AIRCRAFT PROPULSION

GAS TURBINE ENGINE CLASSIFICATION

ENGINE CONFUGURATION
COMPRESSOR
COMBUSTION
AFTERBURNER
NOZZLE

pg. 1
0. GAS TURBINE CLASSIFICATION

NON AIR- AIR-BREATAHING

BREATHING ENGINES
ENGINES

SOLID RECIPROCATING JET PROPULSION

PROPELLAN LIQUID ENGINE ENGINES
T PROPELLANT
GAS TURBO- TURBO-
SCRAMJET RAMJET PULSEJET
TURBINE RAMJET ROCKET

TURBOFAN

TURBOJET

TURBO-
PROP

TURBO-
SHAFT

0.1. TURBOJET: This is the earliest type of jet engines. In

this type of engine, mass flow is injected into the
engine through an inlet and compressed by the
compressors. This high-compressed mass flow is then
combusted in a combustion chamber. This produces hot
exhaust gas that is expanded though the turbines to
create higher velocity. The exhaust gas leave the nozzle
at high velocity, generating thrust.

0.2. TUROFAN: This is similar to the turbojet, but differs in

that a large ducted fan splits the airflow at the intake.
The primary stream travels through the core engine like a
turbojet engine, but the secondary airstream (cold air)
is “bypassed” around the core engine and is ducted
through the nozzle, mixing with the hot exhaust from the
core engine, thereby increasing thrust.

pg. 2
0.3. TURBOPROP: This type of engine is optimized to produce
rotating shaft power to drive a propeller, which
generates thrust.

0.4. TURBOSHAFT: This is used in powering helicopters. It is

similar to the turboprop, but differs in that it produced
shaft power to drive a rotor.

0.5. RAMJET: This varies from other jet engines. One major
difference is the lack of rotating machinery (a turbine
or compressor). Ramjets require the forward motion of the
engine to provide air for combustion. Air is fed directly
into the combustor, and the exhaust gas is directly fed
to a nozzle. They are commonly used in missiles and
military aircraft. Ramjets are useless at low speeds.

pg. 3
 Ramjet

0.6. SCRAMJET: Scramjet is an acronym for supersonic

combustion ramjet. The scramjet differs from the ramjet
in that combustion occurs at supersonic speed. Ramjets
employ static diffusers which converts the high velocity
of air approaching the intake into high pressure required
for combustion, whilst the scramjet draws in air at
supersonic speed and utilize special combustion chambers
to combust the airflow. Projections for the top speed of
a scramjet engine range from Mach 12 and Mach 24.
Hydrogen is the normal fuel used.

FACTORS AFFECTING THRUST

 Jet Nozzle: The outlet area and pressure of the exhaust
nozzle affect net thrust generated.
 Airspeed/approach speed: An increase in airspeed reduces
thrust.
 Mass airflow: This is the most significant parameter in the
thrust equation. It is dependent on temperature and

pg. 4
 pressure as both determine the density of air entering the
engine.
 Altitude: As altitude increases, air becomes less dense,
i.e. there are fewer air molecules available for the engine
to ingest and accelerate. This reduction in mass flow
results in lower thrust output.
 Ram effect: The movement of the aircraft relative to the
outside air causes air to be rammed into the inlet duct.
Ram effect increases the airflow to the engine, which in
turn means more gross thrust. Ram effect combines two
factors: increasing airspeed and the pressure of the air.

