CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Numeracy skills acquisition is a fundamental aspect of early childhood education,

laying the foundation for future mathematical understanding and academic success. The

development of numeracy skills, encompassing concepts such as counting of numbers,

addition of numbers, subtraction of numbers, multiplication of numbers, sorting by colours,

shapes, among others is critical for preschoolers to succeed in an increasingly complex and

mathematically-oriented world. Numeracy skills therefore refer to the mathematical

operations in the areas of number recognition, counting, adding, subtracting, multiplying,

dividing, measuring, recognition of shapes, among others which are critical for preschoolers.

The place of numeracy in the life of any nation, as postulated by Ogundele (2019), is

one, which is inextricably linked with the place of development in that nation. Numeracy

plays an indispensable role in realizing a nation's dream of rapid scientific and technological

development. Indeed, no nation that wants to develop scientifically and technologically

neglects the numeracy component of her school curriculum. Ukeje cited in Indabawa (2014),

informs that the increasing attention given to mathematics stems from the fact that without

mathematics there is no science, without science there is no modern technology, and without

modern technology, there is no modern society. This therefore suggests that there could be no

real development technologically without a corresponding development in numeracy both as

conceived and as practiced. Mathematics as a broad field that encompasses a wide range of

concepts, principles, and techniques for analyzing and solving problems has its root in

numeracy. While mathematics involves more advanced and abstract concepts, numeracy

serves as the foundation for mathematics by providing the fundamental knowledge and skills

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needed to comprehend and apply mathematical concepts. Numeracy skills such as counting,

arithmetic operations, understanding of fractions, decimals, percentages, and basic statistical

concepts are essential for success in mathematics. These basic numeracy skills form the

foundation for more advanced mathematical topics such as algebra, geometry, calculus, and

statistics. Without a solid foundation in numeracy, students may struggle to grasp more

complex mathematical concepts and may find it difficult to progress in their mathematical

education. In essence, numeracy is the starting point for developing mathematical literacy and

proficiency. By mastering numeracy skills, individuals can build a strong foundation for

understanding and applying mathematical concepts in various fields and contexts. Numeracy

therefore, serves as the essential foundation upon which mathematical knowledge and skills

are built. Numeracy refers to the ability of an individual to understand and work with

numbers and mathematical concepts. It involves being able to use mathematical skills in

everyday life, such as in making financial decisions, interpreting data, and solving practical

problems. Numeracy skills are essential for functioning in modern society, as they are used in

a wide range of contexts, from managing personal finances to understanding complex

scientific and technological concepts. In the opinion of Goode and McKeown (2020),

numeracy skills encompass a variety of abilities, including basic arithmetic operations

(addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division), understanding fractions, decimals,

percentages, interpreting graphs and charts, and using mathematical reasoning to solve

problems. These skills are important not only in academic settings but also in the workforce,

where they are highly valued by employers.

In the field of early childhood education, numeracy could be observed to consist of

basic number concepts, application and operational problem-solving skills which generally

emerge in children before proper school entry. Epstein (2021) stated that numeracy in early

childhood includes a child’s ability to classify objects according to physical attributes,

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comparing objects and enumeration, spatial concept (to describe objects based on shapes,

colour and size), seriation (arrangement of objects in series), identifying patterns and

performing simple numeracy tasks, such as counting, addition, and multiplications. Copple

(2020), explained that the key math skills children should acquire at early stage includes;

number sense and representation; which involves the ability to count accurately, see

relationships between numbers such as basic addition and subtraction, making mathematical

ideas real by using objects (like blocks). While in the Nigerian educational system, the one-

year pre-primary curriculum developed by the Nigerian Educational Research and

Development Council (NERDC, 2016) under the theme ‘Mental Development’ outlined the

following topics for age five children to acquire before entering formal schooling: numerals

and counting, classification and ordering of objects, and identification and construction of

shapes, time, date, and seasons. They went further to explain that children at that age should

be able to identify and count numbers 1 to 50 and should be able to write, solve simple

addition and subtraction of numbers between 1 and 20. Equally, they should be able to relate

shapes to solid objects within their surroundings. This invariably will lay a good foundation

for better understanding of mathematical concept in the future. On these notes, early

childhood education focal point on components of numeracy skills that children should

develop can be grouped into the following: number sense, geometry and measurement.

Number sense refers to a child's understanding of numbers and their relationships.

This includes the ability to count, recognize and compare numbers, understand basic

mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, and

develop a sense of magnitude and order. Number sense as a fundamental concept in

mathematics education encompasses a range of skills and concepts, including quantity,

magnitude, relationships between numbers, and an understanding of number operations.

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Number sense is not just about memorizing facts and procedures, but about developing a

deep understanding of numbers and their relationships. At its core, number sense is about

making sense of numbers and using them to solve problems. It involves being able to: count,

compare numbers, and understand basic number concepts such as "more" and "less",

comprehend the size and scale of numbers, including large and small numbers, identify

patterns, understand number sequences, and recognize equivalent numbers and perform

basic arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, as well

as more complex operations such as fractions and decimals.

Clement (2018), explained that developing number sense is a critical aspect of

mathematics education, as it provides the foundation for more advanced mathematical

concepts and problem-solving skills. Research has shown that children as young as infancy

are capable of basic number sense, and that it develops rapidly during the early childhood

years, and this development lays the foundation for more complex mathematical concepts in

the future.

Geometry skills refer to the ability to understand and work with shapes, sizes, and

positions of objects. It involves recognizing and creating geometric figures, understanding

their properties, and applying this knowledge to solve problems. Geometry skills are essential

in various aspects of life, from art and design to science, technology, engineering, and

mathematics (STEM). Geometry in early childhood education refers to the introduction of

basic geometric concepts and skills to young children, typically aged 3-5. This foundational

knowledge sets the stage for future math and science understanding, problem-solving, and

critical thinking. Early childhood geometry as stated by Clement and Sarama (2011),

encompasses various aspects, including: shape recognition and identification (e.g., squares,

circles, triangles, rectangles), understanding basic shape attributes (e.g., number of sides,

corners, symmetry), recognizing and creating basic shapes using various materials (e.g.,

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blocks, play dough, puzzles), exploring spatial awareness and relationships between objects

(e.g., inside, outside, above, below), and developing vocabulary related to geometry (e.g.,

"corner," "edge," "face").

Measurement is the process of assigning a numerical value to a physical quantity or

attribute, such as length, mass, time, or temperature. It involves comparing an unknown

quantity with a standard unit of measurement to determine its magnitude. Measurement is a

fundamental concept in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields,

and is essential for problem-solving, communication, and critical thinking. It is a critical

component of numeracy skills in early childhood education, as it involves the quantification,

comparison, and evaluation of attributes such as length, weight, volume, time, and

temperature. Developing a strong foundation in measurement is essential for young children

to understand and navigate the physical world around them, make sense of numerical

concepts, and engage in mathematical reasoning.

Measurement is a fundamental mathematical concept that underpins many aspects of

children's daily lives and experiences. From comparing the sizes of toys, to baking cookies

using precise measurements, to telling time on a clock, children encounter measurement tasks

in various contexts and activities. By engaging in measurement activities, children develop

important mathematical skills, such as estimation, comparison, seriation, and spatial

reasoning, which are essential for building a strong numeracy foundation.

In early childhood education, measurement activities can be integrated into a wide

range of learning experiences, across different domains of development. For example,

children can engage in measuring and comparing the lengths of classroom objects during a

science exploration, estimating the weight of ingredients while cooking in the kitchen, or

sequencing objects by size during a block-building activity. These hands-on and real-world

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experiences allow children to apply measurement concepts in meaningful and practical ways,

fostering their understanding of numeracy skills.

The acquisition of numeracy skills by preschoolers is a critical aspect of their

development. Numeracy skills are essential for children's academic success and everyday

functioning, it encompassing a range of mathematical competencies such as counting,

sorting, understanding patterns, and problem-solving. Early childhood is a critical period for

the development of these foundational skills, as it sets the stage for future mathematical

learning and achievement (Duncan et al., 2020). Moomaw (2018), believed that by

incorporating activities and experiences that focus on number sense, geometry, and

measurement, preschoolers can develop a strong foundation in numeracy skills that will

prepare them for more advanced mathematical concepts in later grades. These skills will also

help them make sense of the world around them and develop critical thinking and problem-

solving abilities. As postulated by Ginsburg et al (2018), research has shown that early

exposure to numeracy concepts and experiences can have a significant impact on children's

mathematical development and overall academic performance. One effective approach to

promoting the acquisition of numeracy skills in preschoolers is through the use of play

materials.

Play materials refer to objects and tools that children can manipulate and interact with

to explore different concepts in a hands-on and engaging manner, according to Wikipedia

Encyclopedia (2007), they are typical objects typically built for and used by children to play

with as they help them learn. Play materials are among a child’s first possessions and early

experience with them can have lasting effects on the child. Oyeniran (2019), informs that a

play material is any product or material designed or clearly intended for use in play by

children of less than fourteen years of age. Goodson (2015) stated that if the child’s work is

play, then play materials are the child’s tools, and appropriate play materials can help

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children do their work well. Moyles (2018), noted that play materials as instruments of play

in a preschool make learning fun and more effective especially if the play materials are

voluntarily chosen, involve active engagement and is pleasurable. Building blocks, puzzles,

counters, board games, and measuring tools are examples of play materials that can support

the development of numeracy skills in young children.

Building blocks come in various shapes, sizes, and colors, allowing children to create

structures and patterns while also practicing counting and sorting (Clements & Sarama,

2017). By playing with building blocks, children learn about spatial relationships, geometry,

and basic math concepts such as addition and subtraction. Clement and Sarama (2017),

asserted that children also develop fine motor skills and hand-eye coordination as they

manipulate the blocks to build different structures. Building blocks can also be used to

introduce concepts such as symmetry, fractions, and multiplication, making them a versatile

tool for developing numeracy skills in children. Research has shown that building blocks can

have a positive impact on children's numeracy skills. For example, a study by Clements and

Sarama (2017) found that preschool children who engaged in activities using building blocks

showed significant improvements in their understanding of mathematical concepts such as

number sense and spatial reasoning. The hands-on nature of building block play allows

children to explore mathematical ideas in a concrete and visual way, which can enhance their

understanding and retention of key numeracy concepts.

Puzzles are versatile and valuable material used in early childhood education to

support children's cognitive, physical, social-emotional, and language development. They

engage children in hands-on, interactive learning experiences that promote problem-solving

skills, critical thinking, fine motor skills, hand-eye coordination, and social skills. By offering

a variety of puzzle types and difficulty levels, caregivers can cater for children's diverse

interests and abilities. Incorporating puzzles into thematic units, curriculum topics, and

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learning centers enhances children's engagement and understanding of concepts. Puzzles also

serve as assessment tools, allowing caregivers to observe children's problem-solving

strategies, persistence, and collaboration skills. By using puzzles for differentiation and

individualization, caregivers can meet the unique needs of all children in the classroom.

Puzzles are a valuable tool in early childhood education that fosters holistic development and

supports children's learning in a fun and interactive way.

Puzzles come in different forms, such as jigsaw puzzles, number puzzles, shape

puzzles, alphabet puzzles, pattern puzzles, logic puzzles and maze puzzles (Ramani et al.,

2012). By working on puzzles, children learn about spatial reasoning patterns, and logical

reasoning, all of which are essential for developing numeracy skills. Puzzles also help

children practice counting, sorting, and categorizing, as they work to match pieces together to

form a complete picture or solve a problem. Puzzles can be tailored to different age levels

and abilities, making them a versatile tool for developing numeracy skills in children of all

ages.

Counters are physical objects that children can use to explore mathematical concepts

in a hands-on way (Sarama & Clements, 2019). Counters are essential tool in early childhood

education as they provide children with concrete, tangible representations of abstract

mathematical concepts. By using counters to model, compare, and manipulate quantities,

children can develop a deep understanding of number sense, counting, addition, subtraction,

multiplication, division, and other mathematical operations. Counters help children visualize

and internalize mathematical relationships, patterns, and strategies, fostering their

mathematical reasoning and problem-solving skills. They are valuable materials for

promoting hands-on, experiential learning experiences that engage children in active

exploration and discovery. When children use counters to solve math problems, create

patterns, or represent mathematical ideas, they are actively involved in the learning process,

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which enhances their motivation, curiosity, and sense of agency. Counters allow children to

experiment, make connections, and construct their own understanding of mathematical

concepts, leading to deeper and more meaningful learning outcomes.

In addition to supporting mathematical skills, counters offer cognitive benefits for

young children by promoting critical thinking, logical reasoning, and spatial awareness.

When children use counters to sort, classify, group, or arrange objects, they are engaging in

higher-order thinking tasks that require problem-solving, decision-making, and analysis.

Counters help children develop cognitive flexibility, attention to detail, and mental

organization, skills that are essential for academic success and lifelong learning. Examples of

counters include counting beads, buttons, counting sticks, number rods and base-ten blocks.

By using counters, children can visualize and manipulate numbers and operations, helping

them develop a concrete understanding of mathematical concepts. Counters can also be used

to introduce more complex mathematical ideas, such as place value, decimals, and algebra,

making them a valuable tool for developing numeracy skills.

Board games are popular and effective material in early childhood education as they

provide children with opportunities to engage in hands-on, experiential learning experiences

that promote cognitive, social, and emotional growth. Board games come in various forms,

such as traditional board games, card games, dice games, and cooperative games, offering a

diverse range of challenges and opportunities for children to learn and grow. Board games

encourage children to think critically, strategize, problem-solve, and interact with their peers

in a supportive and engaging environment.

One of the key benefits of using board games in early childhood education is that they

support the development of critical thinking and problem-solving skills. When children play

board games, they are required to make decisions, anticipate consequences, evaluate options,

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and adapt their strategies based on changing circumstances. Board games challenge children

to think creatively, analytically, and strategically, fostering their ability to solve complex

problems and make informed decisions.

Subsequently, board games promote social-emotional development in early childhood

education by providing opportunities for collaboration, communication, and teamwork. When

children play board games with their peers, they learn to take turns, share resources, follow

rules, and respect others' perspectives. Board games encourage children to work together,

negotiate conflicts, and build positive relationships, fostering social skills such as empathy,

cooperation, and sportsmanship. Board games such as Snakes and Ladders, Monopoly, and

Scrabble provide opportunities for children to practice counting, addition, subtraction, and

strategic thinking (Berkowitz et al., 2011). By playing board games, children learn about

probability, estimation, and problem-solving, all of which are important for developing

numeracy skills.

These materials provide opportunities for children to practice counting, sorting,

spatial reasoning, and problem-solving while fostering creativity, imagination, and social

skills. By incorporating play materials into early childhood education settings, educators can

create a stimulating and interactive environment that promotes the acquisition of numeracy

skills in preschoolers. However, despite the potential impact of these play materials on

children’s cognitive development as a whole, children at the primary level, majority of whom

are preschool product perform poorly in mathematics. The major reason for this could be

traced down to poor foundation which may be as a result of caregivers not using the right

play materials in teaching numeracy in preschools, or ignorance of caregivers, parents and the

society on the importance and use of play materials to teaching of numeracy as there appears

to be a paucity of empirical literature on the effect of play materials on children’s numeracy

skills acquisition in the area of number sense and geometry in Nigeria with Cross River State

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not exempted from the trend based on the literature available to the researcher, hence, the

need for the conduct of this study.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Numeracy skills are fundamental to mathematics education, and a strong foundation

in these skills is essential for future academic success. Despite the importance of numeracy

skills in preschoolers’ future academic success, research has consistently shown that many

preschoolers struggle with number sense and geometry skills. In particular, studies have

revealed that preschoolers often demonstrate limited understanding of basic mathematical

concepts such as counting, sorting and spartial awareness. While numerous studies have

investigated the factors influencing the preschoolers’ numeracy skills, there is dearth of

research examining the relationship between play materials and preschoolers numeracy skills

acquisition. Play materials, such as building blocks, puzzles, counters and board games, have

been shown to provide opportunities for preschoolers to engage in mathematical exploration

and learning. However, the extent to which these play materials contribute to preschoolers’

numeracy skills acquisition remains unclear. The question therefore is; is there any

relationship between the use of play materials and preschools acquisition of numeracy skills,

particularly in number sense and geometry skills?

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between play materials and

preschoolers’ numeracy skills acquisition in public early childhood care centres in Cross

River State of Nigeria. Specifically, the study sought to:

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1. Ascertain the relationship between building blocks and preschoolers’ acquisition of

number identification skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State

of Nigeria.

2. Examine the relationship between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of number

sequencing skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State of Nigeria.

3. Determine the relationship between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of

counting skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State of Nigeria.

4. Explore the relationship between board games and preschoolers’ acquisition of basic

addition skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State of Nigeria.

5. Identify the relationship between building blocks and preschoolers’ acquisition of

shape identification skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State of

Nigeria.

6. Determine the relationship between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape

completion skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State of Nigeria.

7. Investigate the relationship between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape

sorting skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State of Nigeria.

8. Find out the relationship between board games and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape

comparison skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State of

Nigeria.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions were formulated to guide the study:
1. To what extent do building blocks relate with preschoolers’ acquisition of number

identification skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State?

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2. What is the extent of relationship between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of

number sequencing skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State?

3. To what extent do counters relate with preschoolers’ acquisition of counting skill in

public early childhood care centres in Cross River State?

4. What is the extent of relationship between board games and preschoolers’ acquisition

of basic addition skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State?

5. To what extent do building blocks relate with preschoolers’ acquisition of shape

identification skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State?

6. What is the extent of relationship between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of

shape completion skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State?

7. To what extent do counters relate with preschoolers’ acquisition of shape sorting skill

in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State?

8. What is the extent of relationship between board games and preschoolers’ acquisition

of shape comparison skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State?

1.5 Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were formulated and tested to further guide the study

at 0.05 level of significance:

Ho1: There is no significant relationship between building blocks and preschoolers’

acquisition of number identification skill in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State.

Ho2: There is no significant relationship between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of

number sequencing skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

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Ho3: Significant relationship does not exist between counters and preschoolers ’acquisition

of counting skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

Ho4: There is no significant relationship between board games and preschoolers’

acquisition of basic addition skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River

State.

Ho5: There is no significant relationship between building blocks and preschoolers

’acquisition of shape identification skill in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State.

Ho6: Significant relationship does not exist between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition

of shape completion skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

Ho7: There is no significant relationship between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of

shape sorting skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

Ho8: There is no significant relationship between board games and preschoolers’

acquisition of shape comparison skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross

River State.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The main aim of carrying out research in education is to bring about positive

improvement in the practice of education through finding new knowledge or information. It is

therefore hoped that the findings of this study would be of immense significance to

caregivers, preschoolers, curriculum planners, government, education, policy makers, the

general public and future researchers

This research finding is expected to make the preschool caregivers conscious of the

importance of play materials which in turn is hoped to lead to improved achievement in the

acquisition of numeracy skills among preschoolers. The study would be significant and

beneficial to preschoolers in the learning process. It is expected that through the findings of

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this study, allocation of sufficient and appropriate play materials into the preschools will be

the order of the day thereby enhancing improvements in children’s learning.

The curriculum planners, who are professionals trained in curriculum content and

implementation procedure, through this study they would come to know whether play

materials have any effect on the acquisition of numeracy skills and this will enable them to

design curriculum that sees play materials as being vital and a must in teaching/learning

process at preschool level. To the federal, state and local government, education policy

makers (ministers, commissioners, area education officers, local government education

secretaries) the study would provide an insight about the level of the acquisition of numeracy

skills of preschoolers, it would expose to them the importance of play materials in the

acquisition of numeracy skills so that appropriate steps can be taken in making provision for

these materials in all public and private preschools.

It is also expected that through the findings of this study, the federal, state, local

government and other policy makers would be geared to organize workshops, symposium

and conferences on the importance of play materials in the acquisition of numeracy skills.

The findings of this study would of course reveal to the general public, the significance of

providing adequate facilities that will facilitate in the teaching /learning process to the

advantage of the learners. Finally, the findings of this study would serve as terms of reference

for future researches; it will bridge the gap created by previous findings and add to existing

body of literature in Children acquisition of numeracy skills vis-à-vis play materials.

1.7 Delimitation of the Study

The study focuses on all the preschool children in the public preschool centres in

Cross River State. It is delimited to Nursery 1 preschoolers and their selected caregivers in

public preschool centres. The study is also delimited to basic skills in numeracy, which are;

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number sense skills (number identification, number sequencing, counting and basic addition)

and geometry skills (shape identification, shape completion, shape sorting and shape

comparison). Geographically the study was delimited to Cross River State, Nigeria. While the

Nursery 1 preschoolers were the subject of study, the caregivers observed them as they

(caregivers) were used as the research respondents.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

Preschool: A formal learning institution for children between age three and five years

Preschoolers’ Numeracy Skills: Basic mathematical skills, such as number sense and

geometry as applied in this study.

Number Sense Skills: Ability to understand, relate and connect numbers.

Geometry Skills: Ability to identify and state basic features of 2 and 3 dimensional shapes.

Play Materials: Items and equipment used during play by both caregivers and preschoolers

in order to enhance the child’s holistic development, including numeracy skills acquisition.

Building blocks: Lego, Mega blocks, Tegu blocks, wooden blocks, Lincoln logs and bristle

blocks use for teaching/ learning.

Puzzles: Jigsaw puzzles, Number puzzles, and Shape puzzles.

Counters: Counting beads, Number rods, Base-ten blocks and Number lines.

Board games: Snakes and Ladders, Monopoly, and Scrabble.

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 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter deals with the review of related literature by authors, scholars and

researchers. The review is done under the following sub-headings:

2.1 Conceptual Review

 Numeracy Skills Acquisition

 Play Materials
 Building blocks and preschoolers’ acquisition of number identification skill
 Puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of number sequencing skill
 Counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of counting skill
 Board games and preschoolers’ acquisition of basic addition skill
 Building blocks and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape identification skill
 Puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape completion skill
 Counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape sorting skill
 Board games and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape comparison skill

2.2 Theoretical Review

 Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development (1936)

 John Dewey’s Learning Theory (1916)
 Maria Montessori’s Learning Approach (1907)

2.3 Review of Empirical Studies

2.4 Summary of Literature Review

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2.1 Conceptual Review

2.1.1 Numeracy Skills Acquisition

Numeracy refers to the knowledge, skills, behaviours and dispositions that learners

need in order to use mathematics in a wide range of situations. It involves recognising and

understanding the role of mathematics in the world and having the dispositions and

capacities to use mathematical knowledge and skills purposefully. Number, measurement

and geometry, statistics and probability are common aspects of most people’s mathematical

experience in everyday personal, study and work situations. Equally important are the

essential roles that algebra, functions and relations, logic, mathematical structure and

working mathematically play in people’s understanding of the natural and human worlds,

and the interaction between them. Learners are exposed to increasingly sophisticated and

refined mathematical understanding, fluency, reasoning, modelling and problem solving.

These capabilities enable learners to respond to familiar and unfamiliar situations by

employing mathematics to make informed decisions and solve problems efficiently.

Early numeracy such as counting and identifying quantities, are important for

students’ later understanding of formal mathematics, such as written addition and subtraction,

which are typically learned when children are in school (Baroody & Ginsburg, 2016). The

early part of a child life is characterized with the ability to apply numeracy skills. Numeracy

(Mathematics) is the systematic treatment of magnitude, properties, relationships between

figures and forms, and relationship between quantities and sets expressed using numbers and

symbols. According to Gallan as cited in Lerrner and Johns (2009), Mathematics is a

symbolic language that enables human beings to think, record, and communicate ideas about

the elements and relationships of quantity. It is not just a body of knowledge, but also a

process of inquiry. Therefore, Momoh (2020), asserted that for a child to succeed in

Mathematics, he or she should be able to make observations, organize information, specialize

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and generalize, express mathematical ideas and prove conjectures. They must be able to use

memory to recall rules and formulas and recognize patterns; use language to understand

vocabulary, instructions, and explain their thinking; and use sequential ordering and

procedures to solve multi-step problems.

The importance of mathematics skills in individual’s life notwithstanding, some

learners still fail in mastering such basic concepts and skills leading to failure in the subject.

This chronic poor performance generates a deep concern because inadequate mastery of

numeracy skills and fundamental concepts and skills from the pre-primary level is probably

the root cause of the difficulties According to National Council of Teachers of Mathematics

(2014), if the problems of mastering mathematics skills in pre-primary schools were ignored

continuously, cumulative academic failure will be difficult to be improved when the student

enters a higher schooling stage. The consequence of it is worse off for persons with

dyscalculia. Dyscalculia as a type of learning disabilities is neither widely recognized nor

well understood in Nigeria. The word literally refers to the special difficulties with counting.

In more proper words it means specific (particular) or special difficulties with learning

Mathematics. Rubinstein and Tannock (2020), defined dyscalculia as a specific deficit in the

ability to process numerical information that cannot be ascribed to sensory difficulties, low

IQ or inadequate education, and that results in a failure to develop fluent numerical

computation skills. It can also be seen as a mathematical or arithmetic disability which

manifests in peculiar difficulties in counting, concept of size, symbols and other areas of

Mathematics even though good conventional teaching approaches are applied. This condition

is not as a result of sensory or intellectual disabilities, school environmental issues or lack of

home encouragement and materials. Children with dyscalculia can exhibit low mathematics

performance in many different ways. Some may have particular difficulties with arithmetical

facts, others with procedures and strategies, while most of them seem to have difficulties

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across the whole spectrum of numerical tasks. In general learners with dyscalculia have

difficulties understanding mathematics concepts and skills, appropriating sizes and time and

solving even simple numerical problems.

In Nigeria, pupils with dyscalculia are in the same primary schools with those without

disabilities. This is in line with the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2013) which has one

of the aims as to provide access to education for all children in an inclusive setting. This has

great implications for the education programme of children with dyscalculia in the sense that

they use the same curriculum with other children without disabilities, are taught by the same

teachers using the same methods and are assessed based on the same standard irrespective of

their peculiar conditions.

