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 Protective Relaying
Principles and Applications
Third Edition

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
 POWER ENGINEERING

Series Editor
H. Lee Willis
KEMA T&D Consulting
Raleigh, North Carolina

Advisory Editor
Muhammad H. Rashid
University of West Florida
Pensacola, Florida

1. Power Distribution Planning Reference Book,

H. Lee Willis
2. Transmission Network Protection: Theory and Practice,
Y. G. Paithankar
3. Electrical Insulation in Power Systems, N. H. Malik,
A. A. Al-Arainy, and M. I. Qureshi
4. Electrical Power Equipment Maintenance and Testing,
Paul Gill
5. Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications,
Second Edition, J. Lewis Blackburn
6. Understanding Electric Utilities and De-Regulation,
Lorrin Philipson and H. Lee Willis
7. Electrical Power Cable Engineering, William A. Thue
8. Electric Systems, Dynamics, and Stability with Artificial
Intelligence Applications, James A. Momoh
and Mohamed E. El-Hawary
9. Insulation Coordination for Power Systems,
Andrew R. Hileman
10. Distributed Power Generation: Planning and Evaluation,
H. Lee Willis and Walter G. Scott
11. Electric Power System Applications of Optimization,
James A. Momoh
12. Aging Power Delivery Infrastructures, H. Lee Willis,
Gregory V. Welch, and Randall R. Schrieber
13. Restructured Electrical Power Systems: Operation,
Trading, and Volatility, Mohammad Shahidehpour
and Muwaffaq Alomoush
14. Electric Power Distribution Reliability, Richard E. Brown

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

15. Computer-Aided Power System Analysis,
Ramasamy Natarajan
16. Power System Analysis: Short-Circuit Load Flow
and Harmonics, J. C. Das
17. Power Transformers: Principles and Applications,
John J. Winders, Jr.
18. Spatial Electric Load Forecasting: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, H. Lee Willis
19. Dielectrics in Electric Fields, Gorur G. Raju
20. Protection Devices and Systems for High-Voltage
Applications, Vladimir Gurevich
21. Electrical Power Cable Engineering, Second Edition,
William Thue
22. Vehicular Electric Power Systems: Land, Sea, Air,
and Space Vehicles, Ali Emadi, Mehrdad Ehsani,
and John Miller
23. Power Distribution Planning Reference Book,
Second Edition, H. Lee Willis
24. Power System State Estimation: Theory and
Implementation, Ali Abur
25. Transformer Engineering: Design and Practice,
S.V. Kulkarni and S. A. Khaparde
26. Power System Capacitors, Ramasamy Natarajan
27. Understanding Electric Utilities and De-regulation:
Second Edition, Lorrin Philipson and H. Lee Willis
28. Control and Automation of Electric Power Distribution
Systems, James Northcote-Green and Robert G. Wilson
29. Protective Relaying for Power Generation Systems,
Donald Reimert
30. Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications, Third
Edition, J. Lewis Blackburn and Thomas J. Domin

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Protective Relaying
Principles and Applications
Third Edition

J. Lewis Blackburn
Thomas J. Domin

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

International Standard Book Number-10: 1-57444-716-5 (Hardcover)

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-57444-716-3 (Hardcover)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material
is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot
assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use.

No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic,
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ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