ENGINE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

The performance of an engine may be criticized by its ability to
provide the necessary thrust force needed in propelling the
aircraft efficiently. These parameters include:
 Propulsive efficiency: This is the conversion of kinetic
energy of air as it passes through the engine into
propulsive power.
 Thermal efficiency: This is the efficiency of energy
conversion in the powerplant itself. It is considered as
the internal efficiency.
 Propeller efficiency: This applies to turboprop engines.
Propeller efficiency is the ratio of the thrust power
generated by the propeller to the shaft power.
 Aircraft range
 Fuel consumption
 Takeoff thrust: This defines the ability of an aeroengine
to provide a static and low-speed thrust that enables an
aircraft to take off under its own power. Both ramjet and
scramjets, however, are not self-accelerating propulsion
systems from static conditions, i.e. they require
acceleration to an appreciable velocity by a boost system
(a carrier aircraft) before they are capable of providing
thrust.
 Overall efficiency: This is the product of propulsive and
thermal efficiency.

pg. 5
1. COMPRESSOR
A compressor is responsible for increasing pressure and
temperature of air from the intake before it enters the
combustion chamber.
Classification of compressors:
a. Centrifugal compressor
b. Axial compressor
c. Mixed flow

1.1. CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

This is used in smaller jet engines due to its compact design
and ability to handle high pressure ratio. A compressor is
centrifugal when the flow of air through the compressor is
turned perpendicular to the axis of rotation. Hence, airflow is
compressed radially.

A centrifugal compressor is composed of three main elements: the

rotating impeller, the stationary diffuser and the manifold.
 THE IMPELLER: The impeller scoops in the working fluid
(Air) and accelerates the air, thereby drawing kinetic

pg. 6
 energy from it. The forces exerted on the incoming air are
centripetal. The impeller vanes are aligned radially and
are curved near the tip.
 DIFFUSER: The diffuser represents the fixed structure of
the compressor. It discharges air from the impeller with
high velocity and reduces its kinetic energy, increasing
the static pressure. The diffuser decelerates the flow of
air leaving the impeller. The diffuser must me designed to
minimize flow separation which leads to pressure loss. A
diffuser can be vanned or vaneless.

 DISCHARGE SYSTEM (MANIFOLD): The pressurized flow exits the

diffuser and is discharged into the combustion chamber.
Several compressors use U-shaped passage to turn the flow
from radially outward to radially inward, and then to axial
direction for transmission to the inlet of the next stage.

1.1.0. ADVANTAGES OF CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS OVER AXIAL

COMPRESSORS
 Higher stage pressure ratio
 Simplicity and ruggedness of construction
 Cheaper to manufacture
 Shorter length for overall smaller ratio
 It can accept rapid change of inlet mass flow
 Lesser number of blades per stage

1.2. AXIAL COMPRESSOR

In axial flow compressor, air flows parallel to the axis of
rotation. Axial compressors have a higher mass flow capacity and
higher efficiency than centrifugal compressor. They are widely
used in commercial airlines.
A typical axial compressor consists of a series of rotating
“rotor” blades followed by a stationary “stator” set of blades
that are concentric with the axis of rotation. The vanes are
flat in section. Each pair of rotors and stators is referred to
as a STAGE. Air is accelerated in the rotor and then diffused in
the stator, to obtain a pressure increase.

pg. 7
It is important to note that axial compressor is sensitive to
flow disruption, such as unsteady flow or foreign object damage
which leads to compressor stall, reduced performance and
increased vibrations.

1.2.0. ADVANTAGES OF AXIAL COMPRESSOR OVER CENTRIFUGAL

COMPRESSOR
 Smaller frontal area for given mass flow, thus, the nacelle
housing the engine is smaller.
 Much greater mass flow rates. Present day axial compressors
have mass flow rates up to 200kg/s while centrifugal
compressors have mass flow rates less than 100kg/s.
 Higher efficiency/lower fuel consumption.
 Higher pressure ratios

1.2.1. DISADVANTAGES OF AXIAL COMPRESSOR

 Complex design and manufacturing
 Sensitivity to flow disruption
 Limited operating range
 Sensitivity to aerodynamic stall: The blade angles in axial
compressors are critical for efficient operation. If the
flow angle exceeds a certain limit, the blades can be
stall, leading to a significant drop in performance and
potentially damaging the compressor.
 Higher cost

1.2.2. STALL IN COMPRESSORS

Stall is a situation of abnormal airflow through single or
multiple stages of the compressor. Stall results in loss of
engine power. The factors that cause stall include

pg. 8
  Engine over-speed
 Engine operation outside specified engineering parameters
 Turbulent or disrupted airflow to the intake
 Contaminated or damaged engine components
Methods to control stall include:
 Multi-spool compressor configuration
 Variable stators
 Air bleed: The bleeding of air downstream of a stalled
stage will allow the flow to increase ahead of the bleed
location. This increase in airflow will in turn result in a
reduction of the rotor incidence and unstall the blade.