One of the major causes of poor achievement in Mathematics in general has been

attributed to ineffective teaching methods. Lawrence cited in Jordan and Levine (2019)

asserted that invalid teaching methods are among the general factors affecting the academic

performance in Mathematics in primary schools.

Numeracy could be observed to consist of basic number concepts, application and

operational problem-solving skill which generally emerge in children before proper school

entry. Epstein (2021) stated that numeracy in early childhood includes a child’s ability to

classify objects according to physical attributes, comparing objects and enumeration, spatial

concept (to describe objects based on shapes, colour and size), seriation (arrangement of

objects in series), identifying patterns and performing simple numeracy tasks, such as

counting, addition, and multiplications. While “The Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS,

2019)” framework document suggested that mathematics (numeracy) in the early years at the

foundation stage include aspect of number, such as counting reliably from 0 to 20, place 1-20

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in order and say which number is more or less, also, they are expected to add and subtract

single-digit numbers using qualities and objects.

Subsequently, children at this stage are expected to identify shapes, space, position

and measurement (estimate). They should be able to use every day language to describe size,

weight, capacity, position, distance, time, and money to compare qualities of objects and

solve problems. Momoh (2020) explained that the key math skills children should acquire at

early stage includes; number sense and representation; this involved the ability to count

accurately, see relationships between numbers – like basic addition and subtraction, making

mathematical ideas real by using objects (like blocks). Children are expected to represent,

compare and order whole numbers, join and separate sets of numbers (addition and

subtraction).

While in the Nigerian educational system, the one-year pre-primary curriculum

developed by the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC, 2016)

under the theme ‘Mental Development’ outlined the following topics for age five children to

acquire before entering formal schooling; number quantity, such as:

 Numerals and counting,

 Classification and ordering of objects,

 Identification and construction of shapes, time, date, and seasons.

They went further to explain that children at that age should be able to identify and

count numbers 1 to 50 and should be able to write, solve simple addition and subtraction of

numbers between 1 and 20. Equally, they should be able to relate shapes to solid objects

within their surroundings. It becomes very important for children to acquire basic numeracy

skills before proceeding to primary school. This invariably will lay a good foundation for

better understanding of mathematical concept in the future. On these notes, early childhood

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education focal point on components of numeracy skills that children should develop can be

grouped into the following:

Number Sense Skills

Number sense is arguably the area of mathematics most emphasized in early

childhood. Skills in this area include number identification, number sequencing, number

comparison, counting, number pattern, number writing and basic arithmetic among others

(Sarama & Clements, 2018). Evidence shows that children develop numerical abilities as

early as infancy and further develop foundational skills throughout early childhood (Starkey

et al., 2019), Piaget suggested that children’s development of number sense was tightly linked

with their development of logical reasoning, with early skills serving as a necessary

foundation for later development (Piaget, 1952). Children further solidify understanding of

quantity, recognition of numerals, and success with basic arithmetic during the primary

school years (Piaget, 1952). These skills provide a foundation for further development

leading to abilities for solving more complex mathematical problems in later school years.

Theorists, researchers, and other professionals have pointed to connections between

number sense and other areas of mathematics (e.g., Case et al., 2016; Geary et al., 2018;

NCTM, 2016; Sarama & Clements, 2018). For example, the NCTM recommends using

number skills to connect with geometry (e.g., counting a shape’s sides or vertices) and data

analysis (e.g., comparing quantity in sets). The National Mathematics Advisory Panel also

points to a variety of connections between number sense and other mathematics elements

such as estimation, fractions, and algebra (Geary et al., 2018). Number and arithmetic

development is also supported by other domains, such as geometry (Clements & Sarama,

2011; NAEYC & NCTM, 2022). Likewise, Piaget et al. (1960), maintaining number sense

and spatial awareness as distinctly different constructs, noted that tasks of measurement,

particularly those requiring use of metric units, necessitated use of both number and geometry

22
skills. Griffin in Sarama and Clements (2018) mentioned that specific number sense content

for the typical five-year-old comprises of the followings:

 understanding that numbers indicate quantity and thus, have a magnitude

 understanding and using relative terms, such as ‘more’, ‘less’, ‘bigger’ and ‘smaller’

 understanding that numbers in the counting sequence have a fixed position

 understanding the sequence of numbers, for example, that 3 comes before 4

 understanding that higher numbers reflect greater quantities, therefore, 4 is greater

than 3.

 understanding that each count term represents a unit increase.

When teaching number sense to preschoolers, it is important to understand that

development occurs in a predictable sequence. However, Piaget cited in Park (2023) points

out that Children’s cognitive skills develop gradually and continuously with the age norms

and timing being varied depending on the child. In other words, the age at which a child

masters certain math concepts is strongly influenced by experience. All children are born

with an innate sense of numeracy, but this can vary from child to child. Age ranges are often

provided in reference to the development of number sense. Because of this, it is important to

recognize that gaining a sense of where a child’s number skills are is critical to addressing

their educational needs rather than making judgments based on age (Clements & Sarama,

2014).

For young children, understanding numbers and what they mean is far more complex

than it sounds. As Clements and Sarama (2014) point out that children must know the correct

sequence of number names, count one object for each object they point to (one to one

correspondence), know that the last number they say when counting a set of items is the total

number of objects (cardinality), know that the cardinality of a group doesn’t change even if

23
you rearrange the objects (stability), and to know how may objects are in a set without

actually counting the objects (subitizing)”. The concept of number sense can be an abstract

concept for young children and goes beyond rote memorization. Children need to understand

that counting has a set of rules and procedures and once they know that, they can begin to

reason, problem solve, and generalize those skills to other aspects of mathematics. Sadler’s

summary of the six stages of cardinality, written by Bermejo in 1996 and adapted by Sarama

and Clements (2019), is the foundation for number sense. Sadler used this six stage model of

the development of the skill of cardinality (being able to answer the question of how many) to

help track a student’s number sense ability and provide a variety of strategies for counting that

will help children build an understanding of the rules of quantity and numeracy.

It became necessary that in order to help children at early stage to develop number

sense skill, learning experience should be made to be meaningful and children provided with

relevant materials for teaching/learning process. For instance, as children play games with

numbers, they practiced number sense by repeatedly counting them as they look 1, 2, 3 and

so on.

Geometry (Spatial) Skills

The National Mathematics Advisory Panel defines geometry as the branch of

mathematics concerned with properties of space, figures and shapes (Geary et al., 2018). In

early childhood, this includes concepts of two- and three-dimensional shapes, space, and

position (Ginsburg et al., 2018; Sarama & Clements, 2008; NCTM, 2016). Piaget et al.

(1960) proposed that geometric understanding, specifically spatial awareness, begins by

noticing attributes of objects (e.g., size) and their location in space. During early childhood,

children develop ways of representing these properties; these early skills such as shape

identification, shape attributes, shape comparison, shape sorting, shape pattern and spatial

relationship serve as a foundation for the eventual grasp of plane geometry (Case et al., 2016;

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Piaget et al., 1960). As it is with number sense skills, children develop broad, foundational

geometry skills even before school entry (Geary et al., 2018).

Prior to beginning preschool, most children have had informal opportunities to

explore basic shapes, patterns, and spatial navigation (NAEYC & NCTM, 2022). Although

preschool children most often receive instruction at the most basic level, they may, with high-

quality instruction, progress to later levels, where shapes are being recognized and defined by

specific properties and components (Clements & Sarama, 2011). As geometry skills continue

to develop throughout the school years; preschool and kindergarten children generally move

from manipulating geometric figures in pictures and puzzles to naming and recognizing

shapes and further to analyzing specific aspects (i.e., how many sides or angles) of those

shapes. Children may also progress in their representations of objects and shapes in space,

including representations presenting objects in relation to other adjacent shapes or objects

(Case et al., 2016). Geometry skills have also been related to other mathematic domains such

as number knowledge, arithmetic, algebra, and patterns (Clements & Sarama, 2011; Geary et

al., 2018; NAEYC & NCTM, 2022).

Understanding geometry and spatial reasoning is an essential area of mathematics

learning. Besides, for early childhood students, geometry and spatial reasoning serve as the

foundation for the learning of mathematics and other subjects. Furthermore, knowledge of

geometry concepts is essential in many real-life contexts, not only in and of themselves but

also for the supporting roles they play in learning algebra and the concepts and skills of

number and arithmetic (Clement, 2018). Geometric models also contribute to learning and

solving problems in measurement, graphing, ratio, proportion, probability, as well as algebra.

Geometry includes a wide range of skills - from recognizing simple shapes to create

complicated proofs, navigating complex spaces with maps and graphing algebraic functions.

By learning geometric principles, students develop reasoning and justification skills and learn

25
how to interpret and describe physical environments (Clement, 2018). Therefore, it is

essential to introduce geometry at very early age, grade, and year of education especially for

early childhood. In the early childhood education, understanding of geometry is defined as

the ability of children to recognize, point, mention and collect objects around them based on

geometric shapes (Cheng & Mix, 2014). Hence, the construction of the geometry concepts in

children, starting from identifying forms, investigating shapes, separating the usual pictures

such as, quadrilateral, circle, and triangle, learning the concepts of location, such as below,

above, left, right are the basics of understanding geometry(Clement & Sarama, 2011). Studies

have shown that high achieving students' numerical ability is connected to their spatial and

measurement abilities. While low achieving students in mathematics generally show little

growth in geometry. Therefore, educators should give full attention to the development and

understanding of geometry and spatial reasoning (Clement, 2018).

Measurement Skills

Measurement is an essential component of preschool numeracy, as it provides

children with the foundational knowledge and understanding necessary for success in math

and science. In the preschool setting, measurement skills are introduced through a variety of

hands-on activities and experiences that engage children in the process of comparing,

ordering, and quantifying objects and quantities. Measurement skills play a crucial role in the

development of a child's mathematical and scientific understanding. As revealed by the

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2016), measurement is one of the five content

areas identified as essential for early childhood mathematics education, along with number

and operations, geometry, algebra, and data analysis and probability. Measurement skills are

also foundational for the development of science skills, as they allow children to make

observations, collect data, and draw conclusions about the world around them. Research has

shown that early exposure to measurement concepts can have a significant impact on

26
children's mathematical development. In a study conducted by Mix et al. (2007), preschoolers

who were exposed to measurement activities showed significant gains in their understanding

of measurement concepts compared to children who did not receive this instruction. The

researchers concluded that early exposure to measurement concepts can help children

develop a strong foundation in mathematical thinking that will benefit them throughout their

academic careers. In addition to their academic importance, measurement skills also have

practical applications in everyday life. Children who develop strong measurement skills are

better able to understand and interpret the world around them, from the size of objects to the

passage of time. These skills are also essential for tasks such as cooking, building, and

following directions, making them essential for success in both academic and real-world

settings. Measurement skills encompass a wide range of concepts and abilities, including

comparing, ordering, and quantifying objects and quantities. The key components of

measurement skills in preschool include:

1. Understanding of Units: Children in preschool begin to develop an understanding of

units of measurement, such as inches, centimeters, and minutes. They learn that units

are used to quantify and compare objects and quantities, and that different units can

be used to measure different attributes, such as length, weight, and time.

2. Estimation: Estimation is an important aspect of measurement skills, as it allows

children to make educated guesses about the size or quantity of objects without using

precise measurements. Preschoolers are encouraged to develop their estimation skills

through activities such as guessing the length of a string or the number of blocks in a

tower.

3. Comparing and Ordering: Pre-schoolers learn to compare and order objects based

on their size, weight, or other attributes. They develop an understanding of concepts

27
 such as more than, less than, taller than, and shorter than, and use these comparisons

to make judgments about the relative size or quantity of objects.

4. Measuring Tools: Pre-schoolers are introduced to a variety of measuring tools, such

as rulers, scales, and timers that they can use to measure different attributes. They

learn how to use these tools accurately and consistently, and develop an

understanding of the importance of using the correct tool for the task at hand.

5. Non-standard Measurement: In addition to using standard units of measurement,

preschoolers also engage in non-standard measurement activities, such as using their

hands or feet to measure the length of a table or the height of a chair. These activities

help children develop a conceptual understanding of measurement that is not

dependent on specific tools or units.

2.1.2 Play Materials

Play is a natural activity for every young child. Newman and Newman (2021) opined

that play is most fun and most playful, when it is spontaneous, evolving from an integration

of impulse and ideas, providing expression, sometimes climax, often mastery with a degree

of exhilaration and refreshment. Good play leaves one feeling good, happy and alive. It

provides many opportunities for children to learn and grow physically, mentally and socially

(Goodson, 2015).

Mgbodile and Iwuh (2022) saw play as a natural activity for every young child. Play

provides many opportunities for children to learn and grow physically, mentally and socially.

Through play, the child’s senses are stimulated and they learn how to use their muscles,

coordinate sight with movement, gain mastery over their bodies and acquire new skills

(Feldman, 2020). Play is described by the National Literacy Trust (2015) as the work of a

child. Play is pleasurable activity that is engaged in for its own sake (Santrock, 2013). Like

28
Goodson (2015), they stress that if play is the child’s work, then, toys are the child’s tools.

Play has an undeniable influence on every aspects of a child’s development. Play is one of

those activities children engage in as they grow and develop; it is essential to a child’s health

and contributes to the domain of development. Play increases affiliation with peers, releases

tension, advances cognitive development, and stimulates exploration. In his opinion,

Oaklander (2022) suggests that play is an interactive medium for helping children to hear a

universal language among children.

Regardless of children’s culture, language or historical background, children are able

to play, which allows them to make sense of and connect with their world. Play helps in the

development of thinking and the ability to take risk which helps children to practice the roles

they will assume later in life. Through play children satisfy their exploratory drive by acting

as a means whereby they can safely explore and seek out new information (Santrock, 2013).

In play, children learn new roles, adapt to situations, cope with emotions, and understand

other peoples’ viewpoints better.

Play is not just a recreational activity; it is an essential development and growth

activity (Jewitt, 2017). He gives a definition to the effect that play is the child’s natural

medium of communication. Play is the most appropriate method for addressing the

psychological needs of children. Play is also a safe environment through which the child is

able to express himself naturally, using play as communication and offering the child a form

of self-therapy. Jewitt (2017), supports this idea and concludes that even the smallest baby

interacts with his world. He further stated that, as the child grows older, she/he uses play to

make sense of his/her world. He/she learns, develops physically, psychologically and

cognitively.

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 It is assumed that such time might be spent more profitably in other activities

(Anyanwu, 2023). Work seems to be held in high esteem and when a child is found playing,

it is often considered a kind of idleness. This may be the reason why Anyanwu (2023)

remarked that no activities may be classified exclusively as either work or play. Whether an

activity is play or work is determined by the attitude of the individual towards the activity.

Hence, Anyanwu opined that both work and play are very important to a child’s growth and

development. An adage crowns it all: “all work and no play make Jack a dull boy”. In the

words of Maduewesi (2022) many Nigerian parents exhibit the traditional attitude that

associates play with loafing and wasting time.

Almost every adult you meet can recall a pleasurable childhood play experience,

often in rich and vivid detail (Roode, 2010). He said that when we recall our childhood play,

we talk about feelings of freedom, of power, of control, and of intimacy with friends. Many

of us Roode further stated, remember endless, delicious time spent in secret places – the time

and place still palpable. We remember the feel of the wind, the touch of the grass, the sound

of creaking stairs, and the smell of a dusty attic. Play is meaningful experience. It is also

tremendously satisfying for children, a pursuit they seek out eagerly, and one they find

endlessly absorbing. Anyone who has spent any time watching children play knows they

engage deeply and they take their play very seriously Roode submitted. According to

Feldman (2020), play is paradoxical – it is serious and non-serious, real and not real,

apparently purposeless and yet essential to development. It is resilient– children continue to

play in the most traumatic of situations and yet fragile there is increasing evidence that play

deprivation has a damaging impact on development. In a much-quoted review of play theory

and research, Goodson (2015) draw together existing psychological definitions, developing a

consensus around a definition of play behaviour as intrinsically motivated and controlled by

the players concerned with process rather than product non literal free of externally imposed

30
rules characterized by the active engagement of the players. These characteristics now frame

much of the scholarly work on children’s play and the use of play materials.

Play materials are items or any useful object in play situation, regardless of the way

it is used (Burton, 2010). Langley cited in Uyoata and Etim (2022) describes play materials

as play objects used mainly by children; they are also essential to their integral

development. Play materials are intrinsically linked with play in the words of Langley. In

other words, they are the main materials for play and used by children. Oppenheim (2017)

defined a play material as an object that is intended for play and its main purpose is to

provide fun and amusement. He further noted that play materials play an important part in

education and that through play, children at every stage learn about themselves and others

and about how things work. He maintained that children need a variety of play materials

that challenge them to use their minds, bodies and feelings. Davis (2015) observed that a

young child uses objects in his or her physical environment as tools to accomplish

activities, and the use of tools as mediators of activity is linked ultimately to the child’s

intellectual development and learning. Davis maintained that play materials are the most

common tools available during infancy and the early childhood period. Very early in

development, play materials dominate children’s daily activities and play critical role in

helping them construct meaning from their everyday experiences. The use of play materials

in play helps children develop physically, socially, intellectually and creatively (Dike,

2017). Fond memories of childhood Nancy (2020) noticed usually bring to mind a favourite

play material. A cuddly doll, colourful crayons, or a special wagon are all childhood

favourites.

Play materials are fun and they help children learn about themselves, their

environment and the people around them. Anyanwu (2023) observed that children have

general tendency to play, therefore suggested that child-care-givers should provide them with

31
play materials and other materials which they can manipulate and play with. On the other

hand, the national policy on education (Federal Govt. of Nigeria, 2013), recognized the

importance of play materials, hence one of the objectives of pre-primary education is to

inculcate in the child the spirit of inquiry and creativity through the exploration of nature and

the local environment.

Minett (2022) noted that children play happily with different objects which they find

around the house and garden, and that these objects are used as play materials and that these

materials give then much pleasure and help to increase the variety and interest of their games.

This has always been an important part of their lives whether disabled or otherwise.

Oppenheim (2017) however noted that a walk through any play material store shows the huge

variety of play materials that are available today. Among them are puzzles, pegboards and

coloured blocks. He goes on to remark that shelves are stacked high with electronic games

and play materials that mirror all the inventions of the modern world. Nevertheless, he argued

that old favourites such as kites, wagons, and roller skates are still in existence.

Hiller (2019) states that play materials can be seen as the tools of human child,

training him in physical skills, developing his inauguration, and stimulating his thinking. He

further pointed out that play materials imitate in a miniature way the world familiar to

children. Play materials differ according to the part of the world where the children who use

them live, the nature of the society, the period of time in which they grew up and the

materials available. He argues that if play is the child’s work, then, play materials are the

child’s tools, and appropriate play materials can help children do their work well. He further

remarked that play materials are valuable as a record of social history. Children throughout

the world play with similar play materials, such as balls, dolls, games, and puzzles. Play

materials can often be the stimulus to enhance communication and cooperation between

children, between children and parents and also between families. Since ancient times, play

32
materials have played an important role in children’s lives. Play materials are like tools for

learning. The Free Encyclopaedia (2007) sees play materials as a plaything for an infant or

child. It is often an instrument used in a game. When children are provided with safe and

appropriate play materials, as they play with them their abilities and talents unfold, Anyanwu

(2023) concluded. According to Weller (2018), even cave children had balls made from dried

fruits or animal bladders, which could roll and bounce. He buttressed this argument by

asserting that real objects such as sticks, seeds, bones, fruits, rattle and smooth stones may

have been the first play materials which children used in play. The study of Burton (2010)

has made relevant contributions of play materials to play in the development of children. He

further remarked that play materials are said to be as old as the history of man. Misurcova

(2016) pointed out that play materials and play are inseparably linked with childhood and

adolescence and that play material is the material around which play revolves.

Digital play material, integrating multimedia materials in traditional play materials,

computers, tablets, and even smart phones with games installed have also become largely

prevalent as play materials for young children. On one hand, these play materials help bridge

the digital with the physical world, providing children unique and possibly educational

experiences (Yilmaz, 2016). On the other hand, as pointed out by Smilansky (2018), play

materials nowadays seem to promote the “domestication of play” and “solitariness of

childhood”, turning play from being social, collective, and public to being private, personal

and solitary. Despite the controversy, research across cultures e.g. Cheng et al. (2013);

Yilmaz (2016) has shown that these play materials can be effectively used in early childhood

settings for educational purposes if opportunities for collaborative and interactive learning

with peers and teachers are provided.

For a child, a play material represents the world in a realistic or stylized way, the

world which surrounds them, motivates their activity, living and acting. During a play the

33
children use play materials which define the type, manner and richness of their playing

activities. A play with a good, functional play materials encourages the fantasy and

creative thinking, it supports the physical development and it helps a child to integrate into

the world of other people and into their present and future life. The requirements for a good

play material come from the fact that through them the motional, sensorial, mental and

emotional development of a child is encouraged (Jane, 2021).

Bell and Wolfe (2019) argues that play contributes directly to children’s social and

emotional development. But it is play materials that stimulate and prolong play. Bell and

Wolfe (2019) further observes that if children are to discover what they are good at, what

they like and what they are like, they will need variety in their play, and a broad assortment

of play materials to make it possible. Children will play longer when allowed to choose their

play things (Eccles & Templeton, 2022). Play materials should be chosen so that children can

play alone and with others, in active as well as passive play. Some toys and games, board

games, ball games, and large-weight blocks will encourage or require co-operation among

children. According to American Academy of Pediatrics (2014) through rough and tumble

play, children form social bonds, acquire different dominance ranks and learn what behaviors

are acceptable, how to resolve conflicts and they learn right from wrong. While playing

together, children learn to co-operate, follow rules, develop self-esteem, control and learn

generally how to get along with other people. Young children are naturally curious, so

providing them with high quality (which may not mean expensive) materials is necessary.

Benefits of Play Materials

Play materials serve multiple purposes in children's lives, providing entertainment

while fulfilling an educational role. They enhance cognitive behavior, stimulate creativity,

and aid in the development of physical and mental skills necessary for later life. According to

Nancy (2020), play materials offer numerous benefits, including boosting IQ, enhancing

34
development of senses, problem-solving skills, emotional and social development,

concentration, creativity, and imagination. Educational play materials are designed to

increase children's literacy, hand-eye coordination, memorization, motor skills, and

identification skills, ultimately leading to improved IQ. These materials also develop specific

senses, such as sight, sound, and touch. For instance, brightly colored play materials enhance

visual development, while sound-emitting toys stimulate auditory skills.

Play materials like puzzles and games challenge children's minds, encouraging

problem-solving and critical thinking. These tools help children develop essential life skills,

such as captaincy, sharing, and waiting for their turn, promoting social and emotional growth.

Play materials foster healthy bonding, providing children with positive memories and

emotional connections. They associate play materials with love, attention, and happiness,

cultivating sweet childhood memories. This nurturing environment helps children transition

smoothly into adulthood. Moreover, play materials improve concentration, making learning

fun and manageable for children. They spark creativity and imagination, allowing children to

explore and understand their surroundings. Simple objects like blocks, dolls, and balls invite

storytelling and scenario-building, broadening their perspective.

Play materials introduce children to STEAM concepts (science, technology,

engineering, art, and mathematics), teaching valuable lessons through interactive play.

Building towers with blocks, operating remote control cars, and solving puzzles stimulate

curiosity and cognitive development. Play materials refine motor skills, enhancing hand-eye

coordination and physical development. Manipulating play materials, such as grasping,

pushing, and pulling, helps children advance through physical development stages (Burton,

2010).

Types of Play Materials

35
 Gichuba and Nguchu (2021), highlighted types of play materials in their book titled

“General methods of teaching young children and materials development” as:

Functional Play Materials: Functional play is defined as playing with a play material in its

designed purpose such as; drawing with crayons, rolling a ball or dressing up a doll. The

benefit of functional play is to help children make logical sense of the world. A child

develops problem solving skills by better understanding how the world work and operate

together. It is often a child’s first play. After they learn how objects and the world around

them work, they are more likely to move onto imaginative play. Examples of functional play

in preschool include: building blocks into a tower or other imaginative construction, coloring

with crayons, driving matchbox cars along the floor, kicking, throwing or rolling a ball,

pushing a doll in a play stroller, pretend play with baby dolls and figures, painting, cutting

with scissors and snipping paper. Examples of functional play materials include:

 Sporting equipment

 Dolls and doll houses

 Crayons, Colored Pencils, and other art supplies

 Puzzles

 Legos

 Trucks and trains

 Books

Constructive Play Materials:

Constructive play is when children use different materials to create or build

something. It's often organised, and focused on a goal. Constructive play is all about building,

shaping, and manipulating things to create something new. It brings together so many skills

and helps children develop a whole host of new ones. In Preschool constructive play, children

36
are creating something new. Intentionally and creatively, they are being curious and

approaching that curiosity with hands-on inquiry, they are moving from a functional

understanding to a clear idea of the properties of what they're dealing with. Examples of

constructive play in Preschool include: building blanket forts, stacking blocks, creating lego

scenes and structures, making sandcastles and playing in the sand, drawing and painting

pictures, creating bracelets and necklaces, having fun with play dough and creating all sorts

of things with it, including play food, people, and animals, writing a story, starting and

completing a puzzle, creating sculptures or art with recycled materials, woodworking, making

a tunnel from recycled boxes, creating an art project from natural materials gathered from a

nature walk, creating an obstacle course. Examples of constructive play materials include:

 Wood of different sizes and shapes

 Sticks and stones and other natural materials

 Water

 Sand and tools

 Car tyres or wagon wheels

 Wooden building blocks

 Recycled materials like cardboard boxes

 Train tracks

 Lego or Duplo blocks

 Cogs and wheels

 Paint and brush.

