/IP
are defined as follows:
i. Node- any device, including routers and hosts, which runs an implementation of
IP.
ii. Router- a node that can forward IP packets not explicitly addressed to itself. On
an IPv6 network, a Router also typically advertises its presence and host
configuration information.
iii. Host- a node that cannot forward IP packets not explicitly addressed to itself (a
non-router). A host is typically the source and the destination of IP traffic. A host
silently discards traffic that it receives but that is not explicitly addressed to it.
iv. Upper-layer protocol: a protocol above IP that uses IP as its transport.
Examples include internet layer protocols such as the Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP) and transport layer protocols such as the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP). (However, application layer
protocols that use TCP and UDP as their transports are not considered upper-
layer protocols. File Transfer Protocol [FTP] and Domain Name System [DNS]
fall into this category).
v. LAN segment-a portion of a subnet consisting of a single medium that is
bounded by bridges or layer 2 switches.
vi. Subnet- one or more LAN segments that are bounded by routers and use the same
IP address prefix. Other terms for subnet are network segment and link.
vii. Network- two or more subnets connected by routers. Another term for network
is internetwork.
viii. Neighbour- a node connected to the same subnet as another node.
ix. Interface-the representation of a physical or logical attachment of a node to a
subnet. An example of a physical interface is a network adapter. An example
of a logical interface is a tunnel interface that is used to send IPv6 packets
199
 across an IPv4 network.
Address- an identifier that can be used as the source or destination of IP packets and
that is assigned at the Internet layer to an interface or set of interfaces.
Packet-The protocol Data Unit (PDU) that exists at the internet layer and comprises an
IP head payload. a common [[internetwork protocol]], and, instead of the network
being responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, the hosts became responsible.
Table 4.9.1: The Advantages of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite and the Inclusion of TCP/IP
Components in Windows.

2.4 The TCP/IP Protocol Suite

The TCP/IP protocol suite maps to a four-layer conceptual model known as the
DARPA model, which was named after the U.S. government agency that initially
developed TCP/IP. The four layers of the DARPA model are: Application, Transport,
Internet, and Network Interface. Each layer in the DARPA model corresponds to one
or more layers of the seven-layer OSI model.

200
 Figure 4.9.1: The Architecture of the TCP/IP model

The TCP/IP protocol suite has two sets of protocols at the internet layer:
a. IPv4, also known as IP, is the Internet layer in common use today on private
intranets and the Internet
b. IPv6 is the new Internet layer that will eventually replace the existing IPv4
Internet layer.

2.5 Network Interface Layer

The network interface layer (also called the network access layer) sends TCP/IP
packets on the network medium and receives TCP/IP packets off the network medium.
TCP/IP was designed to be independent of the network access method, frame format,
and medium. Therefore, you can use TCP/IP to communicate across differing network
types that use LAN technologies—such as Ethernet and 802.11 wireless LAN—and
WAN technologies—such as Frame Relay and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).

By being independent of any specific network technology, TCP/IP can be adapted to

new technologies. The network interface layer of the DARPA model encompasses the
data link and physical layers of the OSI model. The internet layer of the DARPA model

201
does not take advantage of sequencing and acknowledgment services that might be
present in the data link layer of the OSI model. The internet layer assumes an unreliable
network interface layer and that reliable communications through session establishment
and the sequencing and acknowledgment of packets is the responsibility of either the
transport layer or the application layer.

2.6 Internet Layer

i. The internet layer responsibilities include addressing, packaging, and routing
functions. The internet layer is analogous to the network layer of the OSI model.
The core protocols for the IPv4 internet layer consist of the following:
ii. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) resolves the internet layer address to a
network interface layer address such as a hardware address.
iii. The Internet Protocol (IP) is a routable protocol that addresses, routes, fragments,
and reassembles packets.
iv. The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) reports errors and other
information to help you diagnose unsuccessful packet delivery.

2.7 Application Layer Interface

The application layer allows applications to access the services of the other layers, and
it defines the protocols that applications use to exchange data. The application layer
contains many protocols, and more are always being developed.
The most widely known application layer protocols help users exchange information.
Some of these are:

i. The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) transfers files that make up pages on
the World Wide Web(WWW).
ii. The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) transfers individual files, typically for an
interactive user session
iii. The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) transfers mail messages and

202
 attachments.
Additionally, the following application layer protocols help you use and manage
TCP/IP networks:
i. The Domain Name System (DNS) protocol resolves a host name, such as
‘www.microsoft.com’, to an IP address and copies name information between
DNS servers.
ii. The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a protocol that routers use to
exchange routing information on an IP network, called a router, is provided with
an interface to each network.
In-text Question
What is osi model

Answer
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that characterizes and
standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or computing system without
regard to its underlying internal structure and technology. ... The original version of the model defined
seven layers.