2. COMBUSTION CHAMBER
Classification of combustion chambers:
 Subsonic combustors: Here, combustion occurs at subsonic
speed, i.e. air leaves the compressor at 150m\s or Mach
numbers less than unity. (Mach 0.3- Mach 0.5). It is
divided into axial flow, reverse flow and cyclone
combustors. Subsonic combustors have three zones:
a. A recirculation zone,
b. A burning zone and
c. A dilution zone.
 Supersonic combustors: These exist in scramjet engines.
Incomplete combustion occurs in the scramjet due to short
flow time available for combustion.

TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER

 Multiple/Can/Tubular combustion chamber
 Annular combustion chamber
 Cannular/Turbo-annular combustion chamber

2.1.0. MULTIPLE/CAN/TUBULAR COMBUSTION CHAMBER

Here, there are separate combustion chambers called ‘cans’
around the shaft connecting the compressor and the turbines.
Each chamber is connected via interconnectors. Each ‘can’ has
its own fuel injector, igniter, liner and casing. Modern
multiple/can combustion chambers are used in turboshaft engines
with centrifugal compressors. The compressor delivering mass
flow is directed by ducts to the individual chambers.

pg. 9
 2.1.0. ADVANTAGES OF TUBULAR TYPE COMBUSTOR
 Improved flame stability: Individual chambers are designed
for optimal flame stabilization.
 Easy replacement for maintenance.
 Mechanically robust
 Fuel flow and airflow patterns are easily matched.
 Least susceptible to light round (‘light-round’ refers to
the process of flame propagation from one burner to the
next). The individual chambers reduce the risk of rapid
flame propagation between them.

2.1.1. DISADVANTAGES OF TUBULAR TYPE COMBUSTOR

 Requires interconnectors.
 Less efficient cooling: Tubular combustors have more wall
area, requiring more cooling airflow, which reduces airflow
available for combustion.
 Bulky and heavy.
 High pressure loss
 Large frontal area.

2.2.0. CANNULAR/TURBO-ANNULAR COMBUSTION CHAMBER

This consists of a series of cylindrical burners arranged in a
common single annular. It bridges the gap between multiple and
annular type combustion chambers. Combustion occurs
independently in each ‘can’ and each ‘can’ share a common ring
casing (annulus) and are interconnected by tubes. A number of
flame tubes are fitted inside a common air casing. E.g. Rolls-
Royce Tay.

pg. 10
 2.2.0. ADVANTAGES OF CANNULAR COMBUSTOR
 Mechanically robust
 Low pressure loss
 Shorter and lighter than tubular chambers
 Exit flow has a more uniform temperature profile.
 Fuel flow and air flow patterns are easily matched
 Reduced light-round risk due to individual chambers.

2.2.1. DISADVANTAGES OF CANNULAR COMBUSTOR

 Requires connectors
 Less compact than annular
 Localized flame instabilities can still occur in individual
chambers.

