STUDY GUIDE FOR

PHILOSOPHY FINAL EXAM,

January 27 2025, 9:00 am
DEAR STUDENTS,

THIS STUDY GUIDE WILL HELP YOU STUDY FOR THE TEST EFFICIENTLY.

PLEASE GO THROUGH IT CAREFULLY, READ IT ALL, AND IN CASE YOU HAVE ANY
QUESTIONS, PLEASE EMAIL US TO SET UP A CONSULTATION!!

SINCERELY,

MR. D. PEEV & MS. N. GEORGIEVA

 TYPES OF QUESTIONS ON THE TEST:

• MULTIPLE CHOICE
• TRUE OR FALSE
• OPEN ANSWERS
• MATCHING
• MIXED QUESTIONS
• THOUGHT EXPERIMENT ANALYSIS

THE TEST WILL BE 20% YOUR PHILOSOPHY GRADE FOR THE FIRST SEMESTER.
WE BELIEVE YOU WILL DO GREAT ON IT!
 WHAT MATERIAL WILL THE TEST
COVER?

• Pre-socratics
• Plato - Allegory of the Cave
• Descartes - Dream and Evil Genius
Argument, dualism
• Aristotle - 4 causes
• Spinoza and Leibnitz
• Proofs for God’s existence
 Philosopher Polis Arché Notes

Thales Miletus water Considered the first philosopher

Anaximander Miletus apeiron (boundless, There is a cosmic order, with necessary laws that govern what
indefinite) comes into being and what passes out of being. The processes
of motion and change are eternal because they are grounded in
what is eternal.

Anaximenes Miletus air Anaximenes believed that the basic stuff was air, and that air
could become any of the other elements (fire, water, and earth)
through processes of condensation and rarefaction. As air
becomes rarefied it is transformed into fire; as it becomes more
dense it first become water and, if the process continues, is
transformed into earth.

Heraclitus Ephesus fire “it is not possible to step twice into the same river.”
Nature is governed by what he calls the Logos (divine order). He
believed that the constant change in nature is the expression of
an underlying order. The change gives things their identity

Pythagoras Samos number Noticed that mathematics and music have a lot in common

Parmenides Elea being (the One) What has reality either is or is not. It is not possible to make
sense of any kind of change without positing the reality of
nonbeing.
 Philosopher Polis Arché Notes

Democritus Abdera atom Democritus believed there was an indefinitely large number
of atoms and also different types of atoms in size, shape, and
location. Atoms have always been in motion and continue to
move in a particular direction until they collide with other
atoms. When such collisions take place, atoms sometimes
interlock with other atoms. The resulting combinations
produce what we call physical objects, which persist until they
are struck by other atoms in ways that cause them to
separate.

Empedocles Sicily water, air, fire, earth The proportions of the elements in everyday objects change
constantly. According to Empedocles some objects have an
affinity for others, and objects come together and fall apart
due to the influence of two great principles: love and strife.

Anaxagoras Clazomenae Nous (Mind) The mixing and unmixing is caused by a great vortex
that operates continually, and the swirling gives off,
separates, and mixes the seeds of things. However, the
ultimate cause of the vortex itself is Mind (Nous in Greek).
Anaxagoras thus clearly distinguishes the material world and
Mind, and makes the latter to be the ultimate or final
explanation of the behavior of the former.
 Cosmos vs Universe

The Ancient Cosmos (Greek kosmos – order, world-order)

The Cosmos is unified, finite, visible, and thus observable. The concept of the Ancient Cosmos is
the opposite of the concept of the Universe, which is infinite (in space and time) and so vast that we
cannot see and observe most of it.
The Cosmos is alive since it envelopes the whole being. Because it is undivided, it is conceived to
be a sphere. It changes by itself but remains the same just like any other living thing having a body
full of energy. The Cosmos is also a sustainable and proportionate being, which entails that it is a
harmonious wholeness of its parts.
Cosmos is harmony – It is a perfect, eternal harmonious present. It is not temporary and
incomplete. It reflects the natural and as a consequence the Cosmos is the moral and aesthetical
model.
Cosmos is knowable, understandable and comprehensible.
 Plato
According to the Allegory of the Cave, there are two worlds:
The Realm/World of Matter, where we are trapped, and
The Realm/World of Ideas (Forms), home of truth