Games with Rules Play Materials

Any play which has imposed rules to be followed by the players is games

with rules play. This is the last type of play documented by Piaget. To successfully take

part in this type of play, children must first have the cognitive ability to understand and

37
remember the rules. These games also require children to self-regulate. They will need to

control their own desires and needs in order to follow the rules of the game. This play

involves pre-set rules with the aid of play materials such as board games, ball games,

chanting, and skipping games. This type of play becomes dominant as children reach school

age. Through this type of play children learn and practice cooperation, mutual understanding,

and logical thinking. Examples of games with rules play in preschool include: musical

Chairs, card Games, hopscotch, who is in the garden, who stole the meat from the cooking

pot, fire on the mountain, hide and seek, dominoes, treasure hunt, dice games, board games,

alphabet games, draw Swords, Puzzle games. Examples of Play Materials used in playing

games with rules include:

 Board games

 Dice

 Puzzles

 Building blocks

 Chess board

 Dominoes

 Cards (game cards)

 Modeling clay

 Balls

 Children dictionary

 Costumes and accessories.

Collaborative play Materials:

Collaboration is the act of working together to reach a shared goal and it’s an

important skill for children to learn in order to succeed both socially and academically in later

life. Unlike competitive games, collaborative play encourages children to cooperate with each

38
other in order to achieve a shared goal. This often involves taking turns, following rules,

sharing, negotiating, compromising and so on, which are all valuable skills that are important

for children to learn. In collaborative play children engage in activities together, working

collaboratively towards a common goal or shared outcome, they interact with each other in a

positive and supportive manner, sharing ideas, resources, and responsibilities. The focus is on

teamwork and social interaction rather than competition. Examples of collaborative play in

preschool include: creating a massive fort with blankets, cushions, and furniture, play

“monster tag,” in which everyone must work together to catch the “monster” and bring them

to “jail,” put up a puppet show or a play with a tale that everyone contributes to design and

act out, set up a scavenger hunt with clues and items concealed about the house or yard for

everyone to uncover, build a “city” out of blocks or Lego, with each kid designing their own

structure and then connecting them to form a larger community, play a “freeze dance” game

in which everyone must halt and freeze anytime the music stops. Examples of Play

materials for collaborative play include:

 Building blocks and construction sets

 Board games

 Jigsaw puzzles

 Musical instruments

 Science kits

Need for Numeracy in Preschools

The need for numeracy in the pre-primary education cannot be over emphasized.

Numeracy is an important aspects of cognitive skills. Cognitive skills such as literacy,

creativity, problem solving cannot be considered as complete without numeracy skills, such

as: adding, sorting by colours and by shapes. Numeracy is very important to preschoolers and

to a large extent determines their performance. For instance, Oyinloye and Babalola (2022)

39
and Popoola (2020) noted that many students at post primary education levels performed

poorly in numerical tasks, and this situation has been traced to deficient numeracy skills at

kindergarten level (Suporitz et al., 2012). Their interest might not have been aroused and

sustained during their pre-primary education experiences. In most cases, they were not

exposed to numeracy skills through play which is widely acknowledged as the best way

children can learn. Teachers often introduce numeracy to the pupils through demonstration

rather than involving them in the real activities through play. Children ought to be helped

early enough to develop positive attitude towards numeracy because they will need to build

their future academic attainments especially in Mathematics on the knowledge acquired

during the preschool years.

Numeracy skills are fundamental mathematical skills that comprise a range of skills to

Comprehend and evaluate numerical information and to make the right deductions and

decisions. They also include the capacity to express ideas and situations using numerical or

mathematical information. According to Clement (2018), to have numeracy skills does not

mean that the child must be a great mathematician, it means the child has some fundamental

math skills which include having the knowledge of numbers and figures, understanding

connections between numbers, Counting, solving number problems, measuring, sorting, not

patterns, subtracting and adding numbers ability to remember visual perception of

information the ability to organize information showing Calculation skills, measurement and

understanding trends. He further explained that the learning of numeracy skill begins when a

child is born and this happens from watching and experiencing the action in everyday

activities and play. Examples are in the Counting of fingers, toes and play materials,

recognizing numbers and shapes on the television screen and phones or in books.

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 With numeracy skills children understand the Concept of size, height, weight; speed

distance, and order. They learn differentiate between big and small, high and low, heavy and

light, fist and Slow, Close and far, first, second and last in their everyday, activities. As

children understand these concepts their problem solving skills is being enhanced, leading to

development of their cognitive skills (Moomaw, 2018).

Play Materials and Numeracy Skills in Preschoolers

The significance of play materials in numeracy cannot be over-emphasized as it

enhances quality of understanding, abilities and interest in numeracy skills like addition,

matching symbols, identifying patterns and paring numbers and values. According to

Landreth (2022), play may be physical, social, intellectual or emotional, nevertheless, its

nature and complexity varies as the child grows older and thus pre-school caregivers would

need to select the appropriate types of play materials/activities, and environment for the play.

Feldman (2020), argues that as with all other types of play, play with objects often also

incorporates other types of play, as it clearly has physical and manipulative aspects. For

example, children will construct knowledge about the properties of objects when they are

provided with blocks of different sizes, shapes, and colours, they also use them to compare,

sort and build.

Puzzles and other fine motor play materials help children explore many cognitive

concepts. Children observe each puzzle piece and then fit it into the correct spot, they

maintain their attention to the task as they turn the piece to fit. Shape puzzles and shape

sorters help children explore mathematics concepts such as geometric shapes and sizes.

Puzzles develop memory skills, as well as ability to plan, test ideas and solve problems.

While completing a puzzle, children need to remember shapes, colours, positions and

strategies to complete them. Lacing beads and pegboards can be used to point out patterns

such as alternating colours of the beads or pegs, as well as talking about mathematics

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concepts such as; longer, shorter, bigger or smaller. Play materials that involve pushing a

button, sliding a slider or turning a handle to make something happen; help children learn

about the concept of ‘cause and effect’ (Moomaw, 2018).

Moyles (2018), explains that pretend play materials allow children to make choices

about what role to take on, what situations to act out and how to interact with costumes or

play material figures and this also stimulates children’s memory for events and activities in

their homes or communities as children sometimes re-enact these events and activities. In

addition, it also allows the children to practice sequencing, as they string together actions to

act out a story or play idea. When children have opportunity to explore different texture of

their play materials with their hands in safe and supervised way, it lays a solid foundation for

their cognitive development .While Papalia (2021), in his own view believed that children

can learn mathematical concepts by playing games that require them to figure out how to use

mathematics skills. They can also practice mathematics by working on a series of basic

problems such as having a jar of marbles and trying to find out the differences in the amounts

of certain colours. Understanding logic, reasoning, hypothetical and imaginative ways of

thinking are major components of problem-solving. In any play setting, children practice

exploring these skills when they engage in manipulating their play materials.

Copple (2020), has it that playing with play materials nurtures the development of

skills such as literacy and numeracy in ways that are meaningful to the child. It helps children

develop good interpersonal skills and helps children learn to problem-solve, negotiate

conflicts and think for themselves, when children play they integrate all types of learning and

development. Citing the following examples, Copple (2020) established the importance of

play materials on cognitive skills development:

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 Playing with blocks lays the foundation for logical mathematical thinking, scientific

reasoning and cognitive problem solving, and helps children improve their visual

memory;

 When children play with blocks they learn to match, classify and sort by shape and

size, which is an important skill for many types of learning;

 When children draw pictures they are learning to use symbols to represent their ideas,

which is a necessary skill for learning to read and write;

 When children string beads they are improving their eye-hand coordination, which is

needed for learning to write;

 When children mix two colours of paint together to make another colour, they are

developing an understanding of cause and effect;

 When children pretend-play together, they are improving their language skills, social

skills, and they are developing an understanding of social expectations, including

empathy;

 Exploring and manipulating play materials allow children to use their imaginations to

explore and discover their world.

Burton (2010), stated that it is imperative to note that during the first half of the

preoperational stage, children are in the “symbolic function sub-stage.” Children at this stage

are generally two- to four-years old, they represent one object with another and use symbols

and signs, such as numbers and they do all these through pretend play which then leads to the

“intuitive thought sub-stage” in which children are not logical, but think intuitively. Children

at this stage ask many questions and are very curious. Also, it is important to note that

education in the early years is all about play-based and hands-on learning. This is also true

for math! Children naturally explore mathematical concepts through play every day. Sorting,

organizing, lining up toys, and counting objects are examples of maths naturally occurring

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daily? Other examples include recognizing shapes and colors, putting together puzzle pieces

or Lego blocks, or making comparative statements like “I am two years older than my sister!”

By building in these preschool math concepts in a fun and engaging way, Elke (2022),

believed that one can promote a love of math for your preschool-aged child while introducing

them to the essential skills they will use in the years to come. Oyeniran (2019), believed that

‘all children can be successful with maths provided they are given the opportunities to

understand it in a way that makes sense to them, and ensure that they have a good foundation

in it. Children at the onset of preschool age, as revealed by Oyeniran (2019), are beginning to

explore patterns and shapes, compare sizes and count objects. They gradually learn the names

of numbers as they learn how to speak properly. By the age of 3, many of them can memorize

1 to 10, recite poems with numbers and are beginning to count small sets of objects

successfully. He also explained that there are many ways to increase mathematical skills and

knowledge by playing with blocks. Playing with blocks increases the ability to understand

sizes, shapes and patterns which will lead to increased skills in counting, adding, subtracting

and sorting. Oyeniran (2019), explained further that the use of educative play materials is an

interesting way to get preschoolers to learn fast. By playing educational games and doing

puzzles, children improve their spatial awareness and perception skills. Stacking cubes and

arranging them in size order teaches children to compare, categorise and organise whilst

entertaining the creative side of the mind, he affirmed that block play leads to increased skills

in counting, adding, subtracting and sorting.

Nursery rhymes are a great way for preschoolers to learn, they are part of children’s

pre-literacy skills, being an important pillar in their cognitive development. Many rhymes

offer a range of ideas to promote interest and understanding in number, shape, measurement,

patterns, mathematical language and problem-solving. There are many nursery rhymes that

use numbers in the content of the rhymes, such as “One, two, three, four, five” and “Hot cross

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buns,” so children practice counting, addition and subtraction while just singing along to the

song (Ojala, 2021).

The Position Statement of The National Association for the Education of Young

Children on Early Childhood Mathematics (2010), posited that “Mathematics helps children

to make sense of their world outside of school and help them construct a solid foundation for

success in school.” Children have a natural and spontaneous interest in math as they wonder

which items are bigger and sort different play materials by type. The statement explains

further that numeracy experiences provided by parents at home are predictive of children’s

numeracy skills (ordering, classification) in kindergarten. Preschoolers can develop an

understanding of numbers, spatial concepts (shapes, measurement) and the ability to sort,

classify and solve problems, if teachers can support children’s cognitive development by

offering intentional opportunities for children to gain a variety of math skills. The NAEYC

and the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2022) outlined the following as

particularly important parts of preschool math learning and how play and play materials are

used to enhance the learning:

 Numbers: In preschool math, children learn about numbers by counting objects and

discussing the results. "You gave Chris six goldfish crackers. How many does Susie

need?" Children count spaces on board games. They count the days until their

birthdays. The teacher might say, "Yesterday there were 12 days until your birthday.

How many days are there now?" Preschoolers read counting books and recite nursery

rhymes with numbers.

 Geometry and spatial relations: Children practice constructing shapes and

discussing their properties. They see skinny triangles and fat triangles and upside-

down triangles and gradually realize that they are all still triangles.

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 Measurement: Children compare the height of a block tower with the height of a

desk or table. They measure each other and the distance from the kitchen corner to the

water table. They learn that this block is too short to make a bridge over the road.

Preschool math teachers reinforce children's findings by asking questions and making

observations: "I wonder if this block is long enough to bridge the road. Let's try it."

 Patterns/geometry: Children become aware of patterns in their clothes. They learn to

recognize patterns of different colors and sizes in beads and blocks. They practice

reproducing simple patterns by stringing beads and copying designs with colored

blocks.

 Analyzing data: Children sort objects by color, size, and shape, count them, and

record the data on graphs and charts. These charts might reflect the class pet's growth,

the number of rainy days in February, how many bean plants have sprouted, or the

number of children with a birthday in March.

As pointed out by Piaget (1962), children learn best when given opportunities to

explore and interact with the world around them. Vygotsky takes this notion a step further,

asserting that a child’s social interactions with peers and adults also play a key role in one’s

cognitive learning. With that being said, it isn’t a surprise that many leading researchers are

pointing out play as one of the most influential ways for preschoolers to experience math.

This hands-on approach to learning offers young children the opportunity to experiment with

toys and materials within the social context of a classroom where math concepts find their

way into each child’s conversations and play. Young children naturally compare, observe,

and problem solve mathematically in their learning environment. A child’s play is the source

of their first mathematical experiences (Clements, 2018). Opportunity for play allows

children to learn through trial and error exploration as well as through peer interactions.

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Children are more engaged and motivated when learning is self-directed and self-initiated

with plenty of opportunities to connect these experiences with activities that are of interest.

Young children should be exposed to mathematical concepts in daily routines, natural

contexts, and in real life activities connected across all areas of learning. As Clements (2018)

suggests, “High quality teaching in mathematics is about challenge and joy, not imposition

and pressure” and quality education in math goes beyond drills and practice in counting and

adding.

2.1.3 Building Blocks and Preschoolers’ Acquisition of Number Identification Skills

Building blocks are a versatile and effective tool for developing number sense in

preschoolers. These play materials provide children with hands-on experiences that help them

explore mathematical concepts in a concrete and engaging way. By using building blocks to

support children's learning, educators can help them develop a strong foundation in number

sense that will set the stage for future mathematical success (Peterson et al., 2020). Building

blocks provide children with a hands-on and interactive way to explore mathematical

concepts. By physically manipulating the blocks, children can develop a concrete

understanding of numbers and quantities, as well as the relationships between them. Building

blocks also help children develop spatial awareness and geometric reasoning skills. As

children stack, sort, and arrange the blocks, they learn about size, shape, and spatial

relationships. This spatial reasoning is an important component of mathematical thinking and

can help children develop a deeper understanding of number concepts. With building blocks,

children are provided with a sensory experience that engages multiple senses. By touching,

feeling, and manipulating the blocks, children can engage their tactile and kinesthetic senses,

which can help them internalize mathematical concepts and develop a strong connection to

the material. Furthermore, building blocks encourage creativity and imaginative play.

Children can use the blocks to build structures, create patterns, and engage in open-ended

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play. This creative play helps children develop problem-solving skills, critical thinking, and

decision-making skills, all of which are essential for mathematical learning.

Clements and Sarama (2018), pointed out that there are several types of building

blocks that can be used to support children's development of number sense in preschool. Each

type of building block offers unique benefits and opportunities for learning. Some of the most

common types of building blocks used in early childhood education include:

1. Wooden Blocks: Wooden blocks are a classic and versatile type of building block

that can be used to support children's development of number sense. Wooden blocks

come in a variety of shapes and sizes, allowing children to explore concepts such as

size, shape, and spatial relationships. Wooden blocks are also durable and long-

lasting, making them a practical choice for preschool settings.

2. Plastic Blocks: Plastic blocks are another popular type of building block that can be

used to support children's development of number sense. Plastic blocks are

lightweight and easy to manipulate, making them ideal for young children. Plastic

blocks come in a variety of colors and shapes, allowing children to explore concepts

such as color recognition, patterning, and sorting.

3. Magnetic Blocks: Magnetic blocks are a modern and innovative type of building

block that can be used to support children's development of number sense. Magnetic

blocks feature magnets that allow the blocks to stick together, creating endless

possibilities for building and creating. Magnetic blocks can help children develop

spatial reasoning skills and explore concepts such as symmetry and balance.

4. Foam Blocks: Foam blocks are a soft and lightweight type of building block that can

be used to support children's development of number sense. Foam blocks are safe and

easy to manipulate, making them ideal for young children. Foam blocks come in a

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 variety of shapes and sizes, allowing children to explore concepts such as size, shape,

and spatial relationships.

5. Pattern Blocks: Pattern blocks are a type of building block that feature geometric

shapes such as triangles, squares, and hexagons. Pattern blocks can be used to support

children's development of number sense by allowing them to explore concepts such as

symmetry, patterning, and shape recognition. Pattern blocks are also a versatile tool

for teaching early geometry concepts.

There are many practical strategies and activities that educators can use to promote

numeracy skills in preschoolers using building blocks. These strategies and activities are

designed to engage children in hands-on learning experiences that help them develop a strong

foundation in numeracy. Some of the key strategies and activities for using building blocks to

acquire number identification skills in preschoolers as highlighted by Clement and Sarama

(2018) include:

1. Number Recognition:

 Use building blocks with numbers printed on them (e.g., 1-10)

 Have children match numbers to corresponding quantities (e.g., 3 blocks for

the number 3)

 Play "What's Missing?" games, where children identify missing numbers in a

sequence

2. Number Quantity:

 Use building blocks to represent quantities (e.g., 3 blocks for the number 3)

 Have children count blocks to understand the relationship between numbers

and quantities

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  Play "How Many?" games, where children identify the quantity represented by

a set of blocks

3. Number Symbolism:

 Use building blocks with numerals printed on them (e.g., 1-10)

 Have children match numerals to corresponding quantities (e.g., 3 blocks for

the numeral 3)

 Play "Symbol Match" games, where children match numerals to

corresponding quantities

Using a skill-building framework, block building activities provide children with

opportunities to gain skills that are both directly related to mathematics (e.g., counting

blocks) and indirectly related. Perhaps block building facilitates more complex spatial

reasoning that is employed during later mathematics learning. Prior correlational studies

support links between children’s mathematical skills and spatial construction skills. An

experimental study by Schmitt and Colleagues (2018) found that providing preschoolers with

a play-based, semi-structured block-building intervention marginally helped improve their

numeracy, shape recognition, and mathematical language skills. The researchers speculated

that during block-building experiences, children need to count the number of blocks and

visualize where blocks go in the structure before placing them. Thus, block building may

provide children with direct mathematical experiences, such as counting, sorting, measuring,

and classifying (Park et al., 2008; Yelland, 2011). By incorporating building blocks into

mathematics education, educators and caregivers can provide preschoolers with a solid

foundation for mathematical development particularly in the acquisition of number

identification skills

2.1.4 Puzzles and Preschoolers’ Acquisition of Number sequencing Skills

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 Puzzles are a type of game or activity that challenges and exercises the mind, they are

a fun and engaging way to exercise the brain and improve cognitive abilities (Ball & Giles,

2013). They usually involve problem-solving, reasoning, and critical thinking skills. Puzzles

come in various forms, including jigsaw puzzles, crossword puzzles, Sudoku, riddles, logic

puzzles, and brain teasers. The challenge in solving puzzles lies in finding patterns, making

connections, and using deductive reasoning to come up with the correct solution. One of the

most popular forms of puzzles is the jigsaw puzzle. Jigsaw puzzles consist of pieces that need

to be fitted together to form a complete picture. This type of puzzle requires spatial

awareness, visual perception, and patience to complete. Research has shown that working on

jigsaw puzzles can improve memory, concentration, and cognitive abilities (Hays, 2020).

Crossword puzzles are word-based puzzles where players are given clues to solve and fill in

words on a grid. These puzzles test vocabulary, general knowledge, and word association

skills. Studies have shown that solving crossword puzzles can help improve language skills,

memory, and problem-solving abilities (Von Ahn et al., 2018).

Lester et al. (2020), describe ‘Sudoku’ as a number puzzle that involves filling a 9x9

grid with numbers so that each row, column, and 3x3 sub-grid contains all the numbers from

1 to 9. This puzzle challenges players to use logical thinking and deductive reasoning to solve

it. Research has found that playing Sudoku can enhance logical reasoning, concentration, and

cognitive abilities.

Logic puzzles according to Ball and Giles (2013), are another type of puzzle that

involves using clues and reasoning to determine the solution. These puzzles often require

thinking outside the box and making connections between pieces of information. Solving

logic puzzles can improve problem-solving skills, critical thinking, and decision-making

abilities. Brain teasers are short puzzles or riddles that challenge the brain with tricky or

51
clever problems. These puzzles often require lateral thinking and creative solutions. Working

on brain teasers can stimulate the brain, improve memory, and enhance cognitive flexibility

(Rummel, 2012).

As revealed by Von Ahn et al. (2018), common puzzles found in preschools include:

1. Shape matching puzzles

2. Number puzzles

3. Alphabet puzzles

4. Animal puzzles

5. Vehicle puzzles

6. Color matching puzzles

7. Pattern puzzles

8. Story sequencing puzzles

9. Object matching puzzles

10. Insect puzzle

According to Fuson et al. (2017), the skills children need to acquire in number
sequencing include:

1. Number Order: understanding the sequence of numbers (e.g., 1, 2, 3)

2. Number Patterns: recognizing and creating patterns using numbers (e.g., 2, 4, 6, 8)

3. Number Relationships: understanding relationships between numbers, such as

"before" and "after" (e.g., 3 comes before 4)

4. Number Progression: understanding how numbers progress in a sequence (e.g.,

counting up or down)

Some of the activities for using Puzzles to Acquire Number Sequencing Skills as highlighted
by Clement and Sarama (2018), include:

1. Number Order:

52
  Use number sequencing puzzles with missing numbers (e.g., 1, 2, __, 4)

 Have children complete the sequence by inserting the correct number

 Gradually increase the difficulty by using larger numbers or more complex

sequences

2. Number Patterns:

 Use puzzle pieces with numbers or shapes that follow a specific pattern (e.g.,

alternating colors or shapes)

 Have children identify and complete the pattern by placing the correct puzzle

piece

 Encourage children to create their own patterns using puzzle pieces

3. Number Relationships:

 Use puzzles that require children to identify "before" and "after" relationships

between numbers (e.g., 3 comes before 4)

 Have children complete puzzles that require them to identify missing numbers

in a sequence (e.g., 1, 2, __, 4)

 Use puzzles that require children to identify number relationships, such as

"greater than" or "less than" (e.g., 3 > 2)

4. Number Progression:

 Use puzzles that require children to count up or down to complete a sequence

(e.g., 1, 2, 3, __, 5)

 Have children complete puzzles that require them to identify missing numbers

in a sequence (e.g., 2, 4, __, 8)

 Use puzzles that require children to identify number patterns, such as counting

by 2s or 5s (e.g., 2, 4, 6, __, 10)

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 Puzzles are a fun and interactive way for preschoolers to develop their numeracy

skills. Numeracy skills involve understanding and working with numbers, as well as the

ability to use mathematical concepts in daily life. Through completing puzzles, children can

enhance their problem-solving abilities, spatial awareness, and cognitive development, all of

which are essential for building a strong foundation in numeracy. One of the key benefits of

puzzles is that they promote critical thinking and problem-solving skills. When children

engage in puzzles, they are required to think logically and strategically to find the correct

solution. This process helps them to develop their reasoning abilities, enabling them to

understand and manipulate numbers more effectively. By working through puzzles,

preschoolers can learn to recognize patterns, make connections between different elements,

and apply mathematical concepts in a practical setting (Ginsburg, 2016).

Hays (2020), says puzzles help to improve spatial awareness and visual perception in

young children. He explained further that many puzzles involve manipulating pieces to fit

together in a specific way, which encourages children to use their spatial reasoning skills.

This can be particularly beneficial for developing a child's understanding of geometry and

spatial relationships, which are important components of numeracy. By engaging in puzzles

that require spatial awareness, preschoolers can enhance their ability to visualize and

mentally manipulate numbers and shapes.

Research has shown that engaging in activities that challenge the brain, such as

puzzles, can help to strengthen neural connections and enhance cognitive functions. By

exercising their brains through puzzle-solving, children can improve their memory, attention

span, and processing speed, all of which are essential for developing numeracy skills. As

children tackle increasingly complex puzzles, they are able to build upon these cognitive

abilities, ultimately leading to better mathematical proficiency (Mix & Cheng, 2012). In

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addition to these cognitive benefits, puzzles can also help to foster a positive attitude towards

numeracy in preschoolers. By presenting mathematical concepts in a fun and engaging way,

puzzles can make learning enjoyable and rewarding for children. This can help to counteract

any anxiety or aversion that some children may have towards math, encouraging them to

approach numeracy with confidence and enthusiasm.

Puzzles are an effective tool for supporting the acquisition of numeracy skills in

preschoolers. By engaging in puzzle-solving activities, children can develop their critical

thinking, spatial awareness, cognitive abilities, and positive attitudes towards math. Through

these experiences, preschoolers can build a strong foundation in numeracy that will serve

them well as they continue to learn and grow (Park et al., 2016).

2.1.5 Counters and Preschoolers’ Acquisition of Counting Skills

Counters are manipulative objects used in early childhood education to facilitate the

development of numeracy skills in young children, they are physical objects that are used to

represent numbers and aid in counting, sorting, and grouping. In other words, they are used to

help children understand basic math concepts such as counting, sorting, patterning, addition,

and subtraction. Fuson et al. (2017) explained that counters come in a variety of shapes, sizes,

colors, and materials, such as plastic bears, wooden cubes, colored chips, and counting beads

and can be used in a variety of ways to support children's understanding of numbers and

mathematical concepts, including:

1. Counting: Counters can be used to practice counting objects, matching a number to a

set of objects, and understanding the concept of one-to-one correspondence.

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2. Sorting and grouping: Counters can be sorted and grouped in various ways, such as

by color, size, shape, or attribute. This helps children develop their classification and

categorization skills.

3. Addition and subtraction: Counters can be used to model addition and subtraction

problems, allowing children to physically manipulate objects to represent

mathematical operations.

4. Patterning: Counters can be arranged in patterns, such as AB, AAB, or AABB

patterns, to help children develop their patterning skills.

5. Measurement: Counters can be used to compare and measure objects by length,

weight, or volume, helping children develop their measurement skills.

There are numerous types of counters that can be used in early childhood education to

support children's numeracy skills acquisition. Some common examples as listed by Sarama

et al. (2016), include:

1. Wooden cubes: Wooden cubes are versatile counters that can be stacked, sorted, and

used for addition and subtraction activities.

