Tensile test:
Plastic deformation at lower temperature,
At lower temperatures, T < Tm/3
Two categories of machines are available
1. Screw-driven: allows selection and control of the strain rate
(de/dt)
2. Hydraulically driven: allows selection and control of the
loading rate (ds/dt)
ASTM," it stands for the American Society for Testing and
Materials. 0.505" dia. along 2" gauge length
In a tensile test, ductile materials fail at a 45° angle to
the loading direction, while brittle materials fail at a
90° angle
Yield stress/strength/ proof strength
It is the maximum stress that a material can withstand before
starting permanent deformation
Hooke’s law applied for only a small value of e (typically < ~0.1-
0.2 %)
ceramic materials follow Hooke’s law up to fracture
ceramic materials follow Hooke’s law up to fracture
After yielding, plastic deformation becomes more and more
difficult.
This is called strain hardening. With deformation, the number
of dislocations inside the material is increased, which hinder
further dislocation movement, and the material becomes
stronger.
Hardness:
Impact test
Steps in fracture:
crack formation
crack propagation
fracture
Ductile fracture - most metals (not too cold): Extensive plastic
deformation , crack is stable and resist up to increase stress
• Brittle fracture - ceramics, ice, cold metals: little or no plastic
deformation, crack is unstable and the crack propagation, once
started, continues spontaneously,
Intergranular fracture: Fracture crack propagation is along grain
boundaries (grain boundaries are weakened or embrittled by
impurities segregation etc.)
Intergranular fracture is typically associated with brittle
fracture
Transgranular fracture: fracture crack propagated through the
grains of a material.. Fracture surface have faceted texture
because of different orientation of cleavage planes in grains.
At low temperatures, many materials, particularly metals, tend
to behave more brittle.
At higher temperatures, materials generally become more
ductile
Impact test determine the energy absorbation.
The energy of the impact test is 271 J
Types of impact test
1. The charpy test : the specimen placed horizontally
between two anvils
2. The izod test : the specimen clamped vertical cantilever.
BCC materials: chromium, tungsten, iron (alpha)
FCC materials: aluminum, copper, aurum/gold, lead, nickel,
platinum, silver
HCP materials: cadmium, titanium, magnesium, zinc
The melting point of steel can range from 1,371–1,540°C
(2,500–2,800°F)
What is ductile to brittle transition temperature?
The Ductile-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT) is the
temperature below which a material transitions from ductile to
brittle behavior when subjected to an impact or sudden
loading. This behavior is typically observed in Body-Centered
Cubic (BCC) metals and some polymers.
Fewer Slip Systems in BCC:
CRSS Increase in BCC:
ductile iron typically has a ductile-to-brittle transition
temperature in the range of -20°C to 0°C
What is fatigue failure:
Fatigue failure is the gradual and progressive fracture of a
material due to repeated or cyclic dynamic and fluctuating
stress, even when the applied stress is much lower than the
tensile or yield stress of the material. It results in brittle-like
failure, even in ductile materials.
polymers and ceramics (except for glasses) are also susceptible
to this type of failure.
fatigue is catastrophic, occurring very suddenly and without
warning
Fatigue failure is brittle like in nature even in normally ductile
metals
Fatigue strength: stress at which fracture occurs after a
specified number of cycles
Fatigue life: Number of cycles at which fracture occurs a
specified stress level
what is Fatigue limit, or endurance limit?
The fatigue limit (or endurance limit) is the maximum stress a
material can withstand for an infinite number of loading cycles
without experiencing fatigue failure.
after crack reaches critical size
Factors that affect fatigue life:
Magnitude of stress (mean, amplitude...)
Quality of the surface (scratches, sharp transitions)
environmental effects
S-N curve for mild steel and aluminium
What is creep/ Creep Failure
Creep is time-dependent permanent deformation of material
when subjected to prolonged constant load at high
temperature (T > 0.4 Tm)
Stages of Creep:
1. Instantaneous Deformation: o Occurs immediately after
applying the load. o Mainly elastic in nature.
2. 2. Primary (Transient) Creep: o Creep strain decreases
with time due to work hardening. o Strain rate slows down
as material hardens.
3. 3. Secondary (Steady-State) Creep: o Rate of straining
becomes constant. o This is the longest stage of creep.
4. 4. Tertiary Creep: o The Strain rate accelerates rapidly until
failure.
1. Instantaneous deformation, mainly elastic.
2. Primary creep. Slope of strain vs. time decreases with time:
work-hardening
3. Secondary/steady-state creep. Rate of straining is constant:
balance of work-hardening and recovery. 4. Tertiary. Rapidly
accelerating strain rate up to failure: formation of internal
cracks, voids, grain boundary separation, necking, etc.
Factors reducing creep rate/failure
◆ High-melting point of material
❖ Increased Young’s modulus
3. Coarse-grained structure /large grain size. (reduces grain
boundary sliding) (Opposite effect to strength !!)
Materials resilient to creep (high temperature alloys)
◆ Stainless steels Contain Cr and/or Ni.
❖ Refractory metals High melting point elements, like Nb, Mo,
W, Ta.
$ Superalloys Co, Ni based alloys: solid solution hardening and
secondary phases.
Experiment torsion test:
Dye petetraion test:
Hardness test:
A Shore test, also known as a Shore hardness test, is a
method for measuring the hardness of materials like rubber,
plastics, and elastomers: polymers.
Principle of the Brinell Hardness Test:
principle : area of penetration
The principle of the test, a hardened steel ball (typically 10
mm in diameter) is pressed into the surface of the material under
a standard load. The ball creates an indentation on the
material's surface. The diameter of the indentation is
measured. Based on this measurement, the hardness of the
material is determined. A larger indentation indicates that the
material is softer, while a smaller indentation suggests that the
material is harder. BHN define by
Principle of the Vickers Hardness TestTest:
The principle of the test, a diamond pyramid indenter (with a
square base and an angle of 136 degrees between opposite
faces) is pressed into the surface of the material under a
standard load. The tool won’t penetrate the material, if the
material try to penetrate the specimen will crack and break.
The indenter just produced a mark on the material's surface the
diagonals of the indentation are measured under a microscope.
The average length of the diagonals is used to calculate the
hardness of the material.. VHN define by
The principle of the test, a diamond cone indenter (for harder
materials) or a steel ball indenter (for softer materials) is
pressed onto the surface of the material under a specific load.
The depth of the indentation is measured, The hardness of the
material is determined based on the depth of penetration: a
smaller depth indicates a harder material, while a larger depth
suggests that the material is softer.