4.0 Conclusion and Summary

In this Study Session, you have been introduced to the fundamental concepts of internet
TCP/IP. You also learnt the internet standard process and some TCP/IP terminologies.
You were also introduced to Various TCP/IP protocol suites.

Summary
In this Study Session, you have learnt that:
i. The ''internet protocol suite'' is the set of communications protocols used for the
internet and other similar networks
ii. The TCP/IP is the protocol of the internet; it has evolved based on fundamental
standards that have been created and adopted over more than 30 years
iii. The TCP/IP protocol suite maps to a four-layer conceptual model known as the
DARPA model, which was named after the U.S. government agency that initially

203
 developed TCP/IP
iv. The TCP/IP protocol suite has two sets of protocols at the internet layer- namely
IPv4 and IPv6
v. The network interface layer (also called the network access layer) sends TCP/IP
packets on the network medium and receives TCP/IP packets off the network
medium
vi. The internet layer responsibilities include addressing, packaging, and routing
functions
vii. The application layer allows applications to access the services of the other
layers, and it defines the protocols that applications use to exchange data.

5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What is the size of the TCP segment header?
2. What do you understand by “Active Open”?

6.0 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

1. The size of the header can be 20 bytes at a minimum if there are no options and can
go up to 60 bytes at maximum with 40 bytes in the options field. The header contains
all the control information required to ensure ordered, error-free and reliable delivery
of the segment.

2. This is the second step in the Three-Way Handshaking process and is done by the
client once it finds the open server and picks an ISN. The Server acknowledges the
clients request, and then picks an ISN and synchronizes it with the Client. At last,
the Client acknowledges the servers ISN.

204
7.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube add http://bit.ly/2sMRJrp , http://bit.ly/368V0Qh , http://bit.ly/3445nEJ ,
http://bit.ly/384d5k5 , http://bit.ly/33R5D8u , http://bit.ly/2OMsGx3. Watch the video &

summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site and critique it in the discussion forum
c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Internet and TCP/IP; In 2 paragraphs
summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

8.0 References/Further Reading

"About Rand". Paul Baran and the Origins of the Internet.
http://www.rand.org/about/history/baran.html. Retrieved January 14, 2006.
http://tldp.org/HOWTO/Unix-and-Internet-Fundamentals- HOWTO/internet.html.
Retrieved June 15, 2009.
John, Till, Johnson. "Net was born of economic necessity, not fear".
http://www.networkworld.com/columnists/2004/0607johnson.ht ml. Retrieved
June 15, 2009.
Prasad, K. V. (2009). Principles of Digital Communication Systems and Computer
Networks. Dreamtech Press.

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GLOSSARY

A
access point (AP) A central base station in a BSS.
acknowledgment (ACK) A response sent by the receiver to indicate the successful
receipt of data.
add/drop multiplexer A SONET device that removes and inserts signals in a path
without demultiplexing and re-multiplexing.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) In TCPIIP, a protocol for obtaining the physical
address of a node when the Internet address is known.
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) The government agency that funded
ARPANET.
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) A national standards organization
that defines standards in the United States.
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) A character code
developed by ANSI that used extensively for data communication.
amplitude The strength of a signal, usually measured in volts.
amplitude modulation (AM) An analog-to-analog conversion method in which the
carrier signal's amplitude varies with the amplitude of the modulating signal.
amplitude shift keying (ASK) A modulation method in which the amplitude of the
carrier signal is varied to represent binary 0 or 1.
analog data Data that are continuous and smooth and not limited to a specific number
of values.
analog signal A continuous waveform that changes smoothly over time.

aperiodic signal A signal that does not exhibit a pattern or repeating cycle.

asynchronous connectionless link (ACL) A link between a Bluetooth master and

slave in which a corrupted payload is retransmitted.
206
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) A wide area protocol featuring high data rates
and equal-sized packets (cells); ATM is suitable for transferring text, audio, and video
data.
attenuation The loss of a signal's energy due to the resistance of the medium.