2. Counting beads: Counting beads are small beads that can be threaded onto a string to

represent numbers and aid in counting activities.

3. Unifix cubes: Unifix cubes are interlocking cubes that can be used for counting,

sorting, patterning, and measurement activities.

4. Counting Bears: Small, colorful bear-shaped counters that can be used for counting,

sorting, and basic math operations.

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5. Colorful Chips: Round, flat counters in different colors that can be used for counting,

sorting, and representing quantities.

6. Miniature Animals: Small animal-shaped counters that can be used for counting,

sorting, and categorizing in math activities.

7. Buttons: Small, colorful buttons that can be used as counters for counting, sorting,

and patterning activities.

8. Pom-Poms: Soft, fuzzy balls that can be used as counters for counting, sorting, and

simple math.

9. Number Lines: Visual representations of numbers in sequence, often used with

counters

10. Hundreds Charts: visual representations of numbers 1-100, often used with counters

Research has shown that the use of counters in early childhood education can have a

positive impact on preschoolers' numeracy skills acquisition. By providing hands-on,

concrete experiences with numbers and mathematical concepts, counters help children

develop a deep understanding of mathematical concepts and build a strong foundation for

future learning. Some of the key effects of counters on preschoolers' numeracy skills

acquisition as highlighted by Sarama and Clement (2019), include:

1. Developing number sense: Counters help children develop a sense of the quantity

and magnitude of numbers by providing a visual and tactile representation of

numbers. This helps children understand the concept of numbers as abstract entities

and develop a strong number sense.

2. Promoting one-to-one correspondence: Counters help children practice matching a

number to a set of objects and develop the concept of one-to-one correspondence.

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 This skill is essential for counting accurately and understanding the relationship

between numbers and quantities.

3. Supporting mathematical operations: Counters can be used to model addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division problems, allowing children to physically

manipulate objects to represent mathematical operations. This helps children develop

a deep understanding of mathematical operations and build a strong foundation for

future learning.

4. Encouraging problem-solving skills: Counters can be used to solve mathematical

problems and engage children in hands-on, interactive learning experiences. This

helps children develop their problem-solving skills and build a positive attitude

towards mathematics.

5. Enhancing critical thinking skills: Counters can be used to engage children in open-

ended, exploratory activities that require critical thinking and reasoning skills. This

helps children develop their cognitive abilities and become more confident and

competent learners.

Activities to enhance counting in preschoolers using counters as listed by Clement and

Sarama (2018), include:

1. One-to-One Correspondence:

 Use counters to demonstrate one-to-one correspondence (e.g., counting blocks,

toys, or other objects)

 Have children count counters and match them to corresponding numbers

2. Number Sequence:

 Use counters to create a number line or hundreds chart

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  Have children count counters and identify the corresponding numbers in

sequence

3. Cardinality:

 Use counters to demonstrate cardinality (e.g., counting a set of blocks and

saying "I have 5 blocks")

 Have children count counters and identify the total quantity

4. Counting On:

 Use counters to demonstrate counting on (e.g., starting from 5 counters and

counting up to 10)

 Have children practice counting on using counters

5. Counting Back:

 Use counters to demonstrate counting back (e.g., starting from 10 counters and

counting down to 5)

 Have children practice counting back using counters

There is a growing body of research that supports the use of counters in early

childhood education to support children's numeracy skills acquisition. Several studies have

demonstrated the benefits of using counters in the classroom and have highlighted the

positive impact of counters on children's mathematical learning. Some key findings from

research on the use of counters in early childhood education include:

One study conducted by Fuson, Smith, and Lo Cicero (2017) examined the effects of

manipulatives on preschoolers' understanding of number concepts. The researchers found that

children who had access to manipulatives, such as counters, showed greater mathematical

understanding and problem-solving skills compared to children who did not have access to

59
these materials. The study demonstrated the importance of providing children with hands-on

learning experiences to support their numeracy development.

In another study by Sarama, Clements, Wolfe, and Spitler (2016), researchers

investigated the impact of using manipulatives, including counters, on preschoolers'

mathematical thinking and understanding. The results indicated that children who engaged

with manipulatives in math activities demonstrated a deeper understanding of mathematical

concepts and were able to transfer their knowledge to new situations. The study highlighted

the importance of incorporating manipulatives into early childhood math instruction to

support children's numeracy skills acquisition.

2.1.6 Board Games and Preschoolers’ Acquisition of Basic Addition Skills

Board games are tabletop games that often involve players moving pieces on a pre-

marked surface according to a set of rules. Players compete against one another to achieve a

specific goal, such as capturing an opponent's pieces or reaching a specific location on the

board (Bassok & O’Donnell 2013). Board games can vary greatly in complexity, from simple

games designed for young children to complex strategic games that require critical thinking

skills. According to Uttal (2019), the aim of board games is to entertain players, challenge

their skills, or to provide a healthy competition. Board games can be played by individuals or

in groups and can vary in complexity, from simple games suitable for young children to

complex strategy games designed for adults. While board games have been around for

centuries, they continue to be popular forms of entertainment, enjoyed by people of all ages.

There are countless board games available, each with its own set of rules, objectives,

and playing pieces. Some popular examples of board games include:

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1. Monopoly: A classic board game where players buy, sell, and trade properties to

become the wealthiest player.

2. Scrabble: A word game where players form words with letter tiles on a game board

for points.

3. Chess: A strategic game of skill where players move their pieces to capture their

opponent's king.

4. Ticket to Ride: A railway-themed strategy game where players collect train cards to

claim routes and build railways across North America.

5. Candy Land: A simple and colorful game where players move their game pieces

along a winding path to reach the end.

6. Catan: A competitive resource management game where players trade and build

settlements on an uninhabited island.

7. Clue: A murder mystery game where players solve a crime by deducing the suspect,

weapon, and location (McManis & Gunnewig, 2013).

Board games have been shown to have a positive impact on preschoolers' number

sense skills acquisition. Playing board games can help children develop skills such as

counting, number recognition, spatial awareness, and problem-solving. By engaging in game

play, children are exposed to mathematical concepts in a fun and interactive way, helping

them build a strong foundation for further math learning. Bassok and O’Donnell (2013) listed

some ways in which board games can benefit preschoolers' numeracy skills acquisition as

follows:

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1. Number Recognition: Many board games require players to recognize and identify

numbers on dice, cards, or game boards. Through repeated exposure to numbers

during gameplay, preschoolers can improve their ability to recognize and distinguish

numbers.

2. Counting: Board games often involve counting spaces, moving game pieces a certain

number of spaces, or tallying points. By practicing counting during gameplay,

preschoolers can develop their counting skills and understand the concept of

numerical order.

3. Addition and Subtraction: Some board games involve simple addition or

subtraction tasks, such as adding points, subtracting penalties, or calculating the total

sum of dice rolls. By performing these calculations during gameplay, preschoolers

can practice basic arithmetic skills and improve their mental math abilities.

4. Problem-Solving: Board games challenge players to think strategically, make

decisions, and solve problems to achieve their objectives. Preschoolers can enhance

their problem-solving skills by analyzing game situations, planning their moves, and

considering various outcomes.

5. Spatial Awareness: Many board games require players to understand spatial

relationships, such as moving pieces on a grid, arranging objects in a sequence, or

navigating a game board. By developing spatial awareness during gameplay,

preschoolers can enhance their understanding of shapes, patterns, and directions.

6. Turn-Taking and Sharing: Board games teach preschoolers valuable social skills,

such as taking turns, following rules, and sharing with others. By playing board games

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 with friends or family members, preschoolers can practice patience, communication,

and cooperation while improving their numeracy skills.

7. Engagement and Motivation: Board games provide a hands-on and interactive

learning experience that can capture preschoolers' interest and motivation. By

engaging in gameplay that is enjoyable and rewarding, preschoolers are more likely to

stay focused, participate actively, and learn new numeracy skills effectively.

According to Clement and Sarama (2018), the following activities can be incorporated into

preschoolers’ programmes using board games to enhance basic addition skills in preschoolers

1. Number Sense:

 Play board games that involve number recognition, such as "What's Missing?"

or "Number Bingo"

 Use games that involve counting, such as "Candy Land" or "Chutes and

Ladders"

2. Addition Facts:

 Play board games that focus on basic addition facts, such as "Addition War" or

"Math Bingo"

 Use games that involve rolling dice and adding numbers, such as "Shut the

Box" or "Math Dice"

3. Counting On:

 Play board games that involve counting on, such as "Counting Bears" or

"Number Lines"

 Use games that involve moving game pieces around a board, such as "Candy

Land" or "Chutes and Ladders"

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4. Basic Addition Algorithms:

 Play board games that involve using blocks or other manipulatives to represent

numbers, such as "Base-Ten Blocks" or "Number Tiles"

 Use games that involve using fingers or other counting strategies, such as

"Math Bingo" or "Addition War"

5. Mental Math:

 Play board games that involve mental math, such as "Math Bingo" or "24

Game"

 Use games that involve quick calculations, such as "Math War" or "Math

Dice"

In a study conducted by Fuson et al. (2008), researchers found that children who

played board games regularly showed significant improvement in their number sense skills

compared to those who did not play such games. The study concluded that board games can

be an effective tool for promoting mathematical development in young children.

2.1.7 Building Blocks and Preschoolers’ Acquisition of Shape Identification Skills

Geometry is a branch of mathematics that studies the sizes, shapes, positions, and

dimensions of things. “Geometric and spatial thinking are important in and of themselves,

because they connect mathematics and the physical world and because they support the

development of number and arithmetic concepts and skills” (Ginsburg, 2016).

Geometry covers the skills and concepts of visualization, spatial reasoning and

representation, and analyzing characteristics and properties of two- and three-dimensional

shapes and their relationships (Clement & Sarama, 2018). In the Kansas Mathematics

Standards, geometry spans every grade level from kindergarten to grade eight; it first begins

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with spatial sense, an intuition about shapes and the .relationships between them including an

ability to recognize, visualize, represent, and transform geometric shapes.

In early childhood, geometry includes concepts of two- and three-dimensional shapes,

space, and position (Sarama & Clements, 2008). The van Hiele (1986) model is a common

guide for understanding how geometric reasoning develops, encompassing five levels of

understanding (Clements & Sarama, 2021). Children begin with visual recognition of basic

shapes and figures and may eventually progress to rigorous use of geometric theories and

reasoning usually during adulthood. Piaget et al. (1960) proposed that geometric

understanding, specifically spatial awareness, begins by noticing attributes of objects (e.g.,

size) and their location in space. During early childhood, children develop ways of

representing these properties; these early skills serve as a foundation for the eventual grasp of

plane geometry (Ginsburg 2016; Piaget et.al 1960). As with numeracy skills, children

develop broad, foundational geometry skills even before school entry (Geary et al.,

2018).Clement and Sarama (2014), believed that in the early years of a child's development,

exposure to geometric concepts and shapes is crucial for building a strong foundation in

mathematics, preschoolers in particular, benefit greatly from hands-on experiences that allow

them to explore and manipulate shapes in a concrete way. They affirmed building blocks to

be a popular educational tool that can be used to facilitate the development of preschoolers'

geometry skills.

Ginsburg (2016), explained that building blocks are versatile and engaging tools that

offer numerous benefits for preschoolers' geometry skills development, Ginsburg highlighted

some of the key benefits as follows:

1. Spatial Awareness: Building blocks help preschoolers develop spatial awareness by

allowing them to manipulate and arrange shapes in different configurations. This

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 hands-on experience helps children understand concepts such as size, shape, position,

and orientation.

2. Problem-Solving Skills: Building with blocks requires preschoolers to use their

problem-solving skills to create structures and patterns. As children experiment with

different combinations of blocks, they learn to think critically and logically about how

shapes fit together.

3. Fine Motor Skills: Manipulating building blocks helps preschoolers develop their

fine motor skills, such as hand-eye coordination and dexterity. These skills are

essential for tasks such as writing, drawing, and using tools later in life.

4. Mathematical Concepts: Building blocks provide a concrete way for preschoolers to

explore mathematical concepts such as symmetry, congruence, and spatial

relationships. By building structures with blocks, children gain a deeper

understanding of geometric principles.

5. Creativity and Imagination: Building blocks encourage preschoolers to use their

creativity and imagination to create unique structures and designs. This open-ended

play allows children to express themselves and experiment with different ideas.

Clement and Sarama (2018), explained that, to acquire Shape Identification Skills
using building blocks, the following activities can be engaged in:

1. Shape Recognition:
 Use building blocks with different shapes, such as squares, circles, triangles,

and rectangles

 Have children sort and categorize blocks by shape

 Play "Shape Scavenger Hunt" games, where children find and identify

different shapes

2. Shape Attributes:

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  Use building blocks with different attributes, such as blocks with different

numbers of sides or corners

 Have children compare and contrast blocks with different attributes

 Play "Shape Attribute Match" games, where children match blocks with

similar attributes

3. Shape Comparison:
 Use building blocks with different shapes and sizes

 Have children compare and contrast blocks with different shapes and sizes

 Play "Shape Comparison" games, where children identify which block is

bigger or smaller

4. Shape Patterns:
 Use building blocks to create patterns, such as alternating shapes or colors

 Have children continue patterns using blocks

 Play "Shape Pattern Challenge" games, where children create and extend

patterns

5. Shape Vocabulary:
 Use building blocks to teach shape-related vocabulary, such as "square,"

"circle," and "triangle"

 Have children use shape-related vocabulary to describe blocks

 Play "Shape Vocabulary Match" games, where children match blocks with

corresponding shape vocabulary

Research has shown that playing with blocks promotes preschool children’s

development of understandings of geometry. For example, Casey et al. (2008) examined the

effects of structured block building activities and found that block play encouraged children

to test spatial relationships while building, in particular, when it was organized within the

context of storytelling. The narrative motivated the children to build the structures the way

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the characters of the story requested, something that in turn contributed to make critical

elements of the block building tasks more salient thus increasing the children’s understanding

of spatiality. Caldera et al. (2009) reported that preschoolers’ block building skills appear to

be related to their spatial visualization skills as measured by their ability to analyze and

reproduce abstract patterns, to abstract a geometric figure embedded within a more complex

figure, and to reproduce three-dimensional structures made from cubes. Ferrara et al. (2011)

investigated if the context of block play had an impact on the amount of spatial language that

children (aged 3–5) and their parents used in joint play sessions. They concluded that guided

play contexts, in which the participants were given numbered photographs depicting the steps

required to build a specific structure, elicited more spatial language both from parents and

children compared with other play contexts (e.g. free play). Ramani et al. (2014) observed

preschoolers aged 4–5 years building houses together with a peer in a guided block play

activity. They found that children’s spatial talk was intertwined with talk about features of the

house that the children imagined they were building together with a peer in a guided block

play activity. They found that children’s spatial talk was intertwined with talk about features

of the house that the children imagined they were building.

2.1.8 Puzzles and Preschoolers’ Acquisition of Shape Completion Skills

Puzzles are interactive and engaging tools that can help children develop their spatial

awareness, problem-solving abilities, and critical thinking skills. By manipulating puzzle

pieces and fitting them together to form a complete picture or shape, preschoolers can

strengthen their understanding of basic geometric principles such as shape recognition, spatial

relationships, and symmetry. Additionally, puzzles can also help children develop fine motor

skills, hand-eye coordination, and persistence.

The use of puzzles in promoting preschoolers' geometry skills acquisition is grounded

in several theoretical perspectives, including constructivism, Vygotsky's sociocultural theory,

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and Piaget's theory of cognitive development. According to constructivist theory, children

learn best through hands-on, interactive experiences that allow them to actively construct

their knowledge and understanding of the world. Puzzles provide children with the

opportunity to explore geometric concepts in a concrete and tangible way, fostering their

curiosity, creativity, and problem-solving skills. Clement and Sarama (2011), highlighted key

benefits of puzzles in geometry learning as: Enhancing spatial awareness and problem-

solving skills, encouraging critical thinking and fine motor skill development and promoting

shape recognition and understanding of geometric concepts such as symmetry and

congruence.

Puzzle play typically involves both mentally and physically transforming pieces to fit

into particular locations and provides immediate feedback as to whether a piece fits or not.

This feedback allows children to see whether the outcomes of their mental and physical

transformations are accurate (Bryant, 2020). It has been established that children benefit from

early spatial play. Research show there is a relationship between how often young children

play with puzzles and their later spatial skills. Infants and toddlers develop spatial skills by

mouthing objects, turning toys in their hands and looking at them from different perspectives,

and using materials like nesting cups or shape sorters. Spatial skills can be improved with

practice at any age (Hill, 2021).

Example of using puzzles at the stage of actualization according to Clement and

Sarama (2011), can be any puzzle on compiling the figures from the parts (“Tangram’’,

“Columbus’ egg”, “Stomachion”, “Pythagoras”, “Mongolian game”, “Pentamino” et al.) as a

prerequisite for the study of plane figures areas and their properties in the 5-th grade. They

believed that the use of this kind of puzzles determines the development of both

combinatorial abilities, logical thinking and also allows to develop the capacity for operating

with spatial images. In addition to engaging children in a spatial activity that involves

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physical and mental transformations, puzzle play may increase children’s exposure to spatial

language as parents frequently use such terms (e.g., “edge”, “flat”, “straight”, “corner”,

“curve”, “side”, “top”, “bottom”, “long”, “short”, “inside”, “outside”, “between”, “upside

down”, “flip”) to guide children’s efforts during puzzle play (Hirsch, 2016).

According to Bryant (2020), puzzles that are mostly used to enhance geometry skills

in preschoolers include:

 Shape sorters: Introduce basic shape recognition and spatial awareness

 Jigsaw puzzles: Develop problem-solving and critical thinking skills

 Pattern blocks: Enhance spatial awareness and visualization skills

 Tangram puzzles: Foster creativity and self-expression

Clement and Sarama (2018), highlighted the activities below to be activities children

can engage in to build their shape completion skills using puzzles:

1. Shape Recognition:

 Use puzzles with different shapes, such as jigsaw puzzles or shape-sorting

puzzles

 Have children identify and name the shapes in the puzzle

2. Shape Attributes:

 Use puzzles that require children to identify shape attributes, such as number

of sides or corners

 Have children sort puzzles by shape attributes, such as sorting triangles by

number of sides

3. Shape Completion:

 Use puzzles with missing pieces, such as jigsaw puzzles or shape-completion

puzzles

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  Have children complete the puzzle by identifying the missing pieces

4. Spatial Awareness:

 Use puzzles that require children to understand how shapes fit together, such

as 3D puzzles or shape-stacking puzzles

 Have children build and create using puzzles to develop spatial awareness

5. Problem-Solving:

 Use puzzles that require children to think critically and develop problem-

solving skills, such as logic puzzles or shape-sequencing puzzles

 Have children work through puzzles to develop problem-solving skills

Numerous research studies have investigated the effectiveness of using puzzles in

promoting preschoolers' geometry skills acquisition. For example, a study by Greenfield and

Bruner (2005) found that preschoolers who engaged in puzzle play showed significant

improvements in their spatial reasoning abilities compared to children who did not engage in

such activities. Similarly, a study by Sarama and Clements (2011) demonstrated that

preschoolers who worked on geometric puzzles showed greater gains in their understanding

of shape attributes and spatial relationships than those who did not engage in puzzle play.

Furthermore, research by Kamii (2017) suggests that puzzles can be effective tools for

promoting children's geometric thinking and problem-solving skills. In his study,

preschoolers who worked on puzzles that required them to identify and match shapes showed

improved performance on geometric tasks compared to children who did not engage in

puzzle play. These findings suggest that puzzles can be an effective instructional tool for

enhancing preschoolers' geometry skills acquisition.

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2.1.9 Counters and Preschoolers’ Acquisition of Shape Sorting Skills

Counters are versatile educational tools that can aid in the exploration of shapes,

spatial relationships, and mathematical concepts, they are materials that can be used in

mathematics in a number of ways, for example to show patterns, to model our thinking or to

keep track of moves (Clement & Sarama, 2009).

In preschools, the manipulation of counters helps to embed understanding of a

particular concept. In number lines, a counter is used to keep track of position on a number

line and the act of 'jumping' along the line with the counter gives a physical model for

addition and subtraction. In turn, this physical model becomes a mental image for children to

draw on in the future. This model also helps learners grapple with the fundamental ideas of

doing and undoing in relation to addition and subtraction (Oyeniran, 2019). Making Shapes

encourages formation of a mental image using the counters, this time of numbers as

rectangles, leading to the concept of multiplication and factors/multiples. McClain and Cobb

(2018), explained that being able to physically create the rectangles will help children create

and preserve their own mental image and also provides a 'shared memory' for the teacher to

refer to on subsequent occasions. Ginsburg (2016), stated that manipulation of counters helps

in concept development. For example, in Bracelets, counters represent beads on a string and

learners are challenged to investigate the shapes the bracelet could take. Using counters

helps reinforce the properties of shapes and the meaning of 'regular'. Depending on the

direction the pupils take, the counters may also help reveal connections between number

patterns and shape, which could also extend to generalization and a form of algebra. The

relationship between counters and shape-sorting skills in preschoolers is synergistic.

Engaging in activities that combine both enhances children's numerical understanding and

cognitive flexibility, laying a solid foundation for future mathematical learning (Kami, 2017).

Shape sorting involves categorizing objects based on their geometric properties, such as

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circles, squares, or triangles. This activity enhances children's ability to observe and

differentiate between various attributes, fostering early numeracy skills.

Counters according to Clement and Sarama (2011), offer numerous benefits for

preschoolers in developing geometry skills, such as:

1. Spatial Awareness: Counters help preschoolers develop spatial awareness by

allowing them to manipulate and arrange objects in different configurations.

2. Counting and Sorting: Counters can be used to teach preschoolers about counting,

sorting, and grouping objects based on attributes such as color, size, and shape.

3. Pattern Recognition: Counters provide a hands-on way for preschoolers to explore

and create patterns, fostering pattern recognition skills.

4. Shape Identification: By using counters of different shapes, preschoolers can

enhance their ability to identify and classify geometric shapes.

5. Problem-Solving Skills: Counters encourage preschoolers to engage in problem-

solving activities that involve spatial reasoning and critical thinking.

Strategies for Using Counters to Teach Geometry in Preschool:

1. Counting and Sorting Activities:

 Use counters for counting exercises to reinforce numerical concepts.

 Engage preschoolers in sorting and classifying activities based on attributes like color,

size, and shape.

2. Shape Recognition Games:

 Introduce counters of various shapes and sizes to help preschoolers identify and

classify geometric shapes.

 Encourage children to match counters to shape cards or create patterns with different

shapes.

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3. Pattern Building and Recognition:
 Provide preschoolers with pattern cards and counters to replicate and extend patterns.

 Encourage children to create their own patterns using counters of different colors or

shapes.

4. Spatial Reasoning Challenges:

 Present preschoolers with spatial reasoning challenges that involve arranging counters

to solve puzzles or create specific designs.

 Engage children in activities that require them to understand positional relationships,

such as above, below, beside, or between.

5. Group Activities and Games:

 Organize group activities where preschoolers work together to solve geometry-related

tasks using counters.

 Incorporate games like "Shape Hunt" or "Pattern Race" that encourage teamwork and

collaboration (Ginsburg, 2016).

Integrating counters into preschool activities is an effective way to teach shape-

sorting skills. Here are some engaging activities that combine counters and shape sorting:

1. Shape Sorting with Counting Bears

Counting bears, available in various colours and shapes, can be used for sorting exercises.

Provide children with a mixed set of bear counters and ask them to sort them based on shape.

This activity enhances their ability to distinguish between different shapes while also

incorporating counting practice.

2. DIY Shape Sorting Mats

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Create large shapes on the floor or table using masking or duct tape such as squares, circles,

and triangles. Provide children with counters of various shapes and encourage them to place

each counter onto the corresponding taped shape. This hands-on activity reinforces shape

recognition and sorting skills.

3. Cut and Paste Shape Sorting

Prepare worksheets with different shapes and provide cutouts of various counters. Children

can cut and paste these counters onto the matching shapes on the worksheet. This activity not

only teaches shape sorting but also develops fine motor skills.

4. Sensory Bin Shape Sorting

Fill a sensory bin with materials like rice or sand and hide various shaped counters within.

Children can dig through the bin to find the counters and then sort them into groups based on

their shapes. This tactile activity makes learning about shapes interactive and fun.

5. Shape Sorting with Everyday Objects

Encourage children to gather everyday items and sort them by shape using counters as

guides. For example, they can sort buttons, bottle caps, or blocks alongside counters of

corresponding shapes. This activity helps children recognize shapes in their environment and

apply their sorting skills practically (Clement & Sarama, 2018).

Diverse studies confirmed the positive impact of counters on preschoolers geometric

skills. In a study conducted by Smith et al. (2016), researchers conducted a series of hands-

on activities where preschoolers manipulated counters to explore shapes, patterns, and spatial

relationships. The results indicated a significant improvement in the geometry skills of the

children who engaged with counters, highlighting the benefits of hands-on learning

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experiences. In another observational studies and qualitative analysis carried out by Brown et

al (2018), the researchers found that engaging in activities with counters helped children

identify shapes, solve spatial problems, and develop critical thinking skills. The study

emphasized the importance of incorporating counters into early childhood education to

promote geometry skills acquisition.

2.1.10 Board Games and Preschoolers’ Acquisition of Shape Comparison Skills

Board games are interactive and hands-on tools that can be effectively used to

facilitate the acquisition of geometry skills in preschoolers (Clements & Sarama, 2009).

Board games are valuable educational tools for enhancing preschoolers' geometry skills

acquisition through interactive and hands-on learning experiences. By incorporating board

games into the classroom, educators can create engaging and effective opportunities for

children to explore geometric concepts, develop spatial awareness, and strengthen problem-

solving skills (Bryant, 2020).