2.3.0. ANNULAR COMBUSTION CHAMBERS

There are no combustion cans in the annular combustion chamber.
Combustion takes place within a single annular casing. It also
consists of a single annular flame tube within the annular
casing. This type of combustion chamber is used with axial flow
compressors or dual-type compressors. Modern engines use
annular-type combustion chambers. E.g. Rolls-Royce Trent series,
GE90, Pratt and Whitney PW400.

pg. 11
2.3.0. ADVANTAGES OF THE ANNULAR COMBUTION CHAMBER
 Minimum length and weight
 Design simplicity
 Increased durability
 Combustion zone uniformity
 Efficient cooling: Less wall area reduces the amount of
cooling airflow needed.
 Minimum pressure loss
 Less wall area than the cannular and thus less air cooling
is required
 Minimum engine frontal area
 Larger circumference

2.3.1. DISADVANTAGES OF ANNULAR COMBUSTION CHAMBER

 Requires chamber to be removed and dismantled for
maintenance
 Difficult to match air flow and fuel flow
 Susceptible to light round: The continuous nature of the
chamber facilitates flame propagation, potentially leading
to instabilities.
 Complex manufacturing

3.1. MAIN REQUIREMENTS FOR COMBUSTION CHAMBERS/FACTPRS AFFECTING

COMBUTOR DESIGN
a. Reliable and smooth ignition both on the ground and in the
air in case of engine flameout at high altitudes

pg. 12
 b. Formation of carbon deposits (cocking) must be reduced to
avoid erosion of the turbine
c. High combustion efficiency at different operating
conditions: a) altitudes ranging from sea level to 11km for
civil transport and higher altitude for military aircraft.
b) Mach numbers ranging from zero during ground run to
supersonic for military aircraft.
d. Durability and relighting capability
e. Its diffuser minimizes pressure loss.
f. Stable operation is required over a wide range of air/fuel
ratio
g. It meets the pollutant emission regulations (low emission
of smoke and unburnt fuel)
h. Ability to utilize a wider range of fuel.

3.2. COMPONENTS OF CONBUTSTUION CHAMBER

 CASING: This is the outer shell of the combustor. It is

protected by thermal loading by the air flowing through it.
Thermal performance is of limited concern. Materials chosen
must be able to withstand pressures as well as temperature.
The casing serves as a pressure vessel that must withstand
the difference between the high pressure inside the
combustion chamber and the pressure outside.
Mechanical load instead of thermal load is a driving design
factor in this case.

pg. 13
 DIFFUSER: The purpose of the diffuser is to slow the high
speed, highly compressed air flow from the compressor to a
velocity optimal for the combustor. Reducing the velocity
results in an unavoidable loss in total pressure. One of
the design challenges is to limit the loss of pressure as
much as possible. It is assumed pressure is constant in the
combustor chamber.
 LINER: This contains the combustion process and introduces
the various air flows (primary, intermediate, and
secondary) in the combustion zones. The liner must be
designed and built to withstand extended temperature
cycles. Cooling of the liner is done by film cooling. Film
cooling works by injecting cool air from outside the liner
to inside of the liner, creating a thin film of cool air
that protects the liner, reducing temperature in the liner
from around 1800K to about 830K for example.
 SNOUT: This acts as an air splitter. The snout splits the
primary air flow from secondary air flows.
 DOME/SWIRLER: Primary airflow flows through the dome &
swirler and into the combustion zone. The main purpose of
the dome/swirler is to produce turbulence in the airflow to
rapidly mix the air with fuel. They establish a local
pressure zone that forces some of the combusted products to
recirculate, creating high turbulence. However, the higher
the turbulence, the higher pressure losses will be for the
combustor. So, the dome and swirler must be carefully
designed so as not to generate more turbulence than needed.

 FUEL INJECTOR: This is responsible for introducing fuel

into the combustion zone.
 IGNITER: This is similar to the automobile spark plugs.

pg. 14
3.3. COMBUSTION CHAMBER PERFORMANCE
 Combustion efficiency
 Combustion stability
 Pressure loss
 Combustion intensity

3.3.1. COMBUSTOR EFFICIENCY

The main objective of the combustor is to transfer all the
energy of the fuel to the gas stream flowing through the gas
3.3.2. COMBUSTION STABILITY
This means smooth burning and the ability of the flame to remain
alight over a wide range of operations.
Instability of combustion occurs when:
o The velocity of gas stream, U becomes higher than the flame
speed S. This leads to a blow-out of the flame.
o The fuel-air mixture becomes too lean or too rich. The
temperature and reaction rate drop below the level
necessary to effectively heat and vaporize the incoming
fuel and air.
3.3.3. PRESSURE LOSS
The sources of pressure loss can either be cold or high losses.
Cold losses arise from sudden expansion, wall friction,
turbulent dissipation and mixing. Hot loses (fundamental loses)
are due to temperature increase. Generally, fundamental loss due
to heat in an aeroengine will be low compared to the losses due
to friction and mixing.