bandwidth The difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies of a
composite signal. It also measures the information-carrying capacity of a line or a
network.
correctly.
baud rate The number of signal elements transmitted per second. A signal element
consists of one or more bits.

block cipher An encryption/decryption algorithm that has a block of bits as its basic
unit.
block coding A coding method to ensure synchronization and detection of errors.
Bluetooth A wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different
functions such as telephones and notebooks in a small area such as a room.
broadband transmission Transmission of signals using modulation of a higher
frequency signal. The term implies a wide-bandwidth data combined from different
sources.
bus topology A network topology in which all computers are attached to a shared
medium.
byte-oriented protocol A protocol in which the data section of the frame is interpreted
as a sequence of bytes (characters).

207
C
cable modem A technology in which the TV cable provides Internet access.
Caesar cipher A shift cipher used by Julius Caesar with the key value of 3.
carrier signal A high frequency signal used for digital-to-analog or analog-to-analog
modulation. One of the characteristics of the carrier signal (amplitude, frequency, or
phase) is changed according to the modulating data.
cell A small, fixed-size data unit; also, in cellular telephony, a geographical area served
by a cell office.
cell network A network using the cell as its basic data unit.
cellular telephony A wireless communication technique in which an area is divided
into cells. A cell is served by a transmitter.
channel A communications pathway.
cipher An encryption/decryption algorithm.
classful addressing An IPv4 addressing mechanism in which the IP address space is
divided into 5 classes: A, B, C, D, and E. Each class occupies some part of the whole
address space.
classless addressing An addressing mechanism in which the IP address space is not
divided into classes.
client-server model The model of interaction between two application programs in
which a program at one end (client) requests a service from a program at the other end
(server).
coaxial cable A transmission medium consisting of a conducting core, insulating
material, and a second conducting sheath.
Common Gateway Interface (CGI) A standard for communication between HTTP
servers and executable programs. CGI is used in creating dynamic documents.
contention An access method in which two or more devices try to transmit at the same
time on the same channel.
controlled access A multiple access method in which the stations consult one another
to determine who has the right to send.
208
cookie A string of characters that holds some information about the client and must be
returned to the server untouched.
cryptography The science and art of transforming messages to make them secure and
immune to attacks.
cyclic code A linear code in which the cyclic shifting (rotation) of each codeword
creates another code word.

D
data element The smallest entity that can represent a piece of information. A bit.
data encryption standard (DES) The U.S. government standard encryption method
for nonmilitary and nonclassified use.
data link connection identifier (DLCI) A number that identifies the virtual circuit in
Frame Relay.
data link layer The second layer in the Internet model. It is responsible for node-to-
node delivery.
data rate The number of data elements sent in one second.
datagram In packet switching, an independent data unit.
dataword The smallest block of data in block coding.
de facto standard A protocol that has not been approved by an organized body but
adopted as a standard through widespread use.
de jure standard A protocol that has been legislated by an officially recognized body.
deadlock A situation in which a task cannot proceed because it is waiting for an even
that will never occur.
decryption Recovery of the original message from the encrypted data.
default mask The mask for a network that is not subnetted.
delta modulation An analog-to-digital conversion technique in which the value of the
digital signal is based on the difference between the current and the previous sample
values.
demodulation The process of separating the carrier signal from the information-
209
bearing signal.
demultiplexer (DEMUX) A device that separates a multiplexed signal into its original
components.
denial of service attack A form of attack in which the site is flooded with so many
phony requests that is eventually forced to deny service.
differential Manchester encoding A digital-to-digital polar encoding method that
features a transition at the middle of the bit interval as well as an inversion at the
beginning of each 1 bit.
of a document.
digital data Data represented by discrete values or conditions.
digital signal A discrete signal with a limited number of values.
digital signal (DS) service A telephone company service featuring a hierarchy of
digital
signals.
digital signature A method to authenticate the sender of a message.
digital subscriber line (DSL) A technology using existing telecommunication
networks to accomplish high-speed delivery of data, voice, video, and multimedia.
digital-to-analog conversion The representation of digital information by an analog
signal.
digital-to-digital conversion The representation of digital information by a digital
signal.
direct current (DC) A zero-frequency signal with a constant amplitude.
DNS server A computer that holds information about the name space.
domain name In the DNS, a sequence of labels separated by dots.
Domain Name System (DNS) A TCP/IP application service that converts user-friendly
names to IP addresses.
Dynamic Domain Name System (DDNS) A method to update the DNS master file
dynamically.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) An extension to BOOTP that
210
dynamically assigns configuration information.
dynamic routing Routing in which the routing table entries are updated automatically
by the routing protocol.