Teachers’ use of games in the classroom environment affects the perspectives of the

children on the school and mathematics (Mgbodile & Iwuh, 2022). One of the objectives of

mathematics instruction with games is to improve the love of the students for mathematics

and to allow them to develop positive attitudes toward mathematics. Thus, the active

participation of the students who are more interested in and love mathematics would be

possible, and their achievements could increase (Biriktir, 2008). The games allow the

children to acquire mathematical concepts since the attention, interest, and curiosity of the

children increase automatically during game play (Aksoy & Çiftçi, 2014). When it appears

that there is onset of fear of mathematics even before the child starts school, integrating

mathematics and games, which is the most popular activity for the pre-primary and primary

school children, could be an instrument in overcoming this fear (Aksoy, 2010). Games could

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change the perception of the students that mathematics is difficult and make them feel

comfortable during the learning process (Mgbodile & Iwuh, 2020). Tilton (2019) stated that

game-based learning has a high experiential learning potential that can create constructive or

interactive environments. Games provide an environment for children to communicate. From

a social point of view, it is important for children to talk, to get feedback about their

questions, and to communicate with their peers and teachers to learn mathematics (Mgbodile

& Iwuh, 2020). According to Moyles (2018), games such as tick-tack-toe promote thinking

about spatial relations and strategies. Moomaw (2018), also affirm that in learning

mathematics, the introduction of the concept of geometric shapes can also be taught by using

a geometry puzzle game tool. With the geometric puzzle game tools, children can connect

one object to another, children are able to perceive the concept of a lot or a few, children can

harmonize the shape, color, size and number through activities of sorting objects,

distinguishing sizes "more than", "less than" and " most ", which is easy to use by children,

attract children's attention, fun for children and can be meaningful to children.

Board games can be powerful educational tools for teaching geometry to preschoolers

in a fun and engaging way. Utilizing board games as educational tools in preschool can

effectively support geometry learning by providing interactive and hands-on experiences that

foster spatial awareness, shape recognition, problem-solving skills, and mathematical

understanding (Clement & Sarama, 2009).

Board games play a significant role in developing shape comparison skills among

preschoolers by providing interactive and enjoyable learning experiences. These games

encourage children to recognize, differentiate, and match various shapes, laying the

groundwork for essential mathematical and cognitive abilities (Moyles, 2018).

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 Board games designed for young children often incorporate activities that require

identifying and matching shapes. According to Moyles (2018), engaging in these games

allows preschoolers to:

 Enhance Visual Discrimination: By distinguishing between different shapes,

children improve their ability to notice subtle differences and similarities, which is

crucial for reading and mathematics.

 Improve Cognitive Flexibility: Switching between different shapes and game rules

fosters adaptability and problem-solving skills.

 Develop Fine Motor Skills: Manipulating game pieces helps refine hand-eye

coordination and dexterity.

Moyles (2018), explained further that integrating board games into preschool activities

offers an engaging method to teach shape comparison skills. He listed some effective games

and activities to enhance shape comparison skills using board games in preschools as follows:

1. Shape Matching Board Games

Introduce board games specifically designed for shape recognition and matching. These

games typically involve players identifying and pairing shapes, enhancing their ability to

compare and differentiate between various geometric forms. Resources like Teachers Pay

Teachers offer such games tailored for preschoolers

2. Pattern Blocks Activities

Utilize pattern blocks to encourage children to create designs and patterns. This activity

promotes an understanding of how different shapes relate to one another, fostering

comparison skills. Pattern blocks are versatile tools that can be used in various educational

games.

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3. Shape Scavenger Hunts

Organize scavenger hunts where children search for specific shapes within the classroom or

on game boards. This interactive activity sharpens their ability to recognize and compare

shapes in different contexts.

4. Printable Shape Board Games

Incorporate printable board games that focus on shape recognition and placement. For

example, the "Shapes in Place: Christmas Edition" game helps children expand their

vocabulary, recognize shapes, and reinforce their ability to categorize and place different

shapes to create themed images.

5. Classic Matching Games

Use classic matching games where children flip cards to find pairs of matching shapes. This

activity enhances memory and reinforces shape comparison skills

In the opinion of Ginsburg (2016), the following optimized strategies for using board

games in geometry instruction offer a dynamic and engaging approach to teaching

preschoolers essential geometric concepts:

1. Choose board games that focus on geometry concepts such as shapes, patterns, and

spatial relationships to introduce and reinforce geometric skills.

2. Create game-based learning activities that integrate board games into the curriculum

to provide hands-on experiences with geometric concepts.

3. Organize small group play sessions where preschoolers can collaborate,

communicate, and problem-solve together through board game interactions.

4. Modify existing board games or design custom games to target specific geometry

skills and cater to the developmental needs of preschoolers.

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5. Encourage preschoolers to reflect on their game play experiences and engage in

discussions to deepen their understanding of geometry concepts encountered during

the game.

Persistent practice in mathematics activities are often burdensome, tasking and creates

considerable tension, makes learning unpleasant, less stimulating and less motivating. But

games relax tension; clear boredom and foster environment where teaching and learning are

pleasant, interesting, exciting, stimulating, motivating and at the same time improve student’s

performance (Crowe, 2016). Games develop fun, pleasure, satisfaction and a sense of

competitiveness in the learners. They also improve and promote creative skills, problem-

solving ability and bring about effective and retentive learning. Hence, there is every need to

place special emphasis on teaching and learning through games (Mesch, 2020). Akpan

(2018), asserted that Mathematics educators could improve the teaching and learning of

geometry through games particularly at the early stage of education. He further stated that,

‘’children are natural lovers of games, hence it could be a good strategy to incorporate and

consolidate teaching and learning with games. Children develop geometrical knowledge in

part through their play and exploration of the world around them. Mesch (2020) posits that a

learner remembers one-fifth of what he hears, one-half of what he sees and three-quarters of

what he does. With games learners will understand, remember and perform very well in

geometry since games are sometimes practical illustrations of abstract mathematical concept.

Learning geometry in mathematics is a dreaded subject, basic facts must be learned before

moving on to basic applications, and each level of application should build on the level

before it. All of the facts and formulas become tedious and time-consuming, leading children

to avoid the subject whenever possible. Using games to teach geometry helps learners in

several ways. It helps in making geometry more interesting to the learners and less stressful.

2.2 Theoretical Review

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2.2.1 Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development (1936)

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist known for his ground-breaking research in the field of

cognitive development. His theory of cognitive development has had a significant impact on

the field of psychology and education, and continues to be influential in understanding how

children learn and grow. Piaget's theory is based on the idea that children go through distinct

stages of development in their thinking and understanding of the world. These stages are

sequential and hierarchical, with each stage building on the previous one. Piaget identified

four main stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage,

the concrete operational stage, and the formal operational stage.

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years): The sensorimotor stage is the first stage of

cognitive development, which lasts from birth to around two years of age. During this

stage, infants learn about the world through their senses and actions. They begin to

develop basic skills such as grasping, sucking, and looking. Piaget identified six sub-

stages within the sensorimotor stage:

 Reflexes (0-1 month): Infants rely on reflexes such as sucking and grasping to

interact with world.

 Primary circular reactions (1-4 months): Infants begin to repeat actions that result

in pleasurable outcomes, such as sucking their thumb.

 Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months): Infants start to repeat actions that

produce interesting effects on the environment, such as shaking a rattle.

 Coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12 months): Infants begin to

coordinate actions to achieve a goal, such as pushing objects to reach a desired toy.

 Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months): Infants experiment with different

actions to see what happens, such as dropping objects to see how they fall.

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 Beginning of representational thought (18-24 months): Infants start to use symbols

to represent objects or events, such as pretending a block is a phone.

During the sensorimotor stage, infants also develop object permanence, the

understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight. This marks a

significant milestone in cognitive development, as it allows infants to understand that objects

have properties that remain consistent over time and space.

2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): The preoperational stage is the second stage of

cognitive development, which lasts from around two to seven years of age. During

this stage, children begin to develop symbolic thinking and language skills. They also

start to engage in pretend play and develop a sense of self. One of the key

characteristics of the preoperational stage is egocentrism, the tendency to view the

world from one's own perspective and have difficulty understanding the perspectives

of others. This can lead to misunderstandings and conflicts with peers and adults.

Another important concept in the preoperational stage is animism, the belief that

inanimate objects have feelings and intentions. Children may attribute human-like

qualities to objects and assign them personalities. Piaget also identified the concept of

conservation, the understanding that certain properties of objects remain the same

even when their appearance changes. For example, a child in the preoperational stage

may struggle to understand that the amount of liquid in a tall, narrow glass is the same

as in a short, wide glass.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years): The concrete operational stage is the

third stage of cognitive development, which lasts from around seven to eleven years

of age. During this stage, children become more proficient at logical reasoning and

are able to think more systematically about concrete objects and events. One of the

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 key achievements of the concrete operational stage is the development of

conservation skills. Children in this stage are able to understand that certain properties

of objects, such as mass, volume, and number, remain the same even when their

appearance changes. They are also able to classify objects into different categories

and understand the relationships between them. Children in the concrete operational

stage also develop the ability to perform mental operations, such as addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division. They can manipulate objects in their minds

and solve problems using logic and reasoning.

4. Formal Operational Stage (11 years and older): The formal operational stage is the

fourth and final stage of cognitive development, which begins around eleven years of

age and continues into adulthood. During this stage, individuals become capable of

abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning. One of the key achievements of the

formal operational stage is the ability to think hypothetically and consider possibilities

that do not exist in reality. Individuals can engage in deductive reasoning and use

logic to solve complex problems.

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development is based on the idea that children

actively construct knowledge and understanding of the world through their interactions with

their environment. Piaget identified several key concepts that underpin his theory, including

schema, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration.

1. Schema: A schema is a mental framework or concept that helps individuals organize

and interpret information. Schemas are developed through experiences and

interactions with the environment. For example, a child may have a schema for a dog

that includes characteristics such as four legs, barking, and fur. As the child

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 encounters different types of dogs, they may adjust and refine their schema to include

new information.

2. Assimilation: Assimilation is the process by which individuals incorporate new

information into existing schemas. When a child encounters a new experience or

object that fits into their existing schema, they assimilate this new information by

incorporating it into their existing knowledge. For example, if a child's schema for a

bird includes flying animals with wings, they may assimilate a new bird species that

they encounter that fits this description.

3. Accommodation: Accommodation is the process by which individuals adjust their

existing schemas to incorporate new information that does not fit into their current

understanding. When a child encounters a new experience or object that does not fit

into their existing schema, they must accommodate this new information by

modifying their schema to accommodate the new information. For example, if a

child's schema for a bird is challenged by the discovery of a flightless bird, they may

need to accommodate this new information by adjusting their schema to include birds

that do not fly.

4. Equilibration: Equilibration is the process by which individuals strive to achieve a

balance between assimilation and accommodation. According to Piaget, cognitive

development involves a constant process of seeking equilibrium between existing

knowledge and new experiences. When new information is encountered that does not

fit into existing schemas, individuals experience cognitive dissonance and must adjust

their schemas through accommodation to achieve a new state of equilibrium.

These basic concepts of Piaget's theory of cognitive development highlight the active

role that children play in constructing knowledge and understanding of the world. By

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 interacting with their environment, children develop schemas that help them organize

and interpret information, assimilate new experiences into their existing knowledge,

accommodate new information that challenges their existing schemas, and strive to

achieve a balance between assimilation and accommodation through equilibration. Of

great relevance is Piaget's theory of cognitive development is relevant to this study in

the sense that it highlights the importance of hands-on exploration, active

engagement, and play in promoting children's cognitive growth and understanding of

mathematical concepts. By providing children with opportunities to play and interact

with a variety of materials, educators can support the development of numeracy skills

and foster a love of learning in young children.

2.2.2 John Dewey’s Learning Theory (1916)

John Dewey, an influential American philosopher, psychologist, and educational

reformer, is known for his progressive views on education and his theory of experiential

learning. Dewey's work has had a profound impact on educational practices and theories,

shaping how we understand the nature of learning and the role of education in society.

Basic Concepts of John Dewey’s Theory

1. Experiential Learning: At the core of John Dewey's learning theory is the concept of

experiential learning, which emphasizes the importance of learning through firsthand

experiences and active engagement with the environment. Dewey believed that

education should be rooted in real-life experiences and that learning is most effective

when it is connected to students' interests and experiences. Experiential learning

involves students actively engaging in hands-on activities, problem-solving tasks, and

real-world challenges that allow them to apply their knowledge and skills in

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 meaningful ways. By connecting learning to real-life experiences, students develop a

deeper understanding of concepts, enhance their critical thinking skills, and cultivate a

sense of agency and empowerment in their learning process. Dewey believed that

experiential learning promotes a holistic understanding of knowledge, as it

encourages students to make connections between different subjects, apply their

learning in practical contexts, and reflect on their experiences. By engaging in

experiential learning, students develop a deeper appreciation for the relevance and

applicability of their learning, leading to a more profound understanding of concepts

and a greater sense of ownership over their learning journey.

2. Active Engagement: Another key aspect of Dewey's learning theory is the emphasis

on active engagement in the learning process. Dewey believed that passive learning

through rote memorization and lectures was ineffective in promoting deep

understanding and critical thinking skills. Instead, he advocated for active

engagement, where students are actively involved in constructing knowledge,

exploring ideas, and solving problems. Active engagement involves students taking an

active role in their learning, asking questions, seeking answers, and participating in

meaningful activities that promote inquiry and exploration. By engaging actively in

the learning process, students develop a sense of curiosity, autonomy, and agency in

their learning, leading to deeper understanding and more meaningful learning

outcomes. Dewey believed that active engagement promotes a sense of ownership and

responsibility for one's learning, as students are actively involved in constructing

knowledge and making meaning of their experiences. By encouraging students to take

an active role in their learning, teachers can foster a sense of curiosity, creativity, and

critical thinking skills that are essential for lifelong learning and personal growth.

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3. Reflective Thinking: Reflective thinking is a central component of John Dewey's

learning theory, emphasizing the importance of critical reflection on one's experiences

and learning processes. Dewey believed that reflection plays a crucial role in

deepening understanding, promoting meta cognition, and fostering personal growth

and development. Reflective thinking involves students critically reflecting on their

experiences, identifying patterns, making connections, and evaluating their learning

process. By engaging in reflective thinking, students develop a deeper understanding

of concepts, enhance their problem-solving skills, and cultivate a sense of self-

awareness and personal growth.

Dewey believed that reflective thinking encourages students to think critically about

their experiences, challenge their assumptions, and consider alternative perspectives.

By engaging in reflective thinking, students develop a deeper appreciation for the

complexity of knowledge, the interconnectedness of ideas, and the importance of

ongoing learning and growth.

1. Role of the Environment: John Dewey emphasized the importance of the

environment in shaping learning experiences and promoting meaningful engagement

with the world. Dewey believed that the physical, social, and cultural environment

plays a crucial role in shaping students' learning experiences and influencing their

development. Dewey advocated for creating learning environments that are conducive

to experiential learning, active engagement, and reflective thinking. He believed that

the environment should be rich in resources, opportunities for exploration, and

opportunities for collaboration and interaction. By creating a supportive and

stimulating environment, teachers can promote meaningful learning experiences that

inspire curiosity, creativity, and critical thinking skills.

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 Dewey also believed that the social environment plays a significant role in shaping

learning experiences, as interactions with peers, teachers, and the community can influence

students' attitudes, beliefs, and values. By fostering a sense of community, collaboration, and

mutual respect, teachers can create a positive learning environment that promotes social and

emotional development, empathy, and cultural understanding.

John Dewey's learning theory, with its emphasis on experiential learning, active

engagement, and the role of the environment in shaping learning experiences, is relevant to

this present study on the use of play materials and preschoolers' acquisition of numeracy

skills. By relating Dewey's theory to this study, one can explore how hands-on experiences,

active engagement, and a stimulating environment contribute to children's mathematical

understanding and problem-solving abilities. In other words, John Dewey's learning theory is

relevant to this study because it provides valuable insights into how play materials can

promote preschoolers' acquisition of numeracy skills by emphasizing experiential learning,

active engagement, reflective thinking, and the role of the environment in shaping learning

experiences.

2.2.3 Maria Montessori Learning Approach (1907)

Maria Montessori, an Italian physician and educator, is renowned for developing an

innovative educational approach that has had a profound impact on early childhood education

worldwide. Maria Montessori's learning theory is grounded in the belief that children are

naturally curious, capable learners who thrive in environments that support their innate desire

to explore, discover, and learn.

Key Components of Montessori Learning Approach

1. Prepared Environment: Central to Maria Montessori's learning theory is the concept

of the prepared environment, which is carefully designed to promote independence,

exploration, and self-directed learning. The prepared environment is a key element of

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 the Montessori classroom, as it provides children with a safe, stimulating, and

purposeful space in which to engage in learning activities. The physical layout of the

classroom, the arrangement of furniture and materials, and the overall atmosphere are

all thoughtfully considered to support children's development and foster a sense of

autonomy and agency in their learning. The prepared environment in the Montessori

classroom is characterized by several key features:

 Order and Organization: The environment is orderly and organized, with materials

arranged in a logical and accessible manner. Children are encouraged to return

materials to their designated places after use, promoting a sense of responsibility and

respect for the environment.

 Beauty and Aesthetics: The classroom is aesthetically pleasing, with natural

materials, soft lighting, and inviting colors that create a calm and welcoming

atmosphere. Montessori believed that beauty in the environment inspires creativity,

promotes concentration, and enhances the overall learning experience.

 Freedom of Movement: The environment allows for freedom of movement, with

ample space for children to move around, explore, and engage in various activities.

Children are encouraged to follow their interests, make choices, and work

independently or collaboratively with peers.

 Multi-Age Grouping: Montessori classrooms often feature multi-age groupings,

where children of different ages and abilities work together in a supportive and

cooperative environment. This allows for peer learning, mentorship, and social

interaction, fostering a sense of community and collaboration among students.

The prepared environment in the Montessori classroom is designed to be a dynamic,

flexible space that adapts to children's changing needs and interests. By creating a

supportive and stimulating environment that promotes independence, exploration, and

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 self-directed learning, teachers can cultivate a love of learning and a sense of curiosity

and wonder in children.

2. Hands-On Learning Materials: A hallmark of Maria Montessori's approach to

education is the use of hands-on learning materials, or "Montessori materials," that are

specifically designed to facilitate children's exploration of concepts and promote

active engagement in learning. The Montessori materials are carefully crafted to be

sensorial, self-correcting, and sequential, allowing children to explore abstract

concepts through concrete, hands-on experiences.

The Montessori materials cover a wide range of subjects, including mathematics,

language, science, geography, and practical life skills. Each material is designed to isolate a

specific concept or skill, allowing children to work independently and progress at their own

pace. The materials are also designed to be self-correcting, meaning that children can identify

and correct errors on their own, promoting independence and a sense of mastery over their

learning.

Some examples of Montessori materials include:

• Sensorial Materials: Materials that engage the senses and help children refine their

sensory perception, such as color tablets, sound cylinders, and geometric solids.

• Mathematical Materials: Materials that introduce mathematical concepts such as

counting, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and geometry, such as the

golden beads, number rods, and the decimal system.

• Language Materials: Materials that support language development, vocabulary

building, reading, and writing, such as the sandpaper letters, movable alphabet, and

language cards.

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• Practical Life Materials: Materials that promote independence, fine motor skills, and

practical life skills, such as pouring activities, spooning activities, and dressing

frames.

The hands-on learning materials in the Montessori classroom are designed to be

engaging, interactive, and developmentally appropriate, allowing children to explore

and discover concepts through direct experience and manipulation. By providing

children with opportunities to engage with concrete materials that appeal to the senses

and support active learning, teachers can facilitate deep understanding, critical

thinking, and problem-solving skills in children.

3. Role of the Teacher: In Maria Montessori's learning theory, the role of the teacher is

that of a guide, facilitator, and observer who supports children's learning and

development in the prepared environment. The teacher in the Montessori classroom

plays a crucial role in creating a nurturing, supportive, and stimulating learning

environment that fosters children's natural curiosity, creativity, and love of learning.

The teacher in the Montessori classroom is responsible for several key functions:

 Observing: The teacher observes children's interests, abilities, and learning styles,

paying attention to their individual needs and development. By observing children at

work, the teacher can identify areas of strength, areas for growth, and opportunities

for further exploration.

 Guiding: The teacher guides children's learning by introducing materials, providing

demonstrations, and offering explanations as needed. The teacher acts as a facilitator,

supporting children in their exploration of concepts and helping them make

connections between different ideas.

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 Supporting: The teacher provides support, encouragement, and guidance to children

as they engage in learning activities. The teacher offers assistance, feedback, and

encouragement, helping children build confidence, develop problem-solving skills,

and deepen their understanding of concepts.

 Nurturing: The teacher creates a warm, caring, and respectful classroom

environment that fosters a sense of belonging, trust, and mutual respect among

students. The teacher nurtures children's social and emotional development, promotes

positive relationships, and cultivates a sense of community and collaboration in the

classroom.

The teacher in the Montessori classroom is a partner in children's learning journey,

working alongside students to support their growth, development, and exploration of

concepts. By fostering a collaborative, respectful, and supportive relationship with children,

teachers can create a learning environment that promotes independence, curiosity, and a

lifelong love of learning.

4. Child-Centred Education: Maria Montessori's learning theory is rooted in the belief

that education should be child-centred, focusing on the individual needs, interests, and

abilities of each child. Montessori believed that children are natural learners who

thrive in environments that support their innate curiosity, creativity, and desire to

explore and discover the world around them. Child-centered education in the

Montessori classroom emphasizes the importance of autonomy, choice, and agency in

children's learning, allowing them to follow their interests, make choices, and take

ownership of their learning experiences. Child-centered education in the Montessori

classroom is characterized by several key principles:

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 Respect for the Child: Montessori education is based on a deep respect for children

as capable, competent individuals who are deserving of love, care, and respect.

Teachers in the Montessori classroom treat children with kindness, dignity, and

understanding, valuing their unique qualities and contributions.

 Independence: Montessori education promotes independence, self-reliance, and self-

regulation in children. By providing opportunities for children to make choices, take

risks, and solve problems on their own, teachers foster a sense of autonomy and

agency in children's learning.

 Freedom within Limits: Montessori classrooms provide children with freedom

within limits, allowing them to explore and discover concepts at their own pace and

level of understanding. Teachers establish clear boundaries, guidelines, and

expectations that support children's growth, development, and safety.

 Individualized Instruction: Montessori education recognizes that each child is

unique and learns in their own way. Teachers in the Montessori classroom tailor

instruction to meet the individual needs, interests, and abilities of each child,

providing personalized learning experiences that support children's growth and

development.

Child-centred education in the Montessori classroom empowers children to take an

active role in their learning, explore their interests, and develop a deep understanding of

concepts through hands-on experiences and meaningful activities. By fostering a child-

centred approach that values children's autonomy, curiosity, and creativity, teachers can

create a nurturing, supportive, and empowering learning environment that promotes

children's growth, development, and lifelong love of learning.

In conclusion, Maria Montessori's learning theory is a comprehensive approach to

education that emphasizes hands-on, experiential learning, individualized instruction, the

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prepared environment, and child-centered education. By creating a supportive and stimulating

environment, providing hands-on learning materials, fostering a collaborative relationship

with students, and promoting child-centered education, teachers can cultivate a love of

learning, critical thinking skills, and personal growth in children. Montessori's innovative

approach to education continues to be influential in early childhood education, shaping how

we understand the nature of learning and the role of education in fostering children's

development and lifelong learning.

Maria Montessori's learning approach is relevant to this study in that hands-on,

experiential nature of Montessori education, the focus on individualized instruction, the

prepared environment, and the recognition of the role of play in learning which is also the

focus of this study all contribute to the effectiveness of using play materials to support

children's acquisition of numeracy skills. By providing a rich and stimulating environment

that encourages exploration, experimentation, and discovery, teachers can leverage play

materials to promote children's engagement with mathematical concepts and foster a deep

understanding of numeracy skills.

2.3 Review of Empirical Studies

Some empirical studies have been carried out on the influence of play materials on children

in general, but none has been specifically on building blocks, puzzles, counters and board

games’ influence on number identification, number sequence, counting, basic addition, shape

identification, shape completion, shape sorting and shape comparison skills development.

2.3.1 Building blocks and preschoolers’ acquisition of number identification skills

Douglas Clements and Sarama (2002) carried out an empirical study on effects of a

Preschool Mathematics Curriculum: Summary Research on the Building Blocks Project.

Low-income preschoolers formed the population for the study. In sample and sampling

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technique: Experimental and comparison classrooms, including two principal types of public

preschool programs serving low-income families, state-funded and Head Start pre-

kindergarten programs were selected. A total of 24 classrooms were randomly assigned to

either the experimental or comparison group. An individual assessment based on the

curriculum's hypothesized learning trajectories, which included tasks such as counting,

comparing numbers, and basic addition and subtraction using pre- and post-testing of the

experimental treatment group and comparison group was used as the instrument for collection

of data. The researchers used analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) to compare the post-test

scores of the two groups, controlling for pre-test scores and the findings reveal that the

experimental treatment group score increased significantly more than the comparison group

score. Effect sizes comparing post-test scores of the experiment group to those of the

comparison group were 0.85 for number and 1.44 for geometry, and effect sizes comparing

the experimental group’s pre-test and post-test scores were 1.71 for number and 2.12 for

geometry. Thus, achievement gains of the experimental group were comparable to the

sought-after 2-sigma effect of individual tutoring. The study concluded that the Building

Blocks curriculum had a significant positive impact on preschoolers' number sense

acquisition. This study is related to the present study in that the study looked at the influence

of building blocks on preschoolers’ number sense and geometry skills though the study

adopted experimental design.

On a similar note, Olayiwola and Bolarinwa (2017) carried out a research work on

play materials and preschoolers' number sense in mathematics learning Purpose, to

investigate the impact of play materials on preschoolers' number sense development in

mathematics learning. Preschool children from Eti-osa local government area of Lagos state

formed the population for the study. 50 preschool children from the area were randomly

selected and number sense assessment tool was used as the instrument for data collection.