3.4. COOLING
 Louver cooling: This technique was used in early gas
turbine engines. The liners of these engines were
fabricated in the form of cylindrical shells that formed
annular passages at the shell intersection points. These
passages permitted a film of cooling air to be injected
along the hot side of the liner to provide a protective
thermal barrier.
 Splash cooling: Through splash cooling, air enters the
liner through a row of holes of small diameter. The jet
impinge on a cooling skirt which then direct the flow so as
to form a film along the inside of the liner wall.

pg. 15
  Film cooling
 Transpiration cooling: This is the most advanced form of
liner wall cooling. It has the potential to reduce the
amount of cooling air by as much as 50%.

3.5. T.E.T AND T.G.T

Turbine Entry Temperature (TET) is the temperature of the
gas stream entering the turbine section of the engine. TET
is a crucial parameter that directly influences the
engine’s thrust and efficiency. Higher TET generally leas
to higher thrust but puts more pressure on the turbine
blades, reducing their lifespan.

Turbine Gas Temperature (TGT) is the temperature of the gas

stream exiting the turbine section. This parameter reflects
the operating temperature of the turbine section and the
overall efficiency of the turbine.

Maintaining TET and TGT within safe limits is crucial for

ensuring the safe operation of the aircraft.

4. SPOOL CONFIGURATION
A spool configuration refers to the arrangement of the rotating
components in a jet engine, often divided into separate shafts
or spools. This division allows for optimal performance and
efficiency.

4.1. TURBOJET SINGLE SPOOL

Here, a single shaft drives both the compressor and turbine. All
rotating components are mounted on a single shaft.
Single spool configuration has fewer moving parts, reducing
complexity and weight. This configuration is used in military
aircraft and UAVS. E.g. Prat & Whitney JS7, GE J79 and Rolls-
Royce Avon.

pg. 16
4.2. TURBOJET TWIN SPOOL
Here, two separate shafts are used to drive the compressor and
turbine section. The two spools include the low-pressure spool
and high-pressure spool.

By separating the compressor and turbines into spools, each can

be optimized for a specific task, leading to higher overall
efficiency. This leads to an engine with better fuel economy and
higher thrust when compared to single spool engines. E.g. Pratt
& Whitney J56.

LOW PRESSURE SPOOL

 Low pressure compressor (LPC): This compressor handles a
large volume of air at lower pressure.
 Low pressure turbine (LPT): This turbine extracts
additional energy from the exhaust gases to drive the Low-
Pressure Compressor

pg. 17
HIGH PRESSURE SPOOL
 High pressure compressor (HPC): This compressor further
compresses air from the Low-Pressure Compressor to higher
pressures.
 High Pressure Turbine (HPT): This turbine extracts energy
from the hot exhaust to drive the High-Pressure Compressor.
Hot gases expand through the High-Pressure Turbine.

4.3. TURBOFAN TWIN SPOOL

Twin spool turbofan engines use two separate spools to drive the
compressor and turbine sections. E.g. Rolls-Royce Trent 7000,
GE9X and Pratt and Whitney PW1000G.
The twin spool engine is composed of:
 Fan
 Low Pressure Compressor: This compresses the are that is
injected by the fan
 High Pressure Compressor: This further compresses the air
 Combustion chamber
 High Pressure Turbine: This extracts energy from hot
exhaust gases expended from the combustion chamber to
drive the HPC.
 Low Pressure Turbine: This extracts additional energy
from the exhaust gases to drive the LPC.
 Bypass duct: This duct carries the air that bypasses the
core engine
 Core engine exhaust: The exhaust from the core engine
exit through this nozzle.
 Bypass duct nozzle: The bypassed air exits through this
nozzle and mixes with the core engine exhaust.