Eidos and ideos, which means “ideas, now is translated as “form” in the
sense of a perfect pattern, model, or blueprint.
The Ideas/Forms are immaterial. They are also intelligible (we know them
through our souls/minds. Additionally, knowledge of the Forms is acquired
through intuitive recollection (that is why the Socratic dialogue is named
midwifery).
 Aristotle - the 4 metaphysical causes and
teleology
The concept of telos - everything exists with a purpose. For example, the telos
(purpose) of a seed is it to become a tree.

No Principles Example – house Example - book

1 Matter Wood Language, words Paper for the pages

and leather for the
cover
2 Form Conception of the The idea/the message to be The shape of the
house sent/written book
the pure conception

3 Efficient cause The builder Writer (student, professional The typographer

writer, professor)
induces the becoming of matter to form
Represented by the work of a person
4 End (purpose or telos) The actual house The book itself as a message The book as a
to the reader physical object
SUBSTANCE THEORIES.

WHAT EXAMPLES OF EACH DO YOU

KNOW?
Why am I certain that I exist? (Descartes)

I am certain that because I think, I exist. It is impossible that any one should think and yet not
exist. I am, therefore, essentially a thinking being, i.e., mind soul, intelligence, reason. We see clearly
that we can think ourselves to be without everything that belongs to us, except only for thought.
From this is readily deduced the universal criterion of certainty in knowledge; every thing is
certain which I perceive clearly and evidently to be true, which my reason apprehends as true with
same irresistible clearness as this cogito ergo sum.
Thought is my substance.
This rule, however, is only a principle of certainty; it affords no knowledge of the truth
itself.
Cartesian dualism

Descartes has a dualistic view of the world because he conceives world as being made from two
substances – matter (extension) and mind (thought).
The body (res extensa) is a perfected machine. It is only the indwelling thought which distinguishes
this machine from every other; hence brutes which are not self-conscious must be ranked with all
other machines.
Within this body the soul (res cogitans) dwells, not in the whole brain but the pineal gland. The proof
for this assumption, that the pineal gland is the only place where the soul immediately exhibits its
energy, is found in the circumstance that all other parts of the brain are twofold, which should not be
the case in an organ where the soul has its seat, since such a structure would cause the soul to
perceive two objects instead of one.
Body and soul are independent substances, each essentially opposed to the other, they cannot
interpenetrate each other, and even of forcibly brought together can touch only at one point.
Baruch Spinoza
Substance
Substance is that which needs nothing other for its existence.
According to Spinoza, the plurality of substances which Descartes assumed is necessarily a
contradiction. Only one absolute infinite substance can exist. These are its characteristics:
1.1.1. The absolute substance is rather the real cause of each and every existence;
1.1.2. it alone is actual, unconditioned being;
1.1.3. it is the sole power of being from which every finite thing derives its existence;
1.1.4. without it there is nothing, with it every thing;
1.1.5. in it is comprehended all reality, since beside it there can be no self-subsistent being;
1.1.6. it is not only the cause of all being, but is itself all being.
All particular existence is only a modification of the universal substance itself, which by virtue
of an inner necessity expands its own infinite reality into an equally infinite quantity of being which
includes within itself all conceivable forms of existence.
This single substance Spinoza calls God - the conception of an individual spiritual personality. The
world is not a product of the divine will, coexistent with God and free, but an emanation of the divine
nature according to his infinite creative essence.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz
Monads are individual substances. They are the Characteristics of the monad
elements of all reality, the basis of the whole universe, i. not dead
physical as well as spiritual. They are similar to ii. not mere extended substance
atoms. iii. self-subsistent and self-identical
Comparison between atoms and monads iv. determined by nothing external
1.1.1. Similarities v. in each monad consists of what is occurring,
• punctual units has occurred, or will occur in the universe
• independent of any external influence vi. they are vital and possess vital connection
• indestructible by any external power with the rest of the world
1.1.2. Differences vii. the life of the monads consists in a
• atoms are not distinguished from each other, continuous succession of perceptions
they are all qualitatively alike; but each one of viii. the monads proceed from perception to
the monads is different in quality from every perception
other, every one is a world for itself. ix. every monad is a soul
• atoms are extended and divisible, but the x. in this consists the perfection of the world
monads are metaphysical points, and actually
indivisible.
• the monad is a living, sensitive being, a soul.
 PROOFS FOR GOD’S EXISTENCE
Type Argument Comment