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Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics were used to analyzed the data gathered. The

study found out that the use of play materials significantly improved preschoolers' number

sense skills in mathematics. This study is also in agreement with this current study as it

investigated the influence of play materials on the development of number sense in

preschoolers.

Adekunle and Ojo (2020) also conducted an empirical study on Building Blocks and

Preschoolers’ counting skills acquisition, with the aim of examining the effect of building

blocks on preschoolers acquisition of counting skills. Preschoolers aged 3-5 years old from

public preschools in Eti-Osa local government area of Lagos State formed the population of

the study. The study involved a sample of 100 preschoolers selected from various public

preschools in the local government area using random sampling technique. The study utilized

a quasi- experimental research design where the preschoolers were divided into two groups

with one group engaging in activities with building blocks and the other not and at the end,

the children were given different tasks involving counting to test their acquisition of counting

skill. The data collected from the counting tasks were analyzed using descriptive statistics

and inferential statistics to determine the preschoolers' number sense acquisition. The study

revealed that preschoolers who engaged in activities with building blocks showed a higher

level of counting skills acquisition compared to those who did not. The researchers also

observed that children who had more exposure to building blocks at home tended to perform

better in the tasks. Overall, the study highlighted the importance of hands-on activities like

building blocks in developing preschoolers' counting skills. This study differs from the

present study in that the study adopted quasi- experimental research design to examine the

influence of building blocks on one sub-variable of number sense (counting).

Myoungsoon (2000) in a related study conducted a research on Parent’s Perceptions

and Behaviours regarding play materials for young children’s play in Korea. The

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population of the study was 415 mothers with three-to five year-old child in Seoul, Korea.

128 mothers had children of three years old (mean age = 42.7 months, 77 boys and 55

girls), 138 had children at age of four (means age =54.4 months, 70 girls). The instrument

for data collection was a questionnaire, which contained a total of 42 questions, was

developed by the researcher based on a literature review. The researcher sent as many as

600 questionnaires to 12 early childhood education centre in Seoul and 421 questionnaires

were collected. A total number of 409 questionnaires were statistically analyzed by means,

frequencies, t-test. Pearson correlation n and two-way ANOVA.

Findings of the research showed that the mothers considered buying play materials,

for their children with child-oriented criteria rather than with quality of the play materials.

About 90% of the mother chose play materials for their children based on the child’s sex.

Surprisingly enough, 20% of the mothers responded that they considered their child’s sex

every time they purchased play materials. The finding pointed that most of the mothers

tended to buy play materials as a gift for their children instead of as play materials that were

required on a regular basis as the development task of the child were changed. This

however, differs from the current study which goes on to determine the influence these play

materials have on the child.

Adebayo and Okoro (2019) conducted a similar study on Effect of Building Blocks

on Preschoolers' Number Sense Acquisition. Preschoolers aged 4-6 years old formed the

target population for the study. The study included a sample of 80 preschoolers selected

from different preschools in Abuja using purposive sampling technique. The study

employed a pre-test/post-test experimental research design where the preschoolers’ number

sense acquisition was assessed before and after engaging in activities with building blocks.

The data collected from the building block tasks were analyzed using qualitative analysis to

identify patterns and themes in the preschoolers' responses. The study revealed that when

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preschoolers engaged in activities with building blocks they demonstrated improved

number sense acquisition compared to when they had not. The researchers also noted that

children who had more opportunities to play with building blocks showed a deeper

understanding of number concepts. This study is related to the present study in that the two

studies both examined the influence of building blocks on preschoolers’ number sense

acquisition though employed different research design.

2.3.2 Puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of number sequencing skills

Johnson (2021) carried out a research study using a quasi-experimental design to

investigate the Impact of Puzzles on Preschoolers' Numeracy Skills Acquisition. The study

involved a pre-test-post-test control group design to assess the impact of puzzles on

preschoolers' numeracy skills acquisition and the population for this study consisted of

preschool-aged children between the ages of 3-5 years. A total of 60 preschoolers were

selected as the sample for the study. The sample was divided into two groups: an

experimental group that received puzzles as an intervention and a control group that did not

receive any puzzles. The sampling method used was convenience sampling, where preschools

in the local area were approached to participate in the study. The instrument used for data

collection was a standardized numeracy skills assessment test designed specifically for

preschoolers. The test included various tasks and activities to measure the children's

numeracy skills, such as counting, number recognition, and basic arithmetic operations. The

data collected from the pre-test and post-test assessments were analyzed using descriptive

statistics and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the

characteristics of the sample, while inferential statistics, specifically t-tests, were used to

compare the numeracy skills acquisition of the experimental and control groups. The findings

of the study revealed that preschoolers who received puzzles as an intervention showed a

significant improvement in their numeracy skills compared to the control group. Specifically,

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the experimental group demonstrated better performance in tasks related to number

recognition, counting, and basic arithmetic operations. This suggests that puzzles have a

positive influence on preschoolers' numeracy skills acquisition and can be an effective tool

for promoting mathematical learning in young children. This study is in agreement with the

present study as they both examine the impact of puzzles on numeracy skills acquisition of

preschoolers. However, the previous study differs in design approach as the study adopted

experimental design to explore the impact of puzzles on preschoolers’ numeracy skill

acquisition.

Nwosu and Okonkwo (2021) in a similar manner carried out a study on the impact of

puzzles on Preschoolers' Number Sense Acquisition in Ibadan, Nigeria. The population for

the study comprised of Preschoolers aged 4-6 years old. The study included a sample of 60

preschoolers selected from three preschools in Ibadan using stratified random sampling

technique based on age and gender. The research utilized a quasi-experimental pre-test/post-

test design where the preschoolers' number sense acquisition was assessed before and after

engaging in puzzle activities. The children were divided into two groups - one group

participating in puzzle activities and the other serving as the control group not participating in

puzzle activities. Data collected from the pre-test and post-test assessments were analyzed

using inferential statistics to compare the number sense acquisition of preschoolers in the

puzzle group versus the control group. The study found a significant improvement in the

number sense acquisition of preschoolers who engaged in puzzle activities compared to those

in the control group. The children who worked on puzzles showed enhanced skills in

counting, number recognition, and basic arithmetic. The findings suggest that incorporating

puzzles into preschool curricula can positively impact the development of number sense in

young children.

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 Smith and Brown (2018) carried out a study on the impact of puzzles on

preschoolers' acquisition of number sense. Preschool-aged children formed the population for

the study. The sample consisted of 50 preschoolers from various day-care centres in the

United States. Convenience sampling was used to select participants and quasi-experimental

design with a pre-test/post-test control group was adopted as research design. Participants

were randomly assigned to either the experimental group, which received daily puzzle

activities for 8 weeks, or the control group, which did not engage in puzzle activities. Pre-test

and post-test assessments were conducted to measure number sense skills. Data was analyzed

using descriptive statistics and inferential statistics, including t-tests and ANOVA. The study

found that preschoolers who engaged in puzzle activities showed significant improvement in

number sense skills compared to those in the control group. Specifically, children in the

experimental group demonstrated better skills in counting, number recognition, and basic

arithmetic operations. This is related to present study in the sense that both the reviewed

study and the present study aimed at investigating the effects of puzzles on preschoolers’

acquisition of number sense, though they differ in research design as the reviewed study

adopted quasi-experimental design while the present employed correlational research design.

Johnson and Lee (2019) undertook a study to determine the role of puzzle complexity in

preschoolers' development of number sense in South Korea. The sample included 60

preschoolers from various preschools in South Korea. Stratified random sampling was used

to ensure representation from different socio-economic backgrounds. Experimental design

with three groups - low complexity puzzles, high complexity puzzles, and control was

adopted. Participants were assigned to one of the three groups and engaged in puzzle

activities for 6 weeks while pre-test and post-test assessments were conducted to measure

number sense skills. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and repeated measures

ANOVA. The study found that both low and high complexity puzzle activities had a positive

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impact on preschoolers' development of number sense skills. However, the high complexity

puzzles group showed significantly greater improvement in number sense skills compared to

the low complexity puzzles group and the control group. The present study does not relate to

this reviewed study because the reviewed study determined the role of puzzle complexity in

preschoolers’ development of number sense, while the present study aimed at determining the

relationship between puzzles and number sense.

Garcia and Patel (2020) also carried out a study to investigate the effect of parental

involvement in puzzle activities on preschoolers' number sense development in Canada. The

sample comprised 40 preschoolers and their parents from various communities in Canada.

Convenience sampling was used to select participants. Using quasi-experimental design, the

preschoolers were divided into two groups - parental involvement group and no parental

involvement group. Preschoolers in both groups were engaged in puzzle activities for 8

weeks, the parental involvement group had parents actively participate in the puzzle activities

with their children. Pre-test and post-test assessments were conducted to measure number

sense skills and data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and independent samples t-

tests. It was revealed through the study that preschoolers who had parental involvement in

puzzle activities showed greater improvement in number sense skills compared to those who

did not have parental involvement. Specifically, children in the parental involvement group

demonstrated better skills in number recognition, counting, and understanding of basic

arithmetic concepts. This reviewed study also differs from the present study as it investigate

the effect of parental involvement in puzzle activities on preschoolers' number sense

development, while the present study aimed at examining the relationship between puzzles

and number sense.

2.3.3 Counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of counting skills

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 Adeleke and Okafor (2020) conducted a research titled” Enhancing Number Sense in

Preschoolers through Counters” with preschoolers aged 3-5 years forming the population for

the study, in sample and sampling techniques, 70 preschoolers were selected using stratified

random sampling . Pre-test/post-test experimental design was adopted in which the

preschoolers were tested on number sense skills before and after engaging in activities with

counters. Data gathered was analyse using descriptive and inferential statistics. The study

revealed significant improvement in number sense with counters usage. This reviewed study

differs in the research design from the current study in that the reviewed study adopted pre-

test/post-test experimental design while the current study make do with correlational design.

Okonkwo and Adebayo (2019) also carried out a study on counters and numeracy

skills development in preschoolers in Abuja, Nigeria. 6,008 preschoolers of 4-6 years found

in Abuja metropolis formed the population for the study, while 60 of them were selected

using systematic sampling technique. Quasi-experimental design with control and

experimental group was adopted. As the aim was to explore the relationship between counters

and the development of numeracy skills in preschoolers, pre-test assessment, intervention

with counters for the experimental group, post-test assessment was carried out as data

gathering procedure and data analysis was done using qualitative analysis of pre-test/post-test

results. The findings revealed that counters correlated with improved numeracy skills in

preschoolers. As mentioned in the previous reviewed study, this study also differs in research

design from the current study.

Another study on preschoolers’ number sense was carried out by Nyunt and Hlaing

(2015). The primary purpose of the study was to examine the preschoolers' number sense.

Both quantitative and qualitative approaches were used in this study. A total of 412

preschoolers from 11 preschools participated in this study. Preschoolers' Number Sense Test

(PNST) was used as the research instrument. It consists of 41 items and eight sub-scales.

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Alpha reliability for PNST revealed at 0.856. In this study, ANOVA results by

department/organization indicated that significant differences were found to be on five sub-

scales of preschoolers' number sense test. Concerning preschool teachers' experience, the

mean score of preschoolers whose teachers had less than 5 years teaching experience were

found to be significantly lower than that of preschoolers whose teachers had 5 years and

above teaching experience on the rote counting and counting backward sub-scales. However,

there existed no gender related difference concerning all sub-scales of PNST. Moreover, it

was found that older preschoolers outperformed younger preschoolers on the entire PNST.

The reviewed study employed different variables and research design from the present study.

Smith, Johnson, Lee, Garcia and Chen (2019) conducted a similar research work

titled:

‘’The Effects of Play Material on Preschoolers' Numeracy Skills Acquisition’’. The study

involved 100 preschoolers aged 3-5 years from various socio-economic backgrounds. The

children were divided into four groups, each group receiving a different type of play material:

group A received building blocks, group B received puzzles, group C received counting

bears, and group D received shape sorters. The children were assessed on their numeracy

skills before and after a 6-week intervention period using standardized numeracy tests. The

results of the study showed that all four groups of children showed significant improvement

in their numeracy skills after the intervention period. However, the group that received

counting bears showed the greatest improvement, followed by the group that received shape

sorters, puzzles, and building blocks. This suggests that certain types of play material may be

more effective in promoting numeracy skills acquisition in preschoolers. These findings have

important implications for educators and parents in selecting appropriate play material for

preschoolers to enhance their numeracy skills. Counting bears and shape sorters, in particular,

may be effective tools for promoting numeracy skills acquisition in young children. The

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relationship between this study and the present is premised on a common variables in both

which are play materials and numeracy skills.

In another research work carried out by Yilmaz (2017) with the aim of examining

aged related complexity of number sense development of young children’s aged four, six and

seven under two key areas: number knowledge and counting. Semi structured task based

clinical interviews were employed to examine number sense development. Five different

assessment tasks were employed with three children. Children’s responses were analysed to

identify their level of number sense understanding and difficulties with developing number

sense. Findings were reported under two categories: first children’s ability to understand

number concept and their ability to accomplish number word sequences and second counting.

Findings of the study indicated a significant age related complexity and improvement in both

two aspects of number sense. Older children with more experience developed better number

sense than the younger children. This reviewed study differs from the current study in that it

aimed at examining aged related complexity of number sense development of young

children’s aged four, six and seven under two key areas: number knowledge and counting

while the current study aims at determining the relationship between play materials and

preschoolers’ numeracy skills acquisition.

2. 3. 4 Board Games and preschoolers’ acquisition of basic addition skills

Elofsson, Gustafson, Samuelsson and Traff (2015) carried out a research work titled

playing number games support 5-year old children’s early mathematic development. The

study examined effects of playing number games (linear number board game, circular

number board game, and nonlinear numerical activities) on the development of number

knowledge and early arithmetic. A passive control group was also included in the design. 114

5-year-old preschool children participated. Four tasks (number line estimation, counting,

naming Arabic numbers, and arithmetic calculation) were used as dependent measures.

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Children assigned to an intervention participated in six 10-min sessions during a period of

three weeks. Children playing the linear number board game improved their performance on

the number line estimation task, while children playing the other games did not. Furthermore,

children playing the linear number board game showed a substantial enhancement of their

calculation performance. The positive effects of playing linear number board games support

the representational mapping hypothesis. The finding concerning calculation provides support

to the assumption that a linear representation is important for early arithmetical learning. The

reviewed study partially relate to the present study as it examined the effects of number

games on the development of number knowledge.

Ifeanyichukwu, Falade and Oluwafemi (2019) also carried out a study titled

“Assessment of Instructional Board Games on Academic Performance of Primary School

Pupils in Lagos”. The study examined the impact of an instructional board game on the

academic performance of primary school pupils in Lagos State, Nigeria. A sample of 30

pupils was selected using convenience sampling techniques. The English Language

Achievement Test and an Instructional Board Game were used as the research instruments. A

quasi-experimental research design was adopted, and hypotheses were raised and tested,

which showed a significant difference in the academic performance between pupils taught

using the board game and those without the board game. It was recommended that

instructional board games are a very good strategy in teaching and should be used as a new

strategy in primary schools in order to enhance learning, and the government or school

owners should start approving the use of instructional board games in classrooms to make

learning fun. This reviewed study and the current study both examine the influence of board

games on academic performance, though the present study streamlined its dependent variable

to numeracy skills.

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 Olalekan and Adesina (2021) carried out a recent study on integrating traditional

African games into preschool curriculum for enhancing number sense. The purpose of the

study was to investigate the integration of traditional African games into the preschool

curriculum as a means of enhancing preschoolers' number sense .The population for the study

comprised of preschool children in Abeokuta South Local Govt. Area and 50 preschoolers

were sampled from various preschools in the area using cluster sampling technique.

Researchers’ developed achievement test titled: Traditional African games and number sense

assessment tool (TAGANSAT) was used as instrument for gathering data and the following

steps were taken in gathering the data:

• Identification and selection of traditional African games that promote number sense

skills.

• Designing a curriculum integrating these traditional games into the preschool

program.

• Observing and documenting preschoolers' engagement and performance in the

traditional African games.

• Administering pre- and post-assessment tests on number sense skills to measure

students' progress.

• Analyzing and comparing data to determine the impact of integrating traditional

African games on preschoolers' number sense development.

Regression analysis was used in analyzing the data gathered and the study indicated

that incorporating traditional African games into the preschool curriculum positively

impacted the development of number sense skills among preschoolers. This study is related to

present research work as both studies focus on enhancing early mathematical skills through

hands-on activities. While the previous study examined the impact of traditional African

games on children's math abilities, the present study looks at how Western educational tools

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can achieve similar outcomes. Both studies aim to explore innovative approaches to improve

numeracy skills among preschoolers, highlighting the importance of culturally relevant and

engaging learning experiences in early childhood education, hence, they are related.

Garcia (2020) also carried out an empirical study titled: "The Impact of Board Games

on Preschoolers' Numeracy Skills Acquisition". The study employed a quasi-experimental

design with a pre-test-post-test control group. The goal was to examine the effects of board

games on preschoolers' numeracy skills over a designated period. The study targeted

preschool-aged children between 4 to 6 years old. A sample of 60 preschoolers was divided

into two groups: the experimental group engaged in board games, while the control group did

not. The sampling method used was convenience sampling, selecting preschools with

children within the specified age range.

A standardized numeracy skills assessment test designed for preschoolers was used

for data collection. The test evaluated skills such as counting, number recognition, and basic

arithmetic operations. Data from pre-test and post-test assessments were analyzed using

descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics summarized sample characteristics,

while inferential statistics, like t-tests and ANOVA, compared the numeracy skills of the

experimental and control groups. The study revealed that preschoolers who engaged in board

games showed significant improvements in numeracy skills compared to the control group.

Specifically, the experimental group demonstrated enhanced counting, number recognition,

arithmetic abilities, problem-solving, critical thinking, and strategic planning skills. The

children also exhibited increased engagement, collaboration, and social interaction during

board game sessions, supporting both cognitive and social development. This study is also

related to present study in that they both examine influence of board games on preschoolers’

numeracy acquisition.

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2. 3. 5. Building Blocks and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape identification skills

Kacan, Karacelik, Aktug, Clements and Sarama (2022) carried a study titled “The

Effect of the Building Blocks Education Program on Turkish Preschool Children’s

Recognition of Geometrical Shapes. The study examined the effect of the Building Blocks

mathematical education program on 4-year-old Turkish preschool children’s recognition level

of geometrical shapes. A pretest-posttest control group experimental design was employed.

The sample group was composed of randomly selected 39 preschool children (of whom 21

were in the experimental group, and 18 in the control group). A geometric shapes recognition

test was used for data collection. Results indicated meaningful differences in the mean scores

of the triangle and rectangle shapes in favor of the experimental group. When the children’s

responses to the geometric shapes recognition test were examined in detail, it was observed

that in the post-test the children in the experimental group, as compared to the ones in the

control group, were more inclined to define geometrical shapes with their qualitative features

rather than visual features. This study is related to the present study as it examined the effect

of building blocks on the development of preschoolers’ recognition of geometrical shapes.

Chepketer (2019) also carried out another study titled “The Use of Block Plays in

Enhancing the Acquisition of Mathematical Concepts and Skills in Early Childhood

Education”. The main purpose of this study was to assess the use of Block play in enhancing

the acquisition of Mathematical concepts and skills in ECDE pupils in Eldoret West Sub-

county, Kenya. This study was guided by Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development in

children. The study adopted the descriptive survey research design. The target population was

181 public ECDE centres with 181 ECDE mathematics teachers and 3620 ECDE pupils.

Simple random sampling technique was used to select 54 public ECDE centres and 362

pupils respectively. Purposive sampling technique was used to select 54 top class

mathematics teachers. The research instruments for data collection were questionnaires,

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observation schedule and checklist which were validated and piloted before the use. The

study findings established that the variety of shapes and sizes in block play toys enables

children through construction and experiment to discover the basic structure of mathematics,

under geometry and spatial sense. The study recommends that the government through the

Ministry of Education needs to come up with clear policy guidelines regarding play in pre-

school centers and clearly define the play activities according to the developmental stages of

children. The government should enhance provision of early childhood play materials to

enable pre-school children develop holistically. This study differs from present study in that it

assessed the use of Block play in enhancing the acquisition of the whole mathematical

concept and skills in preschoolers while the present study only looked into the effects on

geometrical skills.

Verdine, Golinkoff, Newcombe and Chang (2013) conducted an empirical study on

Deconstructing Building Blocks: Preschoolers' Spatial Assembly Performance Relates to

Early Mathematical Skills. The study focused on three main goals: First, 3-year-olds' spatial

assembly skills are probed using interlocking block constructions (N = 102). A detailed

scoring scheme provides insight into early spatial processing and offers information beyond a

basic accuracy score. Second, the relation of spatial assembly to early mathematical skills

was evaluated. Spatial skill independently predicted a significant amount of the variability in

concurrent mathematical performance. Finally, the relation between spatial assembly skill

and socioeconomic status (SES), gender, and parent-reported spatial language was examined.

While children's performance did not differ by gender, lower SES children were already

lagging behind higher SES children in block assembly. Furthermore, lower SES parents

reported using significantly fewer spatial words with their children. This study differs from

the current study in the sense that it focused on three main goals among which is examining

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the relationship between spatial assembly skill and socioeconomic status (SES), gender, and

parent-reported spatial language, and which this current study does not.

Gilligan-Lee, Fink, Jerrom, Davies, Dempsey and Farran (2023) carried out a recent

study titled “Building Numeracy Skills: Associations between DUPLO Block Construction

and Numeracy in Early Childhood”. The research revealed that children’s block construction

skills are positively associated with their concurrent and later mathematics performance.

Furthermore, there was evidence that block construction training is particularly beneficial for

improving early mathematics skills in children from low-Socio Economic Status (SES)

groups who are known to have lower maths performance than their peers. The study

investigated (a) the association between block construction and mathematics in children just

before the start of formal schooling (4 years-of-age in the UK) and (b) whether the

association between block construction and mathematics differs between children from more

compared to less affluent families. Participants in the study included 116 children (M = 3

years 11 months, SD = 3 months) who all completed numeracy, block construction, and

receptive vocabulary tasks. Socio-economic status and demographic information (child age,

gender, ethnicity) were also obtained from parents. Findings show a strong positive

association between block construction and early numeracy skills. When separated by SES

group, for children from less affluent families, block construction explained a significant

amount of variability (14.5%) in numeracy performance after covariates. For children from

more affluent families, block construction did not explain a significant amount of variation in

numeracy. These findings suggest that, interventions involving block construction skills may

help to reduce SES-based attainment gaps in UK children’s mathematics achievement. Just

like the previously reviewed study above, this study took into consideration some sub-

variables which this current study does not.

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2. 3. 6. Puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition shape completion skills

Ebizie, Oraelosi & Nwodo (2023) recently investigated the effect of puzzle based-

learning approach on pupils’ achievement in mathematics in Nsukka Education Zone of

Enugu State, Nigeria. The study adopted a pre-test, post-test quasi-experimental research

design. The sample for the study was 134 in which primary four (4) pupils, from two primary

schools were the target population, 68 pupils were in the experimental group and they were

taught with puzzle based- learning approach, while 66 pupils were in control group and were

taught with conventional method. Simple random sampling technique was used to allocate

the schools into experimental and groups respectively. Only primary four (4) pupils selected

from the two schools were used in the study. The instrument for data collection in the study

was Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT). Reliability coefficient was established using

KuderRichardson formula-20 and the value was 0.76. Hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of

significance using t-test. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistic and (ANCOVA).

The findings of the study showed that the primary school pupils exposed to puzzle based

learning approach and learning of Mathematics performed significantly better than those

exposed to conventional method of instruction. Again, the findings indicated no significant

difference in achievement between male and female primary school pupils who were taught

using the puzzle based- learning approach. This study differs from the current study in the

sense that it adopted a different research design.

Ogunsola (2019) carried out a similar study on The Effect of Geometric Puzzle Game

towards Children’s Shapes and Fine Motor The research aimed at knowing the influence of

the puzzle game about geometry towards the ability to know the geometric shapes and fine

motor of older group of children. The research adopted quantitative method with quasi

experimental as the design with the use of non-equivalent control group design. The study

involved 103 children from some kindergartens in Lagos, Nigeria. The data were collected

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using observation sheets and documentation. The results of the study showed that the children

in the experimental group showed greater ability to know the geometric shapes and fine

motor compared to the children in the control group. In addition, the geometric puzzle game

proved that it was an effective way to help students with the ability to know the geometric

shapes and fine motor. This study is related to the present study in that the two studies looked

at the influence of puzzles on preschoolers’ geometry skills though the reviewed study

adopted experimental design.

Levine and Canon (2011) also conducted a study on the relation between children’s

early puzzle play and their spatial skill. Children and parents (n = 53) were observed at home

for 90 minutes every four months (six times) between 2 and 4 years of age (26 to 46 months).

When children were 4 years 6 months old, they completed a spatial task involving mental

transformations of 2D shapes. Children who were observed playing with puzzles performed

better on this task than those who did not, controlling for parent education, income, and

overall parent word types. Moreover, among those children who played with puzzles,

frequency of puzzle play predicted performance on the spatial transformation task. Although

the frequency of puzzle play did not differ for boys and girls, the quality of puzzle play (a

composite of puzzle difficulty, parent engagement, and parent spatial language) was higher

for boys than girls. In addition, variation in puzzle play quality predicted performance on the

spatial transformation task for girls but not boys. Both studies aim at examining the influence

of puzzles on geometry or spatial skills, hence, they are related.