Preface to the Third Edition
The third edition of Protective Relaying incorporates information on new
developments and topics in protective relaying that has emerged since the
second edition was published. This time span represents a dynamic period that
involved significant technological advances and revolutionary structural
changes within the electric power industry. The format of this book remains
similar to the previous editions and retains the full scope of fundamentals of
protection that have been presented by Lewis Blackburn in a most elegant and
understandable manner. I have taken on the task of updating and expanding
Blackburn’s work with humility and honor.
From a technical standpoint, significant advances in the development and
application of digital processing devices in power system protection and
control continue. A considerable amount of new material is presented on
this subject along with the benefits and problems associated with applying
such microprocessor-based devices in protection schemes. Over recent years,
structural changes within the electric utility industry have changed the man-
ner in which segments of power systems are owned and networks are devel-
oped. The impacts of these changes with respect to the system protection
function are discussed in this edition. In addition, structural and regulatory
changes have promoted the installation of generators with a wide range of
sizes at locations that are distributed throughout power transmission and
distribution systems. A discussion of protection requirements at the intercon-
nection location for such distributed generation has been added to the text.
New material is also presented on the application of protective systems and
limiters in generator excitation systems. Other areas that have been added or
significantly expanded include capacitor bank protection, underfrequency
load-shedding scheme designs and performance, voltage collapse and mitiga-
tion, special protection schemes, fault and event recording, fault location
techniques, and the latest advances in transformer protection. All existing
material in the text has been reviewed and updated as appropriate.
An addition that I hope will be rewarding to the reader is the inclusion of
my personal insights on the practical application and performance aspects of
power system protection and operations. These perspectives have been gained
during my career, spanning over 40 years, as a protection engineer at a
midsized electric utility and as a consultant to various electric power entities
throughout the world. Through this experience, I believe that I have gained a
peek into, and an appreciation of, many of the significant issues that confront
and challenge engineers attempting to develop a background and intuition in

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

power system protection. The insights presented are personal and practical,
more than theoretical, and are intended to add a real-life perspective to the
text. It is hoped that this material will help put various protection practices
into a clearer perspective and provide useful information to improve the
effectiveness of engineers working in the highly challenging and rewarding
field of protective relaying.

Thomas J. Domin

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

Preface to the Second Edition
This new edition of Protective Relaying has been written to update and
expand the treatment of many important topics in the first edition, which
was published in 1987. The structure is similar to that of the first edition, but
each chapter has been carefully reviewed and changes have been made
throughout to clarify material, present advances in relaying for the protection
of power systems, and add additional examples. The chapter on generator
protection has been completely rewritten to reflect current governmental rules
and regulations. Many figures are now displayed in a more compact form,
which makes them easier to refer to. As in the first edition, additional
problems are provided at the back of the book for further study. I have tried
again to present the material in a straightforward style, focusing on what will
be most useful to the reader. I hope that this volume will be as well received
as the first edition was.

J. Lewis Blackburn

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Preface to the First Edition
Protective relaying is a vital part of any electric power system: unnecessary
during normal operation but very important during trouble, faults, and
abnormal disturbances. Properly applied protective relaying initiates the
disconnection of the trouble area while operation and service in the rest of
the system continue.
This book presents the fundamentals and basic technology of application of
protective relays in electric power systems and documents the protec-
tion practices in common use. The objective is to provide a useful reference
for practicing engineers and technicians as well as a practical book for college-
level courses in the power field. Applications with examples are included for
both utility and industrial–commercial systems generally operating above 480 V.
Protective relay designs vary with different manufacturers and are con-
stantly changing, especially as solid-state technology impacts this area. How-
ever, protective relaying applications remain the same: relatively independent
of designs and their trends. As a result, design aspects are not emphasized in
this book. This area is best covered by individual manufacturer’s information.
Protective relaying can be considered a vertical specialty with a horizontal
vantage point; thus, although specialized, it is involved with and requires
knowledge of all of the equipment required in the generation, transmission,
distribution, and utilization of electrical power. In addition, it requires an
understanding of how the system performs normally as well as during faults
and abnormal conditions. As a result, this subject provides an excellent
background for specialized study in any of the individual areas and is espe-
cially important for system planning, operation, and management.
Friends and associates of 50 years and students within Westinghouse, the
IEEE, CIGRE, many utilities, and industrial companies around the world
have directly or indirectly contributed to this book. Their contributions and
support are gratefully acknowledged.
Special acknowledgment and thanks are extended to Rich Duncan for
his enthusiastic encouragement and support during the preparation of this
manuscript and to W.A. Elmore, T.D. Estes, C.H. Griffin, R.E. Hart,
C.J. Heffernan, and H.J. Li for photographic and additional technical help.
In addition, I express my gratitude to Dr. Eileen Gardiner of Marcel Dekker,
Inc., who most patiently encouraged and supported this effort.

