What is Mathematics?

●​ “Mathêma” which means “that which is learnt” derived from the word “manthano” and
modern greek “mathaino” which means “to learn”.
●​ The science the science of structure, order, and relation that has evolved from elemental
practices of counting, measuring, and describing the shapes and characteristic of objects
(Encyclopedia)
●​ Mathematics is the study of pattern and structure.
●​ Mathematics is fundamental to the physical and biological sciences engineering and
information technology, to economics and increasingly to the social sciences.

Characteristics of Mathematics
1.​ Classification generates a series of mental relations through which objects are grouped
according to similarities and differences.
2.​ Logical Sequence - ideas in mathematics need to flow in an order that makes sense.
3.​ Structure- the structure on a particular mathematical set will allow mathematicians to
study the set further and find its relationship with other objects.
4.​ Precision and Accuracy – Accuracy is how close a measured value is to the actual
(true) value. Precision is how close the measured values are to each other.
5.​ Abstractness- is the process of extracting the underlying essence of a mathematical
concept by taking away any dependence on real-world objects.
6.​ Symbolism- This language is uniquely constructed in such a way that all
mathematicians understand symbolic notations and mathematical formulas
7.​ Applicability- The applicability of mathematics can lie anywhere on a spectrum from the
completely simple (trivial) to the utterly complex (mysterious).
8.​ Generalizations – The process of finding and singling out in a whole class of similar
objects.

Nature of Mathematics
1.​ A science of measure – it is an activity that involves interaction with a concrete system
with the aim of representing aspects of that system.
2.​ Intellectual game - mathematics requires visual imagery.
3.​ The art of drawing conclusions Being able to reason is essential to understanding
mathematics.
4.​ A tool subject – mathematics, a highly powerful instrument of investigation.
5.​ A System of logical procedure –Problem solving is a skill which can enhance our
logical reasoning.
6.​ An intuitive method – mathematics also requires the use of intuition, the ability to see
what is reasonable or not and the ability to pull all these together.

Types of Patterns
1.​ SYMMETRY – a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion of balance or an object is
invariant to any various transformations (reflection, rotation or scaling.)
a.​ Bilateral Symmetry: a symmetry in which the left and right sides of the organism
can be divided into approximately mirror image of each other along the midline
 b.​ Radial Symmetry ( or rotational symmetry ): a symmetry around a fixed point
known as the center and it can be classified as either cyclic or dihedral. Plants
often have radial or rotational symmetry, as to flowers and some group of
animals.
2.​ FRACTALS – a curve or geometric figure, each part of which has the same statistical
character as the whole. A fractal is a never-ending pattern found in nature. The exact
same shape is replicated in a process called “self similarity.” The pattern repeats itself
over and over again at different scales. Patterns that build into a simple repetitive shapes
that are reduced in size every time they are repeated.
3.​ SPIRALS - A logarithmic spiral or growth spiral is self-similar spiral curve which often
appears in nature. It was first describe by Rene Descartes and was later investigated by
Jacob Bernoulli. A spiral is a curved pattern that focuses on a center point and a series
of circular shapes that revolve around
4.​ TESSELLATIONS - The tiling of a plane using one or more geometric shapes, called
tiles, with no overlaps and no gaps.
Language
●​ is a system of communication that allows individuals to convey meaning using spoken or
written symbols. It is a fundamental aspect of human society and plays a crucial role in
various aspects of our lives. There are several forms of language, including spoken
language, signed language, and symbolic language.
●​ Spoken, Signed, Symbol

Mathematics language
●​ Uses numbers, operations, sets, matrices, etc. in symbol
●​ A group of expressions conveying a complete thought is a Mathematical Sentence.
Equations are classic examples.
●​ A group of equations is called a system of equations.
●​ Do not exactly use the words "noun", "verb", or "pronoun" but we can picture likeness
such as;
○​ Nouns (fixed things like numbers)
○​ Verbs (is equal to, is greater than, etc.)
○​ Pronouns (could be variables such as x and y)
○​ Adjective (of being prime, even, etc.)
○​ Conjunctions (operations such as +, −, ×, ÷)
●​ is a system used in the field of mathematics to communicate mathematical ideas,
concepts and theories among others.

According to Dr. Burns, “the language of mathematics makes it easy to express the kinds of
thoughts that mathematicians like to express.
It is:
1.​ precise (able to make very fine distinctions);
2.​ concise (able to say things brief);
3.​ powerful (able to express complex thoughts with relative ease).”

Mathematical Convention is a fact, name, notation, or usage which is generally agreed upon
by mathematicians.

Mathematical symbol
a.​ Use to refer to certain qualities, concept ideas and others.
b.​ The math symbols not only refer to different quantities but also represent the relationship
between two quantities. All mathematical symbols are mainly used to perform
mathematical operations under various concepts.

An expression (or mathematical expression)

●​ is a finite combination of symbols that is well-defined according to rules that depend on
the context.
●​ Symbols can designate numbers, variables, operations, functions, brackets,
punctuations, and groupings to help determine order of operations, and other aspects of
mathematical syntax.
 ●​ Expression – correct arrangement of mathematical symbols to represent the object of
interest, does not contain a complete thought, and cannot be determined if it is true or
false.
●​ Some types of expressions are numbers, sets, and functions.