E
encryption Converting a message into an unintelligible form that is unreadable unless
decrypted.
extranet A private network that uses the TCP/IP protocol suite that allows authorized
access from outside users.

F
Fast Ethernet Ethernet with a data rate of 100 Mbps.
fiber-optic cable A high-bandwidth transmission medium that carries data signals in
the form of pulses of light. It consists of a thin cylinder of glass or plastic, called the
core, surrounded by a concentric layer of glass or plastic called the cladding.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) In TCPIIP, an application layer protocol that transfers
files between two sites.
finite state machine A machine that goes through a limited number of states.
firewall A device (usually a router) installed between the internal network of an
organization and the rest of the Internet to provide security.
first-in, first-out (FIFO) queue A queue in which the first item in is the first item out.
flag A bit pattern or a character added to the beginning and the end of a frame to
separate the frames.
Fourier analysis The mathematical technique used to obtain the frequency spectrum
of an aperiodic signal if the time-domain representation is given.
Frame Relay A packet-switching specification defined for the first two layers of the
Internet model. There is no network layer. Error checking is done on end-to-end basis
instead of on each link.
frequency modulation (FM) An analog-to-analog modulation method in which the
211
carrier signal's frequency varies with the amplitude of the modulating signal.
frequency shift keying (FSK) A digital-to-analog encoding method in which the
frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 0 or 1.
full-duplex mode A transmission mode in which both parties can communicate
simultaneously.

G
gateway A device used to connect two separate networks that use different
communication protocols.
Global Positioning System (GPS) An MEO public satellite system consisting of 24
satellites and used for land and sea navigation. GPS is not used for communications.
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) A second-generation cellular
phone system used in Europe.

H
Hamming code A method that adds redundant bits to a data unit to detect and correct
bit errors.
Hamming distance The number of differences between the corresponding bits in two
datawords.
hash function An algorithm that creates a fixed-size digest from a variable-length
message.
hertz (Hz) Unit of measurement for frequency.
High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) A bit-oriented data link protocol defined by
the ISO.
hop count The number of nodes along a route. It is a measurement of distance in
routing
algorithms.
host A station or node on a network.
hostid The part of an IP address that identifies a host.
212
host-specific routing A routing method in which the full IP address of a host is given
in the routing table.
hub A central device in a star topology that provides a common connection among the
nodes.
Huffman encoding A statistical compression method using variable-length codes to
encode a set of symbols.
hybrid network A network with a private internet and access to the global Internet.
hybrid-fiber-coaxial (HFC) network The second generation of cable networks; uses
fiber optic and coaxial cable.
HyperText Markup Language (HTML) The computer language for specifying the
contents and format of a web document. It allows additional text to include codes that
define fonts, layouts, embedded graphics, and hypertext links.
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) An application service for retrieving a web
document.

I
inband signaling Using the same channel for data and control transfer.
infrared wave A wave with a frequency between 300 GHz and 400 THz; usually used
for short-range communications.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) A group consisting of
professional engineers which has specialized societies whose committees prepare
standards in members' areas of specialty.
International Organization of Standardization (ISO) A worldwide organization that
defines and develops standards on a variety of topics.
Internet A global internet that uses the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) A group working on the design and
development of the TCP/IP protocol suite and the Intemet.
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) A protocol in the TCP/IP protocol
suite that handles multicasting.
213
Internet Protocol (lP) The network-layer protocol in the TCP/IP protocol suite
governing connectionless transmission across packet switching networks.
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) The current version of Internet ProtocoL
Internet Protocol, version 6 (IPv6) The sixth version of the Internet Protocol.
Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) A forum of working groups focusing on long-
term research topics related to the Internet.
Internet service provider (ISP) Usually, a company that provides Internet services.
intranet A private network that uses the TCP/IP protocol suite.
inverse domain A subdomain in the DNS that finds the domain name given the IP
address.
IP datagram The Internetworking Protocol data unit.

local area network (LAN) A network connecting devices inside a single building or
inside buildings close to each other.

logical address An address defined in the network layer.