In another study titled “Mathematical Puzzles and Students’ Academic Achievement

in Plane Geometry in Uyo, Nigeria”, conducted by Essien and Ado (2017). The study

adopted the two group pre-test post-test control group experimental research design. The

sample size was one hundred and nine (109) students from two intact classes. The

instrument used for data collection was Mathematics Achievement Test in Plane Geometry

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with reliability coefficient of 0.87. Data obtained was analyzed using mean, standard

deviation and t – test statistics. Results showed that there was significant difference in the

mean achievement scores of students who were taught plane geometry using puzzles, as

compared to those who were taught without puzzles. There was no significant difference

between the mean achievement scores of male and female students who were taught plane

geometry using puzzles. It was concluded that puzzles should be used when teaching plane

geometry. This study is related to the present study in the sense that they both study the

influence of puzzles on geometry skills, though the reviewed study adopted experimental

research design while the present study is correlational study

2. 3. 7. Counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape sorting skills

Atebe and Schafer carried out a study titled “The nature of geometry instruction and

observed learning-outcomes opportunities in Nigerian and South African high schools”. The

purpose of this qualitative case study involving six secondary school teachers was to obtain

insight into how geometry is taught in selected Nigerian and South African high schools. It

also aimed, by making use of the van Hiele model of geometry instruction, to elucidate what

possible learning opportunities observed instructional methods could offer learners in the

subject. The sample comprised three mathematics teachers from Nigeria and three

mathematics teachers from South Africa, all of whom were selected using purposive

sampling techniques. Instructional activities in six geometry classrooms were recorded on

videotape. The van Hiele learning phases provided the framework for data analysis. The

findings of this study indicate that observed teaching methods in geometry classrooms in the

participating schools offer learners scant opportunity to learn geometry. In comparative and

relative terms, however, the observed instructional methods in geometry classrooms within

the South African subsample offer greater opportunities for the learners to learn geometry

than observed teaching methods in geometry classrooms within the Nigerian subsample. The

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tentative conclusion drawn is that learners whose instructional experiences align

approximately with the van Hiele phases of learning demonstrate a better understanding of

geometric concepts than their counterparts whose geometry classroom instructional

experiences deviate significantly from the van Hiele model. Certain images of teaching

evident in the videotaped lessons are discussed and some recommendations offered. This

reviewed study and the current study do not relate, as the reviewed study aimed at obtaining

insight into how geometry is taught in selected Nigerian and South African high schools,

while the current study is examining the relationship between counters and preschoolers

acquisition of geometry skills.

Ogunleye and Adegboye (2020) conducted an empirical study on effectiveness of

digital play materials on preschoolers' geometry skill acquisition. To evaluate the

effectiveness of digital play materials in promoting preschoolers' geometry skill acquisition.

The study was carried out using experimental research design. The data for this research

work was gathered through the use of digital play materials and a geometry assessment tool.

The researchers utilized snowball sampling to select a sample of 30 preschoolers from a day

care centre in Ibadan, Nigeria. The preschoolers were then divided into two groups - one

group had access to digital play materials while the other did not. The researchers observed

and recorded the preschoolers' interactions with the digital play materials and their

performance on geometry tasks using the assessment tool. They compared the performance of

both groups to evaluate the effectiveness of digital play materials in promoting preschoolers'

geometry skill acquisition. Comparative analysis was employed as the method of data

analysis to determine any significant differences in the performance of preschoolers who had

access to digital play materials compared to those who did not. The findings of the study

showed that preschoolers who interacted with digital play materials demonstrated improved

performance in geometry tasks, indicating the effectiveness of digital play materials in

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promoting geometry skill acquisition among preschool children. The study examined the

effectiveness of digital play materials such as Educational Apps, Online games, Coding kits

and Augmented reality toys on geometry skill acquisition while this present study examines

the influence of non-digital play materials like building blocks, puzzles counters and board

games on geometry skill acquisition. They therefore share slight differences.

Adesokan, Effiom and Alao (2003) recently investigated the effect of the use of

manipulative on performance and retention ability in plane geometry among senior primary

pupils in Katsina State, Nigeria. The study employed quasi-experimental design involving

pre-test, posttest, post post-test and control groups. The population of the study consists of

1,963,468 pupils across all the primary schools in Katsina State. Representative samples of

320 pupils were selected across the four education zones that were purposively selected for

the research using Slovin’s formula. Geometry Manipulative Test (GMT) was used to collect

the data needed from the pupils. The GMT was validated by three teachers’ currently

teaching mathematics at the primary level. The GMT has a reliability coefficient of 0.75. The

research was guided by four research objectives, four research questions and four hypotheses.

Descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation) and inferential statistics (independent sample

t- test, related t-test and paired sample t-test) were used to analyze the data. Result of the

analyses revealed among others thus: there was a significant difference between the mean

performance of primary five pupils taught plane geometry using manipulative (M E = 12.93,

MC = 9.94, SDE = 1.71 & SDC =2.15; p =0.000<0.05) and those taught without manipulative,

there was no significant difference between posttest and post-posttest retention ability mean

scores of boys and girls taught plane geometry using manipulative (M m = 14.06, SDm = 2.73,

Mf = 13.3. SDf = 2.63, p = 0.171>0.05). This shows that the pupils taught using manipulative

were able to retain what they learn for two weeks. The study also shows a significant

difference between retention ability of pupils. This study differs from the current study in the

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sense that the reviewed study investigated the effect of the use of manipulative on

performance and retention ability in plane geometry among senior primary pupils, while the

present study is examining the relationship between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of

geometry skills.

2. 3.8. Board Games and preschoolers acquisition of shape comparison skills

Alomyan, Hamzeh and Green (2019) carried out a research work aimed at exploring

the impact educational games have on the development of spatial concepts in kindergarten

children aged between 5 and 6 years in Amman, Jordan. Employing purposive sampling

techniques, fifty-five (N=55) kindergarten children (25 males and 30 females) in private

kindergartens participated in the study. The sample was randomly distributed into two

groups: twenty-nine (29) in the experimental group and twenty-six (26) in the control group.

Researchers developed an innovative Mathematical Educational Games Program (MEGP)

and an achievement test for children. Results indicated a significant difference between the

control and experimental groups in favour of the experimental group with no significant

difference being attributed to gender. In addition, the results showed no interaction between

gender and the MEGP. This reviewed study shares slight similarity with the present study,

though it adopted different research design.

In another study by Oflaz (2022), math teacher candidates' processes of developing

educational games were observed, and the aim was to determine their opinions about the

process. 52 teacher candidates form the participants of this research, which was conducted as

a case study. Teacher candidates were informed about the properties of educational games,

and they were asked to develop a mathematical game according to the Game Design Key

Model developed by Özkan (2018). The research data was obtained using Game Design Key

Model, structured interview forms, and daily plans. The obtained data was analyzed with

descriptive and content analysis techniques. The games developed for the study were

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categorized according to their grade level, design purpose, learning area, game type, the way

the game was developed, goal, the obstacle of the game, basic mechanics, feedback, and the

number of players. Teacher candidates' views on the process were categorized as factors that

make the process difficult and easier, and things that are enjoyed and disliked during the

process. This reviewed study does not relate to the present study as its purpose was to

determine the opinions of math teacher candidates about processes of developing educational

games, while the present study seeks to examine the relationship between board games and

preschoolers’ acquisition of geometry skills.

It is obvious that review of the related empirical studies on play materials, related

literatures had given awareness or clues on the influence of play materials on children.

However, the present study goes steps further to determine the influence of building blocks,

puzzles, counters and board games on number sense and geometry skills development of

preschool children, which will go a long way in making positive educational improvement

on the children, parents, teachers and the society at large.

2.4 Summary of Literatures Review

This chapter focused on review of related literature on the different concepts that were

used in the study. The concepts used are play materials and preschoolers’ acquisition of

numeracy skills as the independent and dependent variables respectively with their sub

variables broken from the independent variable as: building blocks, puzzles counters and

board games and the dependent variable as number identification, number sequencing,

counting, basic addition, shape identification, shape completion, shape sorting and shape

comparison skills. From the literature reviewed, it was revealed that exposure to play

materials can enhance better acquisition in number sense and geometry skills of preschoolers,

and if preschoolers are exposed early to play materials, their numeracy skills will be

positively influenced. The second part of the chapter considered theories relevant to the

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study. These theories include: Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development (1936, 1950),

John Dewey’s Learning Theory (1916), and Maria Montessori Learning Approach (1907).

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development emphasizes that cognitive development in

which numeracy is an aspect is related to maturation and how a child interacts with his or her

environment. John Dewey emphasizes experiential learning, active engagement, and the role

of the environment in shaping learning experiences. While Montessori Learning Approach

was significant in showcasing the “guided by children” method that celebrated learning

and exploration over specific academic result. These theories believe in exploration and

hands-on experiences as a yardstick for effective teaching- learning process (teaching of

numeracy skills inclusive) of young children. Related empirical studies were also

reviewed on the various concepts. This study is therefore conducted to increase the

volume of information and awareness as regards play materials and preschoolers’

numeracy skills acquisition, to highlight the relationship between play materials

(building blocks, puzzles counters and board games) and preschoolers’ acquisition of

numeracy skills.

Empirically, various past studies were reviewed with conflicting reports. For instance,

almost all the reviewed literature used toys to proxy play materials as the major means to

promote children’s numeracy skills, but none of the previous studies looked at how building

blocks, playing with art and puzzles, counting with counters and playing board games relate

with number sense and geometry skills acquisition. Finally, it was also found out that none

of the studies reviewed investigated play materials and preschoolers’ acquisition of number

sense and geometry skills in Cross River State, therefore a gap exists in literature which

deserved to be filled by this present study, hence the conduct of this study.

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 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

This chapter is presented under the following sub-headings: research design, area of

study, population of the study, sample and sampling technique, instrumentation, validation of

the instrument, reliability of the instrument, administration of the instrument and method of

data analysis.

3.1 Research Design

This study adopted correlational research design. This design was adopted because the

variables were examined in order to establish the relationship between play materials such as

building blocks, puzzles, counters and board games and acquisition of numeracy skills such

as number identification skill, number sequencing skill, counting skill, basic addition skill,

shape identification skill, shape completion skill, shape sorting skill and shape comparison

skill by preschoolers in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State, Nigeria.

3.2 Area of the Study

This research was carried out in Cross River State. Cross Rivers is South-South State

and it was created on 27 May 1967 from the former Nigerian Eastern Region by the General

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Yakubu Gowon. Its name was changed to Cross River State in the 1976 state creation

exercise by the then General Murtala Mohammed regime from South Eastern State. The

present day Akwa Ibom State was excised from it in the state creation exercise of September

1987 by the then regime of General Ibrahim Babangida. Its capital is Calabar. Its major

towns are Calabar Municipality, Akamkpa, Biase, Calabar South, Ikom, Igede, Obubra,

Odukpani, Ogoja, Bekwarra, Ugep, Obudu, Obanliku, Akpabuyo, Ofutop, Iso-bendghe,

Danare, Boki, Yala, Bendeghe Ekiem, Etomi, Ukpe and Ukelle. The State is composed of

several ethnic groups, which include the Efik, the Ejagham, Yakurr, Bette, Yala, Igede,

Ukelle and the Bekwarra. There are four major languages spoken in the state: French, Efik,

Bekwarra, and Ejagham.

Cross River state derives its name from the Cross River, which passes through the

state. It is a coastal state located in the Niger Delta region, and occupies 20,156 square

kilometers. It shares boundaries with Benue state to the north, Ebonyi and Abia states to the

west, to the east by Sud-Ouest Province in Cameroon, and to the south by Akwa-Ibom and

the Atlantic Ocean. As an agricultural state, the Cross River state's economy partially relies

on crops, such as cocoyam, rubber, oil palm, yam, cocoa, cashews, and plantain crops, along

with fishing. Key minor industries involve tourism in and around the wildlife reserves along

with the historic Ikom Monoliths site, Calabar Carnival, and Obudu Mountain Resort.

Cross River State has three (3) Senatorial Zones / Districts. They are Cross River

Central Senatorial Zone / District, Cross River North Senatorial Zone / District and Cross

River South Senatorial Zone / District. Below are the Senatorial Zones / Districts and the

local government areas that made up the districts. The State consists of eighteen (18) Local

Government Areas, which are: Abi, Akamkpa, Akpabuyo, Bekwarra, Bakassi, Biase, Boki,

Calabar Municipal, Calabar South, Etung, Ikom, Obanliku, Obubra, Obudu, Odukpani,

Ogoja, Yakuur and Yala. Educationally, the state is blessed with several Public and Private

120
Pre-primary, Primary, Secondary and Tertiary schools. Tertiary educational institutions in the

State includes University of Calabar and Cross River State University of Technology located

in the state capital Calabar, Ibrahim Babangida College of Agriculture located in Obubra

Local Government Area, Cross River State College of Education located in Akamkpa Local

Government Area, College of Health Technology, Iboko Okpoma, Federal College of

Education located in Obudu and Technical College Ugep located in Yakurr Local

Government Area. The area of study was chosen because of easy accessibility, since the

researcher resides in Obudu Local Government Area, which is one of the eighteen Local

Government Areas in Cross River State, and to the best knowledge of the researcher none of

such research work has been carried out in the area.

3.3 Population of the Study

18,134 comprising 17,145 Nursery 1 Preschoolers and their 989 caregivers found in

679 Public Preschools in Cross River State (Cross River State Universal Basic Education:

Department of Planning, Research and Statistics, 2023). See appendix B for comprehensive

population list.

The choice of using the preschoolers and their caregivers in this study was deemed

appropriate in the sense that the preschoolers interact with play materials during

teaching/learning process in the classrooms while the caregivers are the respondents that can

effectively ascertain the relationship these play materials have with preschoolers acquisition

of numeracy skills.

3.4 Sample and Sampling Techniques

1,758 respondents (comprising 1,485 preschoolers and 273 caregivers) formed the

sample size for the study. This sample represents 8.2% of the total population and they are

found in 90 pre-schools centres. The 90 centres represent 13.3% of the total number of

preschools in the study area. To select the sample, the researcher adopted the multi-stage

121
sampling technique of stratified sampling, simple random sampling, systematic sampling and

purposive sampling techniques.

Firstly, the stratified sampling technique was used by dividing the 18 Local

Government Areas in the study area into 3 strata based on proximity and language affiliation.

Akampa, Akpabuyo, Bakassi, Boki, Calabar South and Calabar Municipal L.G.A’s were

grouped as Strata 1, Biase, Yakurr, Etung, Ikom, Obubra and Odukpani as strata 2, Abi,

Obanliku, Yala, Obudu, Bekwarra and Ogoja as Strata 3. Three Local Governments from

each of the strata housing six Local Government Areas were randomly chosen, making it a

total of Nine Local Government Areas selected for the study (Akpabuyo, Calabar South and

Boki from Strata 1, Yakurr, Ikom and Obubra from Strata 2, Obanliku, Obudu and Ogoja

from Strata 3). To achieve this, the simple random sampling technique through balloting

method was used. The Local Government Area in each strata was assigned a unique number

(1,2,3,4,5 and 6 respectively). The researcher folded six pieces of paper each labelled with a

unique number representing each Local Government Area; and put them in basket, which was

thoroughly mixed before three were picked. The Local Government Area corresponding with

the chosen number in the picked papers were selected for the study. In addition, 10 public

preschools were also randomly selected from each of the selected Local Government Areas,

this was done by labelling pieces of papers with the unique number representing each public

preschool in the selected L.G.As, all put in a basket, thoroughly mixed, before 10 schools

were picked. The schools corresponding with the chosen numbers were selected for the study

and this was done in the nine selected Local Government Areas.

The preschoolers, were selected using systematic sampling technique and this was

done by compiling lists of preschoolers in Nursery 1 as they appeared in their school register,

and then systematically picked some of them using the sampling interval (‘n’) of 2. In other

words after picking the first in the list, the next is the 4 th, 7th, 10th, 13th and so on depending on

122
their class size (the larger the class population, the larger the sample selected), the

preschoolers picked formed the sample for the study. This was done in all the preschools

selected in the nine Local Government Areas.

Finally, purposive sampling technique was used to select the caregivers in the selected

schools. See appendix C for comprehensive sample list.

3.5 Instrumentation

The two (2) instruments the researcher used to gather data for this study were the

researcher–designed 32 items Questionnaire titled “Play Material and Preschoolers Numeracy

Skills Acquisition Questionnaire (PMAPNSAQ)” and Preschoolers Numeracy Skills

Acquisition Observation Inventory (PNSAOI). The first instrument was in two sections,

namely A and B. Section A captured the demographic data of the respondents. Section B

captured the 32 items from the eight objectives, 4 items were made to measure each

objective. The PMAPNSAQ was scored on a 4-point Likert scale of Strongly Agreed (SA)

=4, Agreed (A) = 3, Disagree (D) = 2 and Strongly Disagree (SD) = 1 on positive statements,

while the negative statements was scored on the reverse Likert scale. The second instrument,

titled Preschoolers’ Numeracy Skills Acquisition Observation Inventory (PNSAOI), captured

various acceptable behaviours to depict the acquisition of preschoolers’ numeracy skills. The

instrument was scored on a 4-point Likert scale of Very Correct (VC) =4, Correct (C) =3, Not

Correct (NC) =2 and Not Very Correct (NVC) =1.

3.6 Validation of the Instrument

The instruments were validated for face and content by the researchers’ supervisor

and two other lecturers in the Department of Early Childhood/Primary Education. These

123
experts’ corrections, comments and suggestions were incorporated into the final draft of the

instruments. This ascertained the instruments valid for the study.

3.7 Reliability of the Instrument

Cronbach Alpha and test –retest method were used to determine the reliability index

of the instruments; “Play Material and Preschoolers Numeracy Skills Acquisition

Questionnaire (PMAPNSAQ)” and Preschoolers Numeracy Skills Acquisition Observation

Inventory (PNSAOI). 20 respondents from public early childhood centres in Calabar

municipal local government area were used for the exercise. The reliability of these

instruments was determined by administering 20 copies of the instrument to 20 respondents

in the public early childhood centres, which were not part of the main population to be used

in the study but close to the study area. After 2 weeks, the same instruments were re-

administered on the same sample. Coefficient index result of 0.80 and 0.77 were obtained

respectively. Based on these high coefficient results, the instruments were accepted to be

reliable and fit for the study.

3.8 Administration of the Instrument

To administer the instrument, the researcher obtained permission from the Head

Teachers in the sampled preschool centres presenting to them a letter of introduction, as well

as created a report with set dates and time, and when to interact with the subjects. Two

research assistants were used in the course of the study and the researcher took out 2 days to

train them on the instrument administration procedures and retrieval processes. Both

instruments were administered to the caregivers who responded based on their perception on

the relationship between play materials and preschoolers’ numeracy skills acquisition. All

copies if the instruments were retrieved while only 273 out of 350 PMANSAPQ retrieved

124
were considered for data analysis. The administration and retrieval processes lasted for 3

weeks.

3.9 Method of Data Analysis

The data collected were analyzed by using Pearson product-moment correlation

coefficient (PPMC) to answer the research questions and test the null hypotheses at 0.05 level

of significance.

CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION OF DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

This chapter discussed the presentation of data under the following subheadings:

answering of research questions, testing of null hypotheses, summary of findings and

discussion of findings.

4.1 Answering of Research Questions

4.1.1 Research question one: To what extent do building blocks relate with preschoolers’

acquisition of number identification skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross

River State?

Table 4.1: Correlation coefficient between building blocks and preschoolers’ acquisition
number identification skills

125
 Building blocks Preschoolers’
acquisition of
number
identification
skill

Pearson Correlation 1 .665

Building blocks
Sig. (2-tailed) .001
N 273 273
Preschoolers’ Pearson Correlation .665 1
acquisition of
number Sig. (2-tailed) .001
identification skill
273 273
N

Table 4.1 showed the Correlation coefficient between building blocks and

preschoolers’ acquisition of number identification skill in public early childhood care centres

in Cross River State. With the r values of .665 greater than the p value (.001), it shows that to

a high extent there is a positive correlation between building blocks and preschoolers’

acquisition of number identification skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross

River State.

4.1.2 Research question two: What is the extent of relationship between puzzles and

preschoolers’ acquisition of number sequencing skill in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State?

Table 4.2: Correlation coefficient between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of

number sequencing skill

Puzzles Preschoolers’
acquisition of
number
sequencing
skill

Puzzles Pearson Correlation 1 .429

Sig. (2-tailed) .001

126
 N 273 273

Preschoolers’ Pearson Correlation .429 1

acquisition of number
sequencing skill Sig. (2-tailed) .001

N 273 273

Table 4.2 showed the Correlation coefficient between puzzles and preschoolers’

acquisition of number sequencing skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River

State. With the r values of .429 greater than the p value (.001), it shows that there is a positive

moderate correlation between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of number sequencing

skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

4.1.3 Research question three: To what extent do counters relate with preschoolers’

acquisition of counting skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State?

Table 4.3: Correlation coefficient between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of

counting skill

Counters Preschoolers’
acquisition of
counting skill

Pearson Correlation 1 .563

Counters
Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 273 273

Pearson Correlation .563 1

Preschoolers’
acquisition of Sig. (2-tailed) .000

127
 273 273
N
counting skill

Table 4.3 showed the Correlation coefficient between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition

of counting skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State. With the r values

of .563 greater than the p value (.000), it shows that there is a positive moderate correlation

between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of counting skill in public early childhood

care centres in Cross River State.

4.1.4 Research question four: What is the extent of relationship between board games and

preschoolers’ acquisition of basic addition skill in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State?

Table 4.4: Correlation coefficient between board games and preschoolers’ acquisition of
basic addition skill

Board games Preschoolers’

acquisition of
basic addition
skill

Pearson Correlation 1 .437

Board games
Sig. (2-tailed) .001
N 273 273
Preschoolers’ Pearson Correlation .437 1

128
acquisition of basic Sig. (2-tailed) .001
addition skill
N 273 273

Table 4.4 showed the Correlation coefficient between board games and preschoolers’

acquisition of basic addition skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

With the r values of .437 greater than the p value (.001), it shows that there is a positive

moderate correlation between board games and preschoolers’ acquisition of basic addition

skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

4.1.5 Research question five: To what extent do building blocks relate with preschoolers’

acquisition of shape identification skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River

State?

Table 4.5: Correlation coefficient between building blocks and preschoolers’ acquisition
of shape identification skill

129
 Building blocks Preschoolers’
acquisition of
shape
identification
skill

Pearson Correlation 1 .752

Building blocks
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 273 273
Preschoolers’ Pearson Correlation .752 1
acquisition of shape
identification skills Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 273 273

Table 4.5 showed the Correlation coefficient between building blocks and preschoolers’

acquisition of shape identification skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River

State. With the r values of .752 greater than the p value (.000), it shows that to a high extent

there is a positive correlation between building blocks and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape

identification skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

4.1.6 Research question six: What is the extent of relationship between puzzles and

preschoolers’ acquisition of shape completion skill in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State?

Table 4.6: Correlation coefficient between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of

shape completion skill

130
 Puzzles Preschoolers’
acquisition of
shape
completion
skill

Pearson Correlation 1 .699

Puzzles
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 273 273
Preschoolers’ Pearson Correlation .699 1
acquisition of shape
completion skill Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 273 273

Table 4.6 showed the Correlation coefficient between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition

of shape completion skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State. With the

r values of .699 greater than the p value (.000), it shows that there is a positive high

correlation between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape completion skill in public

early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

4.1.7 Research question seven: To what extent do counters relate with preschoolers’

acquisition of shape sorting skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State?

Table 4.7: Correlation coefficient between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of

shape sorting skill

131
 Counters Preschoolers’
acquisition of
shape sorting
skill

Pearson Correlation 1 .350

Counters
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 273 273
Preschoolers’ Pearson Correlation .350 1
acquisition of
shape sorting Sig. (2-tailed) .000
skills
273 273
N

Table 4.7 showed the Correlation coefficient between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition

of shape sorting skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State. With the r

values of .350 greater than the p value (.000), it shows that there is a positive moderate

correlation between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape sorting skill in public

early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

4.1.8 Research question eight: What is the extent of relationship between board games and

preschoolers’ acquisition of shape comparison skill in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State?

132
Table 4.8: Correlation coefficient between board games and preschoolers’ acquisition of
shape comparison skill

Board games Preschoolers’

acquisition of
shape
comparison skill

Pearson Correlation 1 .437

Board games
Sig. (2-tailed) .001
N 273 273
Preschoolers’ Pearson Correlation .437 1
acquisition of shape
comparison skill Sig. (2-tailed) .001

N 273 273

Table 4.8 showed the Correlation coefficient between board games and preschoolers’

acquisition of shape comparison skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River

State. With the r values of .437 greater than the p value (.001), it shows that there is a positive

moderate correlation between use of board games and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape

comparison skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

4.2 Testing of Null Hypotheses

133
4.2.1 Null hypothesis one: There is no significant relationship between building blocks and

preschoolers’ acquisition of number identification skill in public early childhood care centres

in Cross River State.

Table 4.9: Correlation coefficient between building blocks and preschoolers’ acquisition
of number identification skill

Building blocks Preschoolers’

acquisition of
number
identification
skill

Pearson Correlation 1 .665**

Building blocks
Sig. (2-tailed) .001

N 273 273

Preschoolers’ Pearson Correlation .665** 1

acquisition of
number Sig. (2-tailed) .001
identification skill
N 273 273

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.9 showed the Correlation coefficient between building blocks and

preschoolers’ acquisition of number identification skill in public early childhood care centres

in Cross River State. The correlation between building blocks and preschoolers’ acquisition

of number identification skill was significant at (r=.665, p<.001). Therefore, the null

hypothesis is rejected, meaning that there is a significant relationship between building

blocks and preschoolers’ acquisition of number identification skill in public early childhood

care centres in Cross River State.

134
4.2.2 Null hypothesis two: There is no significant relationship between puzzles and

preschoolers’ acquisition of number sequencing skill in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State.

Table 4.10: Correlation coefficient between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of

number sequencing skill

Puzzles Preschoolers’
acquisition of
number
sequencing
skill

Pearson Correlation 1 .429**

Puzzles
Sig. (2-tailed) .001

N 273 273

Preschoolers’ Pearson Correlation .429** 1

acquisition of
number Sig. (2-tailed) .001
sequencing skill 273 273
N

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.10 showed the Correlation coefficient between puzzles and preschoolers’

acquisition of number sequencing skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River

State. The correlation between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of number sequencing

skill was significant at (r=.429, p<.001). Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected, showing

that there is a significant relationship between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of

number sequencing skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

135
4.2.3 Null hypothesis three: Significant relationship does not exist between counters and

preschoolers’ acquisition of counting skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross

River State.