J. Lewis Blackburn

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Author
Thomas J. Domin is a registered professional engineer in the state of
Pennsylvania with extensive experience working with electrical power sys-
tems. His work background includes over 40 years of experience in working
for PPL, Inc., a midsized electric utility headquartered in Allentown, Penn-
sylvania. A major portion of this experience has been in the area of protective
relaying with a major focus on the application and coordination of protective
facilities on electrical power systems. The scope of his work covers electrical
facilities extending from high-voltage transmission systems down through
low-voltage distribution systems and includes the development of protection
requirements and analysis of protection performance for power system lines,
transformers, generators, capacitors, power plant auxiliary equipment, and
interties with nonutility facilities. His experience includes the development of
protection philosophies, standards, and practices; the specification of relaying
and control logic requirements for protective systems; the development of
specifications for protective relay settings; and the analysis of disturbances in
electric power systems. He has also studied and analyzed generator excitation
control systems, voltage control, load flow, system stability, and system
operations and has worked on the development of expansion planning studies
for electric utility systems. In addition to working on electrical systems within
the United States, Mr. Domin has also worked on a variety of international
projects involving electrical protection and power system operations.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1
Introduction and General Philosophies
1.1 Introduction and Definitions
1.2 Typical Protective Relays and Relay Systems
1.3 Typical Power Circuit Breakers
1.4 Nomenclature and Device Numbers
1.5 Typical Relay and Circuit Breaker Connections
1.6 Basic Objectives of System Protection
1.6.1 Reliability
1.6.2 Selectivity
1.6.3 Speed
1.6.4 Simplicity
1.6.5 Economics
1.6.6 General Summary
1.7 Factors Affecting the Protection System
1.7.1 Economics
1.7.2 Personality Factor
1.7.3 Location of Disconnecting and Input Devices
1.7.4 Available Fault Indicators
1.8 Classification of Relays
1.8.1 Protective Relays
1.8.2 Regulating Relays
1.8.3 Reclosing, Synchronism Check,
and Synchronizing Relays
1.8.4 Monitoring Relays
1.8.5 Auxiliary Relays
1.8.6 Other Relay Classifications
1.9 Protective Relay Performance
1.9.1 Correct Operation
1.9.2 Incorrect Operation
1.9.3 No Conclusion
1.10 Principles of Relay Application
1.11 Information for Application
1.11.1 System Configuration
1.11.2 Impedance and Connection of the Power Equipment,
System Frequency, System Voltage, and System
Phase Sequence

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 1.11.3
Existing Protection and Problems
1.11.4
Operating Procedures and Practices
1.11.5
Importance of the System Equipment Being Protected
1.11.6
System Fault Study
1.11.7
Maximum Loads and System Swing Limits
1.11.8
Current and Voltage Transformer Locations,
Connections, and Ratios
1.11.9 Future Expansion
1.12 Structural Changes within the Electric Power Industry
1.13 Reliability and Protection Standards
Bibliography

Chapter 2
Fundamental Units: Per Unit and Percent Values
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Per Unit and Percent Definitions
2.3 Advantages of Per Unit and Percent
2.4 General Relations between Circuit Quantities
2.5 Base Quantities
2.6 Per Unit and Percent Impedance Relations
2.7 Per Unit and Percent Impedances of Transformer Units
2.7.1 Transformer Bank Example
2.8 Per Unit and Percent Impedances of Generators
2.9 Per Unit and Percent Impedances of Overhead Lines
2.10 Changing Per Unit (Percent) Quantities to Different Bases
2.10.1 Example: Base Conversion with Equation 2.34
2.10.2 Example: Base Conversion Requiring Equation 2.33
Bibliography