God is defined as “The Greatest Possible Being.”

The Greatest Possible Being must have every quality that would
make it greater (or more superior) than it would be otherwise.
Ontological Having the quality of real existence is greater than having the Perfection necessarily requires God's
quality of imaginary existence existence.
Therefore, the Greatest Possible Being must have the quality of
real existence.

Some things exist and their existence is caused.

Whatever is caused to exist is caused to exist by something else.
Cosmological
An infinite series of simultaneous causes resulting in the existence Everything has a cause.
of a particular thing is impossible.
Therefore, there is a first cause of whatever exists.

Nature possesses functional complexity.

The world works as a well-designed
Teleological This complexity works according to an intelligent design.
clock.
Therefore, nature has to be created by an intelligent agent (God).

If morality is objective and absolute, God must exist.

If God does not exist, everything is
Moral Morality is objective and absolute.
permissible.
Therefore, God must exist.
 THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS ANALYSIS
Below you will find 2 thought experiments to prepare for one of the open questions
on the FInal exam.
Here is the rubric according to which we will grade your answers:
1. Introduction and Thesis Statement - 6 points;
2. Content Knowledge and Accuracy - 6 points;
3. Ideas and Analysis - 6 points;
4. Organization - 6 points;
5. Style and Grammar - 6 points.

The requirements for the content’s minimum are as follows:

● 400-450 words
● Introduction: two sentences with a thesis statement
● Body of a minimum of two paragraphs as appropriate
● Conclusion of one-two sentences
● At least three pieces of evidence to support an opinion/argument
● Where applicable include evidence for a counter argument
 6-5 4-3 2-1 0

Introduction and The introduction defines the terms The introduction defines most of The introduction defines some The introduction fails to define
Thesis Statement and the scope of the question in a the terms and the scope of the of the terms and partially the the terms and the scope of the
concise manner. The thesis question in general. The thesis scope of the question. The question or is missing. The
statement is precisely stated and is statement is stated and is thesis statement is stated and thesis is not related to the
sharply focused on the question, focused on the question. It is somehow related to the question or missing.
making it susceptible to effective represents a point of view and question. It attempts a point of
treatment within the word limit. It outlines the path of the answer. view and an outline of the path
represents a clear point of view and of the answer.
outlines the path of the answer.
Content Knowledge Student demonstrates excellent Student demonstrates very good Student demonstrates some Student demonstrates limited
and Accuracy knowledge of the content with knowledge of the content with knowledge of the content and knowledge of the content
detailed explanations and explanations and elaboration. attempts explanations and without explanations and
elaboration. Various pieces of quantitative elaboration. elaboration.
Sufficient pieces of quantitative and and qualitative evidence are Some of the pieces of The pieces of evidence used
qualitative evidence are used to used to support the students' evidence used to support the to support the students'
support the students' argument and argument and most of them are students' argument are argument are irrelevant/
are relevant, correct, and specific. relevant, correct, and specific. relevant and correct but may incorrect/missing. No counter
Some pieces of evidence are used One piece of evidence is used to be not specific enough. No argument evidence provided.
to support the counterargument if support the counterargument if counter argument evidence even if the topic requires it.
the topic requires it. the topic requires it. provided.
even if the topic requires it.

