The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer networking.

It
stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core
protocols of the Internet. This model defines how data is transmitted over
networks, ensuring reliable communication between devices.
It consists of four layers: the Link Layer, the Internet Layer, the Transport
Layer, and the Application Layer.
Each layer has specific functions that help manage different aspects of
network communication, making it essential for understanding and working
with modern networks.
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD)in
the 1970s and is based on standard protocols.
TCP/IP model was developed alongside the creation of the ARPANET, which
later became the foundation of the modern internet.
What Does TCP/IP Do?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from
one device to another.
The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate
so that the receiver will receive the same information which is sent by the
sender.
To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination accurately, the
TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and combines them at the other
end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while transferring
from one end to another end.
The TCP/IP model is used in the context of the real-world internet,
where a wide range of physical media and network technologies are in use.
Difference Between TCP and IP
Feature TCP (Transmission IP (Internet Protocol)
Control Protocol)
Purpose Ensures reliable, ordered, Provides addressing and
and error-checked delivery routing of packets across
of data between networks.
applications.
Type Connection-oriented Connectionless
Function Manages data transmission Routes packets of data
between devices, ensuring from the source to the
data integrity and order. destination based on IP
addresses.
Error Handling Yes, includes error No, IP itself does not
checking and recovery handle errors; relies on
mechanisms. upper-layer protocols like
TCP.
Flow Control Yes, includes flow control No
mechanisms.
Congestion Control Yes, manages network No
congestion.
Data Segmentation Breaks data into smaller Breaks data into packets
packets and reassembles but does not handle
them at the destination. reassembly.
Header Size Larger, 20-60 bytes Smaller, typically 20 bytes
Reliability Provides reliable data Does not guarantee
transfer delivery, reliability, or
order.
Transmission Yes, acknowledges receipt No
Acknowledgment of data packets.

How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?

Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP
Model, the TCP/IP Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and
the same packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to form the same
data, and this thing happens to maintain the accuracy of the data. TCP/IP
model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data first go into
this layer in one order and again in reverse order to get organized in the same
way at the receiver’s end.
Layers of TCP/IP Model
 Application Layer
 Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
 Network/Internet Layer(IP)
 Network Access Layer
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:

1. Network Access Layer

The Network Access Layer represents a collection of applications that require
network communication. This layer is responsible for generating data and
initiating connection requests.
It operates on behalf of the sender to manage data transmission, while the
Network Access layer on the receiver’s end processes and manages incoming
data.
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by
network access layer.Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by
this layer.
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are
two examples of data-link layer protocols.
2. Internet or Network Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the
protocols which are responsible for the logical transmission of data over
the entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP:IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for
delivering packets from the source host to the destination host by
looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions:
IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using
currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is
limited in number when compared to the number of users.
 ICMP:ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is
encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible for providing
hosts with information about network problems.
 ARP:ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find
the hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has
several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and
Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set
of protocols that define the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for
routing packets of data from one device to another across a network. It does
this by assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to identify the
device and determine the route that packets should take to reach it.
3. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments
and retransmit missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and
without error. End-to-end communication is referred to as such. Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer
protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as
though they were physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits
data in a way that resembles character-by-character transmission
rather than separate packets. A starting point that establishes the
connection, the whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point
that closes the connection make up this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP , the other
transport layer protocol. Connections between receiving and sending
hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that transport little
amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it eliminates the
processes of establishing and validating connections.
4. Application Layer
The Application Layer in the TCP/IP model combines the functions of three
layers from the OSI model: the Application, Presentation,
and Session layers.
It is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of data.
It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of data. The three
main protocols present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS:HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol.
It is used by the World Wide Web to manage communications
between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-
Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer).
 It is efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign
in, authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.
 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations
software similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is preferred is because of
its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure
session over a TCP/IP connection.
 NTP:NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to
synchronize the clocks on our computer to one standard time
source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions. Assume
the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you
carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30
PM while the server records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very
badly if it’s out of sync.
Advantages of TCP/IP Model
 Interoperability : The TCP/IP model allows different types of
computers and networks to communicate with each other, promoting
compatibility and cooperation among diverse systems.
 Scalability : TCP/IP is highly scalable, making it suitable for both
small and large networks, from local area networks (LANs) to wide
area networks (WANs) like the internet.
 Standardization : It is based on open standards and protocols,
ensuring that different devices and software can work together
without compatibility issues.
 Flexibility : The model supports various routing protocols, data
types, and communication methods, making it adaptable to different
networking needs.
 Reliability : TCP/IP includes error-checking and retransmission
features that ensure reliable data transfer, even over long distances
and through various network conditions.
Disadvantages of TCP/IP Model
 Complex Configuration : Setting up and managing a TCP/IP
network can be complex, especially for large networks with many
devices. This complexity can lead to configuration errors.
 Security Concerns : TCP/IP was not originally designed with
security in mind. While there are now many security protocols
available (such as SSL/TLS), they have been added on top of the
basic TCP/IP model, which can lead to vulnerabilities.
 Inefficiency for Small Networks : For very small networks, the
overhead and complexity of the TCP/IP model may be unnecessary
and inefficient compared to simpler networking protocols.
 Limited by Address Space : Although IPv6 addresses this issue, the
older IPv4 system has a limited address space, which can lead to
issues with address exhaustion in larger networks.
 Data Overhead : TCP, the transport protocol, includes a significant
amount of overhead to ensure reliable transmission. This can reduce
efficiency, especially for small data packets or in networks where
speed is crucial.
Transmission media is the physical medium through which data is transmitted
from one device to another within a network. These media can
be wired or wireless. The choice of medium depends on factors like distance,
speed, and interference.
What is Transmission Media in Computer Networks?
A transmission media is a physical path between the transmitter and the
receiver i.e. it is the path along which data is sent from one device to
another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:

Types of Transmission Media

1. Guided Media
Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.
Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by
using physical links.
Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
Twisted Pair Cable
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires twisted about each other.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They
are the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):UTP consists of two insulated
copper wires twisted around one another. This type of cable has the
ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield
for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Unshielded Twisted Pair

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

 Least expensive
 Easy to install
 High-speed capacity
Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair
 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Shielded Twisted Pair

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable consists of
a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil shield) to block external
interference. It is used in fast data rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels
of telephone lines.
Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
 Eliminates crosstalk
 Comparatively faster
Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
 Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
 More expensive
 Bulky
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer
made of PVC or Teflon and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate
insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two
modes:
Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband
mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges).
Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages of Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cables has high bandwidth .
 It is easy to install.
 Coaxial cables are more reliable and durable.
 Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.
 Coaxial cables support multiple channels
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cables are expensive.
 The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.
 As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.
 There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-
joint” by hackers, this compromises the security of the data.
Optical Fiber Cable
Optical Fibre Cable uses the concept of total internal reflection of light
through a core made up of glass.
The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the
coating.
It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional.
The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely
unidirectional and bidirectional mode.
Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Lightweight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
Applications of Optical Fibre Cable
 Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
 Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
 For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet
cables.
 Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures
in designing the interior and exterior of automobiles.