pg. 18
4.4. TURBOFAN THREE SPOOL
The three-spool turbofan configuration comprises of a low
pressure, an intermediate pressure and high-pressure spool
running at different speeds. E.g. Rolls-Royce Trent XWB and
GE90.
 The fan and the Low-Pressure Turbine make up the Low-
Pressure Spool.
 The intermediate spool is composed of an intermediate-
pressure compressor and an intermediate-pressure turbine.
 The High-Pressure Spool is also composed of a High-Pressure
compressor and a High-Pressure turbine.

4.4.1. ADVANTAGES OF THE THREE SPOOL CONFIGURATION

 Shorter modules and shafts, which result in shorter
engines.
i) Single fan with no booster stages

pg. 19
 ii) Fewer overall compressor stages and
iii) Shorter high-pressure compressor.
 Lighter weight
 Fan and core compressors can run at their individual
optimum speeds
 Higher efficiency as each spool is running at its “right
speed.”

5. BYPASS RATIO
In turbofan engines, a significant portion of the air ingested
by the fan bypasses the core engine and exits directly through
the nozzle. This flow is known as Bypass flow. A turbofan with a
high bypass ratio generates more thrust primarily due to the
increased mass flow of air accelerated by the fan.
Why bypass flow?
 Increased efficiency: Bypass flow significantly improves
the efficiency of the engine. A larger portion of the
thrust is generated by the high-velocity jet of bypassed
air exiting the nozzle which has higher propulsive
efficiency than the core engine exhaust.
 Reduced noise: The bypass flow helps to reduce the noise
generated by the core engine exhaust, making the engine
quieter.
 Improved fuel economy
Bypass ratio is the measure of the amount of air that bypasses
the core engine relative to the amount of air that flows through
it. Turbofan engine can either have:
 High bypass ratio: Typically, greater than 5. They are more
common in commercial airliners for fuel efficiency and
quieter operation.

pg. 20
  Low bypass ratio: Typically, less than 4. They are often
used in military aircraft where high thrust-to-weight
ratios are required.

6. BRAYTON CYCLE (BREATHING CYCLE)

pg. 21
 This is the thermodynamic cycle that describes the operation
of certain heat engines. It uses air as its working fluid and
consists of four main processes:
a. Isentropic compression (1→2): Ambient air is drawn
into the compressor and pressurized. The process is
adiabatic (no heat loss) and reversible.
b. (Isobaric) Heat Addition (2→3): The compressed air is
fed into the combustion chamber. The air is mixed with
fuel and ignited. This raises temperature
significantly. It is a constant pressure process.
c. Isentropic expansion (3→4): The heated, pressurized
air then expands in a turbine, generating work. The
process is adiabatic and reversible.
d. Heat Rejection (4→1): The residual heat must be
rejected to close the cycle.

7. AFTERBURNER
Afterburners are a method of thrust augmentation. Afterburning
require another combustion chamber located between the low-
pressure turbine and the nozzle. Fuel is burnt in the second
combustion chamber utilizing the unburnt oxygen in the exhaust
gas. This increases the temperature and velocity of the exhaust
leaving the nozzle, thereby increasing thrust.
The burners of the afterburners are arranged so that the flame
is concentrated around the ais of the jet pipe. It must be noted
that the increase in thrust in an afterburning engine is also
accompanied by an increase in fuel consumption. Therefore,
afterburning is limited to periods of short duration.
Fuel is not burnt in the afterburner as efficiently as in the
combustion chamber. The velocity of gases leaving the LPT in
conventional turbojet engines range from 180m/s to 360m/s which
is too high for a stable flame to be maintained. Thus, the flow
is diffused before it enters the afterburner combustion zone;
velocity is decreased and the static pressure is increased.

pg. 22
pg. 23