Ideas and Analysis Ideas are clearly expressed, relevant Ideas are mostly relevant but Some of the ideas are relevant Few of the ideas are relevant
to both the question and the thesis, need clarification. They are and valid. They need focus but are vaguely supported or
and are supported by thorough and supported by valid analysis but and clarification. Some critical unsupported. The paragraph
substantiated analysis. The not always used consistently. commentary is introduced. offers only a narrative.
paragraph consistently The paragraph demonstrates The paragraph demonstrates
demonstrates critical thinking rather more critical thinking than a some critical thinking.
than a narrative. simple narrative.
 6-5 4-3 2-1 0

Organization Information is coherently organized Information is organized in the Information is organized in Information is organized in
in the required number of required number of paragraphs fewer of the required number one paragraph without a
paragraphs. with few lapses in the natural of paragraphs. A natural flow well-distinguished topic
Paragraphs relate naturally to each flow. Student has relevant topic is attempted. Some of the sentence and conclusion.
other. Student has strong and clear sentences and conclusion topic sentences/conclusion There is no clear connection
topic sentences and conclusion sentences of most paragraphs. sentences are missing. There between the conclusion
sentences of each paragraph which Conclusion derives its essence are lapses between the paragraph and the presented
exhausts the specific claim to the from most of the presented conclusion and the presented ideas.
fullest. Conclusion derives its ideas. ideas.
essence from all of the presented
ideas.
Style and Grammar The paragraph demonstrates The paragraph demonstrates The paragraph demonstrates The paragraph demonstrates
excellent academic style and good academic style and only an attempt of good a lack of good academic
well-crafted sentences with a well-crafted sentences. The academic style. style. Capitalization,
variety of sentence structures. couple of grammatical mistakes Capitalization, punctuation, punctuation, and grammar
Capitalization and punctuation are do not impede the reader's and grammatical mistakes are incorrect throughout most
correct throughout. There are no understanding. Capitalization are numerous but still not of the paragraph and impede
grammatical mistakes. and punctuation are correct impede the reader's reader’s understanding.
throughout most of the understanding.
paragraph.
 Living in a vat
Ever since the accident, Brian had lived in a vat. His body was crushed, but quick work by
the surgeons had managed to salvage his brain. This procedure was now carried out
whenever possible, so that the brain could be put back into a body once a suitable donor
had been found. But because fewer brains than bodies terminally fail, the waiting list for
new bodies had got intolerably long. To destroy the brains, however, was deemed ethically
unacceptable. The solution came in the form of a remarkable supercomputer from China,
Mai Trikks. Through electrodes attached to the brain, the computer could feed the brain
stimuli which gave it the illusion that it was in a living body, inhabiting the real world. In
Brian’s case, that meant he woke up one day in a hospital bed to be told about the
accident and the successful body transplant. He then went on to live a normal life. All the
time, however, he was really no more than his old brain, kept alive in a vat, wired up to a
computer. Brian had no more or less reason to think he was living in the real world than
you or I. How could he – or we – ever know differently?
Sources: The first meditation from Meditations by René Descartes (1641); chapter 1 o f Reason, Truth, and History by Hilary Putnam
(Cambridge University Press, 1982); The Matrix, directed by Larry and Andy Wachowski (1999); Nick Bostrum’s Simulation argument,
www.simulation-argument.com

Baggini, Julian “The Pig That Wants to Be Eaten And ninety-nine other thought experiments”, Granta Publications, London, 2010
Pascal’s Wager

“God is, or He is not.” But to which side shall we incline? Reason can decide nothing here.
There is an infinite chaos which separated us. A game is being played at the extremity of
this infinite distance where heads or tails will turn up… Which will you choose then? Let
us see. Since you must choose, let us see which interests you least. You have two things to
lose, the true and the good; and two things to stake, your reason and your will, your
knowledge and your happiness; and your nature has two things to shun, error and misery.
Your reason is no more shocked in choosing one rather than the other, since you must of
necessity choose… But your happiness? Let us weigh the gain and the loss in wagering
that God is… If you gain, you gain all; if you lose, you lose nothing. Wager, then, without
hesitation that He is.
Do not forget to seek us out if you have
questions during consultations!

GOOD LUCK!