M
mail transfer agent (MTA) An SMTP component that transfers the mail across the
Internet.
Manchester encoding A digital-to-digital polar encoding method in which a transition
occurs at the middle of each bit interval to provide synchronization.
metropolitan area network (MAN) A network that can span a geographical area the
size of a city.

modular arithmetic Arithmetic that uses a limited range of integers (0 to n - 1).

modulation Modification of one or more characteristics of a carrier wave by an
information bearing signal.
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multiplexer (MUX) A device used for multiplexing.
multiplexing The process of combining signals from multiple sources for transmission
across a single data link.
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME) A supplement to SMTP that allows
non-ASCII data to be sent through SMTP.

N
name space All the names assigned to machines on an internet.
network A system consisting of connected nodes that share data, hardware, and
software.
network address translation (NAT) A technology that allows a private network to
use a set of private addresses for internal communication and a set of global Internet
addresses for external communication.

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model A seven-layer model for data

communication defined by ISO.
optical carrier (OC) The hierarchy of fiber-optic carriers defined in SONET.
optical fiber A thin thread of glass or other transparent material to carry light beams.

P
packet switching Data transmission using a packet-switched network.
packet-filter firewall A firewall that forwards or blocks packets based on the
information in the network-layer and transport-layer headers.
packet-switched network A network in which data are transmitted in independent
units called packets.
Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) A simple two-step authentication protocol
used in PPP.
215
piggybacking The inclusion of acknowledgment on a data frame.
presentation layer The sixth layer of the OSI model; responsible for translation,
encryption, authentication, and data compression.
privacy A security aspect in which the message makes sense only to the intended
receiver.
private key In conventional encryption, a key shared by only one pair of devices, a
sender and a receiver. In public-key encryption, the private key is known only to the
receiver.
private network A network that is isolated from the Internet.
process A running application program.
process-to-process delivery Delivery of a packet from the sending process to the
destination process.
proxy firewall A firewall that filters a message based on the information available in
the message itself (at the application layer).
proxy server A computer that keeps copies of responses to recent requests.

quality of service (QoS) A set of attributes related to the performance of the

connection.
quantization The assignment of a specific range of values to signal amplitudes.

Real-Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP) An out-of-band control protocol designed to

add more functionality to the streaming audio/video process.
Real-time Transport Control Protocol (RTCP) A companion protocol to RTP with
messages that control the flow and quality of data and allow the recipient to send
feedback to the source or sources.
216
Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) A protocol for real-time traffic; used in
conjunction with UDP.
ring topology A topology in which the devices are connected in a ring. Each device on
the ring receives the data unit from the previous device, regenerates it, and forwards it
to the next device.
RJ45 A coaxial cable connector.
roaming In cellular telephony, the ability of a user to communicate outside of his own
service provider's area.
router An internetworking device operating at the first three layers. A router is attached
to two or more networks and forwards packets from one network to another.

secret-key encryption A security method in which the key for encryption is the same
as the key for decryption; both sender and receiver have the same key.
Secure Socket Layer (SSL) A protocol designed to provide security and compression
services to data generated from the application layer.
server A program that can provide services to other programs, called clients.
signal rate The number of signal elements sent in one second.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) The TCP/IP protocol defining electronic
mail
service on the Internet.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) The TCP/IP protocol that specifies
the process of management in the Internet.
source-to-destination delivery The transmission of a message from the original sender
to the intended recipient.
spectrum The range of frequencies of a signal.
star topology A topology in which all stations are attached to a central device (hub).
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T

TCP/IP protocol suite A five-layer protocol suite that defines the exchange of
transmissions across the Internet.
token A small packet used in token-passing access method.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) A transport protocol in the TCP/IP protocol
suite.
transmission rate The number of bits sent per second.
transport layer The fourth layer in the Internet and OSI model; responsible for reliable
end-to-end delivery and error recovery.

Unicode The international character set used to define valid characters in computer
science.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL) A string of characters (address) that identifies a
page on the World Wide Web.

V
virtual circuit A logical circuit made between the sending and receiving computer.
virtual local area network (VLAN) A technology that divides a physical LAN into
virtual workgroups through software methods.
virtual private network (VPN) A technology that creates a network that is physically
public, but virtually private.

wide area network (WAN) A network that uses a technology that can span a large
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geographical distance.
World Wide Web (WWW) A multimedia Internet service that allows users to traverse
the Internet by moving from one document to another via links that connect them
together.

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