Sentence (or mathematical sentence)

●​ a statement about two expressions, either using numbers, variables, or a combination of
both.
●​ Uses symbols or words like equals, greater than, or less than.
●​ It is a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols that states a complete thought and
can be determined whether it’s true, false, sometimes true/sometimes false.

A mathematical expression (analog of a ‘noun’) defined as a mathematical phrase that

comprises a combination of symbols that can designate numbers (constants), variables,
operations, symbols of grouping and other punctuation.
However, this does not state a complete thought.

A mathematical sentence makes statement about two expressions. The Two expressions
either use numbers, variables, or a combination of both. It uses symbols or words like equals,
greater than, or less than and it states a complete thought.

Types Of Sentences

●​ An open sentence is a sentence that uses variables; thus it is not known whether or not
the mathematical sentence is true or false.
●​ A closed sentence, on the other hand, is a mathematical sentence that is known to be
either true or false.
Set theory is the branch of mathematics that studies sets or the mathematical science of the
infinite.
George Cantor (1845-1918) is a German Mathematician. He is considered as the founder of
set theory as a mathematical discipline.

Set
●​ is a well-defined collection of objects.
●​ The objects are called the elements or members of the set.
●​ Each object belonging to a set is called the element or member of the set.

Roster Method. The elements of the set are enumerated and separated by a comma it is also
called tabulation method. E = {a, e, i, o, u}

Rule Method. A descriptive phrase is used to describe the elements or members of the set it is
also called set builder notation, symbol it is written as {x P(x)}. E = {xx is a collection of vowel
letters}

SOME TERMS ON SETS

●​ Empty set (null set) - set and is denoted by ∅ or { }.
●​ Singleton set (unit set) - set with only one element.
●​ Universal set - set contains all the elements under consideration, denoted by 𝑼.
●​ Finite set - consists of a finite number of elements.
●​ Cardinal number - number of elements or members in the set.

Kinds of set
●​ Subset - A and B are sets, A is called subset of B, if and only if, every element of A is
also an element of B.
●​ Proper Subset - Let A and B be sets. A is a proper subset of B, if and only if, every
element of A is in B but there is at least one element of B that is not in A.
●​ Equal Sets - Given set A and B, A equals B, written, if and only if, every element of A is
in B and every element of B is in A.
●​ Power Set - Given a set S from universe U, the power set of S denoted by (S), is the
collection (or sets) of all subsets of S.

Operations on Sets
●​ Union - The union of A and B, denoted AUB, is the set of all elements x in U such that x
is in A or x is in B.
●​ Intersection - The intersection of A and B, denoted AhB, is the set of all elements x in U
such that x is in A and x is in B.
●​ Complement - The complement of A (or absolute complement of A), denoted A’, is the
set of all elements x in U such that x is not in A.
●​ Difference + The difference of A and B. The set of elements which belong to A but not
to B.
A relation is a set of ordered pairs.

Relation Representation
Table
Graph
Mapping

‎Functions
●​ a relation in which, for each value of the first component of the ordered pairs, there is
exactly one value of the second component.
●​ is a special kind of relation that helps visualize ‎relationships in terms of graphs and make
it easier to ‎interpret different behavior of variables.
●​ a relation in which no two ordered pairs have the same first element.
●​ function associates each element in its domain (x-value) with one and only one element
in its range (y-value).
●​ ‎The domain of the relation 𝑅, denoted by 𝐷(𝑅), is the set of all first coordinates in the
ordered pairs which belong to 𝑅.
●​ The image of the relation 𝑅,denoted by 𝐼(𝑅), is the set of all second coordinates in the
ordered pairs in R.
"binary” – means composed of two
pieces.

Binary Operations
●​ is simply a rule for combining two values to create a new value.
●​ on a set is a calculation involving two elements of the set to produce another element of
the set.

is said to be commutative if 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑦 ∗ 𝑥
is said to be associative if 𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) = (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧
is said to have an identity element if 𝑒 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑥
is said to have an inverse element if 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑒

Formal Logic
✓The science or study of how to evaluate arguments & reasoning.
✓It differentiate correct reasoning from poor reasoning.
✓It is important in sense that it helps us to reason correctly.
✓The methods of reasoning.

Aristotle is generally regarded as the Father of Logic.

The study started in the late 19th century with the development of axiomatic frameworks for
analysis, geometry and arithmetic.

Formality of language is an expression is completely formal when it is context- independent

and precise (i.e. non-fuzzy), that is, it represents a clear distinction which is invariant under
changes of context.

Mathematical logic (or symbolic logic)

●​ is a branch of mathematics with close connections to computer science.
●​ Mathematical study of logic and the applications of formal logic to other areas of
mathematics.
●​ It also study the deductive formal proofs systems and expressive formal systems.
●​ is a statements about mathematical objects that are taken seriously as mathematical
objects in their own right. In mathematical logic, we formulate in a precise mathematical
way its definition, theorem, lemma, conjecture, corollary, propositions and the methods
of proof.