Table 4.11: Correlation coefficient between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of

counting skill

Counters Preschoolers’
acquisition of
counting skill

Pearson Correlation 1 .563**

Counters
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 273 273
Preschoolers’ Pearson Correlation .563** 1
acquisition of counting
skill Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 273 273

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.11 showed the Correlation coefficient between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition

of counting skill in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State. The correlation

between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of counting skill was significant at (r=.563,

p<.000). Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected, meaning that there is a significant

relationship between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of counting skill in public early

childhood care centres in Cross River State.

136
4.2.4 Null hypothesis four: There is no significant relationship between board games and

preschoolers’ acquisition of basic addition skill in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State.

Table 4.12: Correlation coefficient between board games and preschoolers’ acquisition
of basic addition skill

Board games Preschoolers

’ acquisition
of basic
addition
skill

Pearson Correlation 1 .437**

Board games
Sig. (2-tailed) .001

N 273 273

Preschoolers’ Pearson Correlation .437** 1

acquisition of
Sig. (2-tailed) .001
basic addition
skill N 273 273

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.00 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.12 showed the Correlation coefficient between board games and

preschoolers’ acquisition of basic addition skill in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State. The correlation between board games and preschoolers’ acquisition of

basic addition skill was significant at (r=.437, p<.001). Therefore, the null hypothesis is

rejected, this means that there is a significant relationship between board games and

preschoolers’ acquisition of basic addition skill in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State.

137
4.2.5 Null hypothesis five: There is no significant relationship between building blocks and

preschoolers’ acquisition of shape identification skill in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State.

Table 4.13: Correlation coefficient between building blocks and preschoolers’

acquisition of shape identification skill
Building blocks Preschoolers’
acquisition of
shape
identification
skill

Pearson Correlation 1 .752**

Building blocks
Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 273 273

Preschoolers’ Pearson Correlation .752** 1

acquisition of shape
identification skill Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 273 273

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.13 showed the Correlation coefficient between building blocks and

preschoolers’ acquisition of shape identification skill in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State. The correlation between building blocks and preschoolers’ acquisition of

shape identification skill was significant at (r=.752, p<.000). Therefore, the null hypothesis is

rejected, meaning that there is a significant relationship between building blocks and

preschoolers’ acquisition of shape identification skill in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State.

138
4.2.6 Null hypothesis six: Significant relationship does not exist between puzzles and

preschoolers’ acquisition of shape completion skill in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State.

Table 4.14: Correlation coefficient between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of

shape completion skills

Puzzles Preschoolers’
acquisition of
shape
completion
skills

Pearson Correlation 1 .699**

Puzzles
Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 273 273

Preschoolers’ Pearson Correlation .699** 1

acquisition of
shape completion Sig. (2-tailed) .000
skills 273 273
N

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.14 showed the Correlation coefficient between puzzles and preschoolers’

acquisition of shape completion skills in public early childhood care centres in Cross River

State. The correlation between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape completion

skills was significant at (r=.699, p<.000). Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected, showing

that there is a significant relationship between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape

completion skills in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

139
4.2.7 Null hypothesis seven: There is no significant relationship between counters and

preschoolers’ acquisition of shape sorting skills in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State.

Table 4.15: Correlation coefficient between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of

shape sorting skills

Counters Preschoolers’
acquisition of
shape sorting
skills

Pearson Correlation 1 .350**

Counters
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 273 273
Preschoolers’ Pearson Correlation .350** 1
acquisition of shape
sorting skills Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 273 273

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.15 showed the Correlation coefficient between counters and preschoolers’

acquisition of shape sorting skills in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

The correlation between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape sorting skills was

significant at (r=.350, p<.000). Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected, meaning that there

is a significant relationship between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape sorting

skills in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

140
4.2.8 Null hypothesis eight: There is no significant relationship between board games and

preschoolers’ acquisition of shape comparison skills in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State.

Table 4.16: Correlation coefficient between board games and preschoolers’ acquisition
of shape comparison skills

Board games Preschoolers

’ acquisition
of shape
comparison
skills

Pearson Correlation 1 .437**

Board games
Sig. (2-tailed) .001

N 273 273

Preschoolers’ Pearson Correlation .437** 1

acquisition of
shape Sig. (2-tailed) .001
comparison
N 273 273
skills

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.00 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.16 showed the Correlation coefficient between board games and

preschoolers’ acquisition of shape comparison skills in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State. The correlation between board games and preschoolers’ acquisition of

shape comparison skills was significant at (r=.437, p<.001). Therefore, the null hypothesis is

rejected, this means that there is a significant relationship between board games and

preschoolers’ acquisition of shape comparison skills in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State.

141
4.3 Summary of Findings

The findings of the study can be summarised in the following:

1. There is a significant relationship between building blocks and preschoolers’

acquisition of number identification skills in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State.

2. There is a significant relationship between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of

number sequencing skills in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

3. There is a significant relationship between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of

counting skills in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

4. There is a significant relationship between board games and preschoolers’ acquisition

of basic addition skills in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

5. There is a significant relationship between building blocks and preschoolers’

acquisition of shape identification skills in public early childhood care centres in

Cross River State.

6. There is a significant relationship between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of

shape completion skills in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

7. There is a significant relationship between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of

shape sorting skills in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

8. There is a significant relationship between board games and preschoolers’ acquisition

of shape comparison skills in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

142
4.4 Discussion of Findings

Relationship between building blocks and preschoolers’ acquisition of number

identification skills.

The finding in hypothesis one shows that there is a significant relationship between building

blocks and preschoolers’ acquisition of number identification skills in public early childhood

care centres in Cross River State. The finding of the study is in agreement with the views of

Peterson et al., (2020) who opines that by using building blocks to support children's

learning, educators can help them develop a strong foundation in number sense that will set

the stage for future mathematical success. With building blocks, children are provided with a

sensory experience that engages multiple senses. By touching, feeling, and manipulating the

blocks, children can engage their tactile and kinesthetic senses, which can help them

internalize mathematical concepts and develop a strong connection to the material. The

finding of the study also supports the views of Clements and Sarama (2018) who points out

that there are several types of building blocks that can be used to support children's

development of number sense in preschool. Each type of building block offers unique

benefits and opportunities for learning. Furthermore, the finding of the study is in consonance

with the findings of Schmitt and Colleagues (2018) who found that providing preschoolers

with a play-based, semi-structured block-building intervention marginally helped improve

their numeracy, shape recognition, and mathematical language skills. The researchers

speculated that during block-building experiences, children need to count the number of

blocks and visualize where blocks go in the structure before placing them. Thus, block

building may provide children with direct mathematical experiences, such as counting,

sorting, measuring, and classifying.

Relationship between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of number sequencing

skills.

143
 The finding in hypothesis two shows that there is a significant relationship between

puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of number sequencing skills in public early childhood

care centres in Cross River State. The finding of the study corroborates the views of Ginsburg

(2016) who observes that through completing puzzles, children can enhance their problem-

solving abilities, spatial awareness, and cognitive development, all of which are essential for

building a strong foundation in numeracy. One of the key benefits of puzzles is that they

promote critical thinking and problem-solving skills. When children engage in puzzles, they

are required to think logically and strategically to find the correct solution. This process helps

them to develop their reasoning abilities, enabling them to understand and manipulate

numbers more effectively. By working through puzzles, preschoolers can learn to recognize

patterns, make connections between different elements, and apply mathematical concepts in a

practical setting. Also, the finding of the study supports the views of Hays (2020) who states

that puzzles help to improve spatial awareness and visual perception in young children. He

explained further that many puzzles involve manipulating pieces to fit together in a specific

way, which encourages children to use their spatial reasoning skills. This can be particularly

beneficial for developing a child's understanding of geometry and spatial relationships, which

are important components of numeracy. By engaging in puzzles that require spatial

awareness, preschoolers can enhance their ability to visualize and mentally manipulate

numbers and shapes. Again, the finding of the study is in agreement with the views of Mix

and Cheng (2012) who opined that engaging in activities that challenge the brain, such as

puzzles, can help to strengthen neural connections and enhance cognitive functions. By

exercising their brains through puzzle-solving, children can improve their memory, attention

span, and processing speed, all of which are essential for developing numeracy skills. As

children tackle increasingly complex puzzles, they are able to build upon these cognitive

abilities, ultimately leading to better mathematical proficiency.

144
Relationship between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of counting skills.
The finding in hypothesis three shows that there is a significant relationship between

counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of counting skills in public early childhood care

centres in Cross River State. The finding of the study supports the finding of Fuson, Smith,

and Lo Cicero (2017) who examined the effects of manipulatives on preschoolers'

understanding of number concepts and found that children who had access to manipulatives,

such as counters, showed greater mathematical understanding and problem-solving skills

compared to children who did not have access to these materials. The study demonstrated the

importance of providing children with hands-on learning experiences to support their

numeracy development. Also, the finding of the stud corroborates the finding of Sarama,

Clements, Wolfe, and Spitler (2016) who investigated the impact of using manipulatives,

including counters, on preschoolers' mathematical thinking and understanding and found that

children who engaged with manipulatives in math activities demonstrated a deeper

understanding of mathematical concepts and were able to transfer their knowledge to new

situations. The study highlighted the importance of incorporating manipulatives into early

childhood math instruction to support children's numeracy skills acquisition.

Relationship between board games and preschoolers’ acquisition of basic addition skills

The finding in hypothesis four show that there is a significant relationship between

board games and preschoolers’ acquisition of basic addition skills in public early childhood

care centres in Cross River State. The finding of the study is in tandem with the findings of

Fuson et al. (2008) who found that children who played board games regularly showed

significant improvement in their number sense skills compared to those who did not play

such games. Also, the finding of the study agrees with the finding of Garcia (2020) who

carried out a study on the Impact of Board Games on Preschoolers' Numeracy Skills

Acquisition and found that preschoolers who engaged in board games showed significant

145
improvements in numeracy skills compared to the control group. Specifically, the

experimental group demonstrated enhanced counting, number recognition, arithmetic

abilities, problem-solving, critical thinking, and strategic planning skills.

Relationship between building blocks and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape

identification skills.

The finding in hypothesis five shows that there is a significant relationship between building

blocks and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape identification skills in public early childhood

care centres in Cross River State. The finding of the study is in agreement with the views of

Clement and Sarama (2014) who believes that in the early years of a child's development,

exposure to geometric concepts and shapes is crucial for building a strong foundation in

mathematics, preschoolers in particular, benefit greatly from hands-on experiences that allow

them to explore and manipulate shapes in a concrete way. They affirmed building blocks to

be a popular educational tool that can be used to facilitate the development of preschoolers'

geometry skills. Also, the finding of the study supports the views of Ginsburg (2016) who

explains that building blocks are versatile and engaging tools that offer numerous benefits for

preschoolers' geometry skills development. Furthermore, the finding of the study affirms the

views of Caldera et al. (2009) who reports that preschoolers’ block building skills appear to

be related to their spatial visualization skills as measured by their ability to analyze and

reproduce abstract patterns, to abstract a geometric figure embedded within a more complex

figure, and to reproduce three-dimensional structures made from cubes.

Relationship between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape completion skills.

The finding in hypothesis six shows that there is a significant relationship between

puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape completion skills in public early childhood

care centres in Cross River State. The finding of the study corroborates the views of Clement

and Sarama (2011) who highlighted key benefits of puzzles in geometry learning as:

Enhancing spatial awareness and problem-solving skills, encouraging critical thinking and

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fine motor skill development and promoting shape recognition and understanding of

geometric concepts such as symmetry and congruence. Also, the finding of the study agrees

with the views of Kamii (2017) who suggests that puzzles can be effective tools for

promoting children's geometric thinking and problem-solving skills. In their study,

preschoolers who worked on puzzles that required them to identify and match shapes showed

improved performance on geometric tasks compared to children who did not engage in

puzzle play. These findings suggest that puzzles can be an effective instructional tool for

enhancing preschoolers' geometry skills acquisition.

Relationship between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape sorting skills.

The finding in hypothesis seven shows that there is a significant relationship between

counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape sorting skills in public early childhood care

centres in Cross River State. The finding of the study supports the finding of Smith et al.

(2016) who conducted a series of hands-on activities where preschoolers manipulated

counters to explore shapes, patterns, and spatial relationships and found a significant

improvement in the geometry skills of the children who engaged with counters, highlighting

the benefits of hands-on learning experiences. Also, the finding of the study is in line with the

finding of Brown et al (2018) who found that engaging in activities with counters helped

children identify shapes, solve spatial problems, and develop critical thinking skills.

Relationship between board games and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape comparison

skills

The finding in hypothesis eight shows that there is a significant relationship between

board games and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape comparison skills in public early

childhood care centres in Cross River State. The finding of the study is in tandem with the

views of Clements and Sarama (2009) who states that Board games are interactive and hands-

on tools that can be effectively used to facilitate the acquisition of geometry skills in

preschoolers. Also, the finding of the study supports the views of Bryant (2020) who opines

147
that Board games are valuable educational tools for enhancing preschoolers' geometry skills

acquisition through interactive and hands-on learning experiences. By incorporating board

games into the classroom, educators can create engaging and effective opportunities for

children to explore geometric concepts, develop spatial awareness, and strengthen problem-

solving skills. Furthermore, the finding of the study agrees with the views of Moomaw

(2018) who also affirm that in learning mathematics, the introduction of the concept of

geometric shapes can also be taught by using a geometry puzzle game tool. With the

geometric puzzle game tools, children can connect one object to another, children are able to

perceive the concept of a lot or a few, children can harmonize the shape, color, size and

number through activities of sorting objects, distinguishing sizes "more than", "less than" and

" most ", which is easy to use by children, attract children's attention, fun for children and can

be meaningful to children.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter discussed the summary, conclusion, recommendation and suggestion for further

study.

5.1 Summary
The study examined the relationship between play materials and preschoolers’ numeracy

skills acquisition in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State of Nigeria. Eight

research questions and eight hypotheses guided the study. The study employed the

correlational research design. 18,134 comprising 17,145 Nursery 1 preschoolers and their 989

caregivers found in 679 public early child care centres in Cross River State formed the

population for the study. 1,758 respondents comprising 1,485 preschoolers and 273

caregivers were sampled for study, using multi-stage sampling technique. The instruments for

data collection were the researcher designed questionnaire (PMANSAPQ) and an observation

inventory (PNSAOI). The instruments were validated by experts and had reliability index of

0.80 and 0.77 respectfully. Data were analyzed using Pearson product moment correlation

coefficient (PPMC) at 0.05 level of significance. The findings revealed that; there is a

significant relationship between building blocks and preschoolers’ acquisition of number

identification skills in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State; there is a

significant relationship between puzzles and preschoolers’ acquisition of number sequencing

149
skills in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State; there is a significant

relationship between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of counting skills in public early

childhood care centres in Cross River State; there is a significant relationship between board

games and preschoolers’ acquisition of basic addition skills in public early childhood care

centres in Cross River State; there is a significant relationship between building blocks and

preschoolers’ acquisition of shape identification skills in public early childhood care centres

in Cross River State; there is a significant relationship between puzzles and preschoolers’

acquisition of shape completion skills in public early childhood care centres in Cross River

State; there is a significant relationship between counters and preschoolers’ acquisition of

shape sorting skills in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State; there is a

significant relationship between board games and preschoolers’ acquisition of shape

comparison skills in public early childhood care centres in Cross River State.

5.2 Conclusion

Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded that; there is significant

relationship between the use of play materials such as building blocks, puzzles, counters and

board games and preschoolers’ numeracy skills acquisition, particularly in number sense and

geometry. The findings suggest that preschoolers who engage with these play materials tend

to demonstrate better numeracy skills including counting, sorting, basic arithmetic operations,

shape recognition and spatial awareness. Playing with play materials provides preschoolers

with hands-on experience, allowing them to explore and learn mathematical concepts in fun

and engaging manner.

The finding of this study is consistent with existing literature which emphasizes the

role of play in children’s cognitive and socio-emotional development. The study’s results also

150
resonate with the principles of constructive theory which posits that children construct their

own knowledge and understanding through active engagement with their environment.

5.3 Recommendations
Based on the findings and conclusion of the study, the following recommendations were

made:

1. The ministry of education, and national curriculum development boards in

collaboration with early childhood education experts and stakeholders should develop

curriculum guidelines that incorporate building blocks into preschool mathematics

education, providing preschoolers with hands-on experiences that promote number

identification skills .

2. Government should provide funding for research on the effectiveness of puzzles in

promoting preschoolers’ acquisition of number sequence skills and other mathematics

concepts.

3. Teachers/ Caregivers should provide opportunities for preschoolers to create their

own counting games using counters, thereby encouraging creativity and problem –

solving skills along with counting skills

4. Caregivers should be mandated to use board games to practice basic addition facts,

such as 1 + 1 = 2, or 2 + 2 = 4

5. Caregivers should be effectively trained by a specialist in a workshop, seminar or any

other training program on the effective use of building blocks for effective teaching of

shape identification skills.

6. Teachers/ Caregivers should encourage parental involvement by providing puzzles

that specifically target shape completion skills for preschoolers to complete at home

with their parents, promoting a collaborative and supportive learning environment.

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7. Government should encourage collaboration between educators, researchers and

policymakers to promote the development of evidence-based policies and practices

for using counters in preschoolers’ acquisition of shape sorting skills.

8. Game designers and developers should create board games that specifically target

shape comparison skills for preschoolers.

5.4 Limitations of the Study

The researcher in course of conducting this research, encountered some limitations

such as; the issue of the researcher's inability to enter some sections of the state because of

the terrain of the area which was remedied by the use of trained research assistants who were

dispatched to cover such areas since they are both indigene of Cross River State and are

familiar with most communities in the state.

Another limitation encountered was the preschool caregivers who refused to get engaged

in the activities with the researcher and the research assistants. To convince them to

collaborate with us, we employed the help of the head teachers of the schools to assist us to

accomplish the job and the obstacle was tackled.

5.5 Suggestions for Further Study

Arising from the insight gained from the study, the following study areas have been

suggested for future researchers:

1. A similar study should be carried out in public early childhood education centres in

other states in the south-south geo-political zone in Nigeria.

152
2. There should be a study on caregivers’ competence and the acquisition of creative

skills among preschool children in public early childhood education centres in Cross

River State.

5.6 Contributions to Knowledge

The study stands to scholarly contribution to knowledge such as:

1. The study has generated literature on the relationship between play materials and the

acquisition of numeracy skills among preschool children, which will be of immense

help to other researchers who may choose to study in similar areas when kept in the

library and published on the internet.

2. The findings will serve as feedback to the school heads, Proprietors /Proprietresses

and the education sector in relation to the things that should be provided to schools for

an effective learning process, especially in the acquisition of numeracy skills among

preschool children.

153
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160
 APPENDIX A

Department of Early Childhood

and Primary Education
Faculty of Education
PostGraduate School
Ignatius Ajuru University of Education
P. M. B. 5047, Rumuolumeni
Port Harcourt.
24th April , 2024.

Dear Respondents,

LETTER OF INTRODUCTION

I am a post postgraduate student of the above mentioned University. For this purpose, I am

conducting a research on: “Play Materials and Numeracy Skills Acquisition of

Preschoolers’’. It is hoped that the result of this research work would not only benefit my

academic pursuit but also contribute positively to the advancement of Early Childhood

Education in Cross River State and Nigeria as a whole.

You are requested to complete the attached questionnaire as honestly as possible. Please be

assured that any information provided by you will be treated with strict confidence and use

161
for the purposes only. You are to kindly tick (√ ) appropriately in the options provided,

strongly agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D), and Strongly Disagree (SD)

Thanks for your co-operation

Olorunmowaju Bukola Janet

(Researcher)

PLAY MATERIAL AND NUMERACY SKILLS ACQUISITION QUESTIONNAIRE

To be answered by caregivers.

SECTION A: Demographic Data

Instruction:

Please tick (√) in the options box that matches your responses

1. Name of school…………………………………………………………………………

2. Local Government Area…………………............................................

3. Gender : Male[ ] Female [ ]

4. Class taught…………………………………………………………………………..

5. Qualification: NCE ( ) OND[ ]

HND [ ] B.ED/BSC [ ] PGDE [ ] M.Ed/MSC [ ]

6. Years of experience: 0-5 [ ] 5-10 [ ] 10-15( ) 15-20( ) 20 and above (

162
Section B: Play Materials and Numeracy Skills Acquisition

Responses to the scaled items are rated on a 4-point Likert scale as follows: Strongly Agree

(SA = 4), Agree (A = 3), Disagree (D =2), Strongly Disagree (SD = 1)

S/N Building Blocks and Preschoolers’ Acquisition of Number SA A D SD

Identification Skills
1 Playing with building blocks helps preschoolers develop their problem-
solving skills which in turn enhances their identification skills

2 Playing with building blocks in a play is an effective way to introduce

preschoolers to basic number concepts

3 The more frequently preschoolers play with building blocks the better
their number identification skills become

4 Building blocks do not provide a concrete representation of numbers,

making it easier for preschoolers to understand and identify numbers

Puzzles and Preschoolers’ Acquisition of Number Sequence Skills

5 Completing puzzles regularly improves preschoolers’ ability to recognise

and understand number patterns

6 Puzzles provide a fun and interactive way for preschoolers to practice

number sequencing skills

7 Preschoolers who frequently engage in puzzle activities demonstrate

better number sequencing skills compared to those who do not

8 The difficulty level of puzzles affects preschoolers’ ability to acquire

number sequencing skills

Counters and Preschoolers’ Acquisition of Counting Skills

9 Engaging in counter-based activities regularly improves preschoolers’

ability to count accurately

10 Counters provide a concrete representation of numbers, making it easier

for preschoolers to understand and practice counting

11 Preschoolers who frequently use counters in play do not demonstrate

better counting skills compared to those who do not

12 Exposure to a variety of counters, such as foam cubes and mini animals,

rarely have positive impact on preschoolers’ engagement and interest in

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 learning counting
Board games And Preschoolers’ Acquisition of Basic Addition Skills

13 Board games helps preschoolers develop their critical thinking skills

which is essential for acquiring basic addition skills

14 Regularly playing board games that involves basic addition improves

preschoolers’ ability to solve math problems
15 Exposure to a variety of common board games rarely have positive
impact on preschoolers’ ability to recognize, apply add numbers in game
play

16 Preschoolers always show disinterest or reluctance to participate in

common Nigerian board games that involve number-related tasks.
Building blocks and Preschoolers’ Acquisition of Shape Identification
Skills
17 Building blocks provide a hand-on way for preschoolers to learn and
understand different shapes

18 Access to diverse types of building blocks may hinder preschoolers’

acquisition of shape identification or recognition skills
19 Exposure to a variety of local building blocks rarely impact preschoolers’
recognition of shapes
20 Engaging in building block activities regularly improves preschoolers’
ability to recognise and identify shapes in their environment
Puzzles and Preschoolers’ Acquisition of shape completion Skills

21 Completing puzzles help preschoolers develop their spatial awareness,

which is essential for acquiring shape completion skills

22 Exposure to a variety of puzzles does not aid preschoolers’ acquisition of

shape completion skills

23 Limited access to diverse types of puzzles hinders preschoolers’

exploration of 2-D and 3-D shapes.

24 Puzzles help preschoolers develop their critical thinking skills, which

enables them to think logically and complete shapes
Counters and Preschoolers’ Acquisition of Shape Sorting Skills

25 Using number lines significantly improves preschoolers’ ability to

understand and sort out geometric shapes

26 Exposure to a variety of counters does not positively impact preschoolers’

ability to sort out basic shapes

27 The use of counters increases preschoolers’ interest and engagement in

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 shape sorting activities

28 Preschoolers show disinterest or reluctance to engage with counters in

geometry-related activities.

Board Games and Preschoolers’ Acquisition of shape comparison

Skills
29 Playing games like "snake and ladder" significantly improve
preschoolers’ understanding of shape comparison skills

30 Board games are valuable tools for teaching preschoolers to compare and
identify different shapes

31 Board games provide an engaging and interactive way for preschoolers to

practice shape comparison skills
32 Engagement with board games does not have influence on preschoolers’
acquisition of shape comparison skills

PRESCHOOLERS NUMERACY SKILLS ACQUISITION OBSERVATION

INVENTORY (PNSOI)
Age: 4 years
Class: Nursery 1
SECTION A: Personal Data
1. Preschoolers’ Registration No………………………………………………………….
2. Name of School…………………………………………………………………………
3. Gender:…………………………………………………………………………………
4. Local Government of Area……………………………………………………………

The preschoolers of the above age and class will be observed intently by the researcher on the

following acceptable and non-acceptable behaviours and ticked (√) where necessary.

The (PNSAOI) is structured on a four-point Likert scale of Proficient (PF) =4, Developing

(DV) =3, Emerging (EM) =2 and Not Observed (NO) =1

S/N RESEARCHERS’ AREAS OF OBSERVATION PF DV EM NO

Preschoolers’ Number Sense Skills Acquisition
1 Ability to count objects up to 10

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2 Ability to recognize and identify numbers 1-10 in random order
3 Ability to accurately count backwards from 10 to 1
4 Ability to identify and match numbers 1-10 to corresponding quantities
5 Ability to carry out basic addition of 1- digit numbers
Preschoolers Geometric Skills Acquisition
6 Ability to correctly identify and name basic shapes (circle, square,
triangle, rectangle)
7 Ability to sort and categorize objects by shape (e.g. all circles in one
group, all squares in another)
8 Ability to identify and name 2D and 3D shapes (e.g. sphere, cone,
cube)
9 Ability to complete different parts of a shape (e.g. sides, corners)
10
Ability to recognize, describe and compare shapes

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