A statement (or proposition)

●​ is a declarative sentence which is either true or false,but not both.

The truth value of the statements is the truth and falsity of the statement.
Major parts of formality in mathematics
1.Definition - is a formal statement of the meaning of a word or group of words and it could
stand alone. Example : Definition of a right triangle.
2. Theorem -is a statement that can be demonstrated to be true by accepted mathematical
operations and arguments. Example: Pythagorean Theorem.
3. Proof - is a rigorous mathematical argument which unequivocally demonstrates the truth of a
given proposition.
●​ Deductive
●​ Inductive
●​ Direct Proof
●​ Indirect Proof
●​ Proof by Counterexample
●​ Proof by Contradiction
4. Proposition is a declarative statement that is true or false but not both.
●​ Negation (~ not)) reverse the true value.
●​ Conjunction (^ and) the 2 statements must be true to be true
●​ Disjunction (↓ or) it will only be false if all of them is false other wise true
●​ Conditional (→ if then) if bothe false then true, true to false is false and false to true is
tru
●​ Biconditional (←→ if and only if) iboth true or both false then tru

5. Corollary - it is also a proposition that follows with disprove or no proof required from one
already proven. Examples: the angles opposite two congruent sides of a triangle are
also congruent. A corollary to that statement is that an equilateral triangle is also equiangular.
6. Lemma -it can also be considered as a theorem. The only difference of a lemma into a
theorem is that lemma is a short theorem used in proving a larger theorem.
7. Conjecture - It is synonymous or identical with hypothesis also known as educated guess.
We can only disprove the truthfulness of a conjecture when after using a counterexample we
found at least one that says the statement is false.

Propositional Variable - A variable which used to represent a statement

Logical connectives - are used to combine simple statements which are referred as compound
statements.
compound statement is a statement composed of two or more simple statements connected
by logical connectives
A statement which is not compound is said to be simple(also called atomic)

Kinds of Proof
Direct Proof is a sequence of statements which are either given or deductions fi previous
statements, and whose last statem is the conclusion to be proven.
Two-Column Proof or Formal proof A kind of proof in which the statements (conclusions) are
listed in one column, and the reasons for each statement's truth are listed in another column.
Identical in content, but different in form, from a paragraph proof.
Indirect Proof is a method of reasoning usually written in paragraph form. The opposite of the
statement to be proven is assumed true until assumption leads to contradiction.
Paragraph Proof or Informal A kind of proof in which the steps are written out in complete
sentences, in paragraph form. Identical in content, but different in form, from a two-column
proof.
Proof by counterexample A counterexample is a specific instance for which a given statement
is false. In formal logic, a statement is "false" if it is not true in every single circumstance. Even if
it is usually true or sometimes true, it is false.
Proof by contradiction is a way of proving something true by first assuming the opposite is
true. Then, you follow a logical process and, if you end up with something that doesn't make
sense or contradicts itself, it means your assumption was wrong. So, the original statement
must be true.

Kinds of Proof
1. Inductive Reasoning
●​ is the process of using examples and observations to reach a conclusion.
●​ It derives general principles from specific observations.
●​ uses a collection of specific instances as premises and uses them to propose a general
conclusion.
●​ This involves searching for patterns and making generalization. In short specific to
general.
●​ Types of inductive reasoning includes the use of visual pattern, number patterns and
conjectures.
●​ In inductive reasoning, conclusion is not guaranteed to be true if the premises are true
●​ is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific examples.

2. Deductive reasoning
●​ is a logical approach where you progressed from general ideas to specific conclusions.
●​ Deductive reasoning: uses a collection of general statements as premises and uses
them to propose a specific conclusion.
●​ It uses syllogism ( major, minor premis & conclusion)
●​ Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general
assumptions, procedures, or principles.

Problem solving
●​ the process of finding solutions to complex or difficult issues by applying mathematical
concepts, strategies, and logical reasoning.
●​ a process in which real-world problems are being solved using mathematical techniques
●​ refers to mathematical tasks that have potential to provide intellectual challenges for
enhancing students' mathematical understanding and development
●​ to solve a real-world problem, it has to be constructed such that it can be expressed
using mathematics (modelling)
●​ the act of defining a problem; determining the cause of the problem; identifying,
prioritizing, and selecting alternatives for a solution; and implementing a solution.
George Pólya
●​ "The Father of Problem Solving"- Hungarian mathematician
●​ made fundamental contributions to combinatorics, number theory, numerical analysis
and probability theory. He is also noted for his work in heuristics and mathematics
education.
●​ published the book How To Solve It.

Heuristic (Greek: "find" or "discover") refers to experience based techniques for problem
solving, learning, and discovery that gives a solution which is not guaranteed to
be optimal.
●​ Where an exhaustive search is impractical, heuristic methods are used to speed up the
process of finding a satisfactory solution via mental shortcuts.
●​ Examples of this method include using a rule of thumb, an educated guess, an intuitive
judgment, stereotyping, or common sense.

Polya’s problem solving techniques (UPS✓)

●​ Understand the problem
●​ Devise a plan
●​ Carry out the plan
●​ Look back