Chapter 3
Phasors and Polarity
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Phasors
3.2.1 Phasor Representation
3.2.2 Phasor Diagrams for Sinusoidal Quantities
3.2.3 Combining Phasors
3.2.4 Phasor Diagrams Require a Circuit Diagram
3.2.5 Nomenclature for Current and Voltage
3.2.5.1 Current and Flux
3.2.5.2 Voltage
3.2.6 Phasor Diagram
3.3 Circuit and Phasor Diagrams for a Balanced Three-Phase
Power System

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

3.4 Phasor and Phase Rotation
3.5 Polarity
3.5.1 Transformer Polarity
3.5.2 Relay Polarity
3.6 Application of Polarity for Phase-Fault Directional Sensing
3.6.1 908–608 Connection for Phase-Fault Protection
3.7 Directional Sensing for Ground Faults: Voltage Polarization
3.8 Directional Sensing for Ground Faults: Current Polarization
3.9 Other Directional-Sensing Connections
3.10 Application Aspects of Directional Relaying
3.11 Summary

Chapter 4
Symmetrical Components: A Review
4.1 Introduction and Background
4.2 Positive-Sequence Set
4.3 Nomenclature Convenience
4.4 Negative-Sequence Set
4.5 Zero-Sequence Set
4.6 General Equations
4.7 Sequence Independence
4.8 Positive-Sequence Sources
4.9 Sequence Networks
4.9.1 Positive-Sequence Network
4.9.2 Negative-Sequence Network
4.9.3 Zero-Sequence Network
4.9.4 Sequence Network Reduction
4.10 Shunt Unbalance Sequence Network Interconnections
4.10.1 Fault Impedance
4.10.2 Substation and Tower-Footing Impedance
4.10.3 Sequence Interconnections for Three-Phase Faults
4.10.4 Sequence Interconnections for
Single-Phase-to-Ground Faults
4.10.5 Sequence Interconnections for Phase-to-Phase Faults
4.10.6 Sequence Interconnections for
Double-Phase-to-Ground Faults
4.10.7 Other Sequence Interconnections for
Shunt System Conditions
4.11 Example: Fault Calculations on a Typical System
Shown in Figure 4.16
4.11.1 Three-Phase Fault at Bus G
4.11.2 Single-Phase-to-Ground Fault at Bus G
4.12 Example: Fault Calculation for Autotransformers
4.12.1 Single-Phase-to-Ground Fault at H Calculation

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

4.13 Example: Open-Phase Conductor
4.14 Example: Open Phase Falling to Ground on One Side
4.15 Series and Simultaneous Unbalances
4.16 Overview
4.16.1 Voltage and Current Phasors for Shunt Faults
4.16.2 System Voltage Profiles during Faults
4.16.3 Unbalanced Currents in the Unfaulted Phases
for Phase-to-Ground Faults in Loop Systems
4.16.4 Voltage and Current Fault Phasors for All
Combinations of the Different Faults
4.17 Summary
Bibliography
Appendix 4.1 Short-Circuit MVA and Equivalent Impedance
Appendix 4.2 Impedance and Sequence Connections
for Transformer Banks
Appendix 4.3 Sequence Phase Shifts through Wye–Delta
Transformer Banks

Chapter 5
Relay Input Sources
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Equivalent Circuits of Current and Voltage Transformers
5.3 Current Transformers for Protection Applications
5.4 Current Transformer Performance on a Symmetrical
AC Component
5.4.1 Performance by Classic Analysis
5.4.2 Performance by CT Characteristic Curves
5.4.3 Performance by ANSI=IEEE Standard
Accuracy Classes
5.4.4 IEC Standard Accuracy Classes
5.5 Secondary Burdens during Faults
5.6 CT Selection and Performance Evaluation
for Phase Faults
5.6.1 CT Ratio Selection for Phase-Connected Equipment
5.6.2 Select the Relay Tap for the Phase-Overcurrent Relays
5.6.3 Determine the Total Connected Secondary
Load (Burden) in Ohms
5.6.4 Determine the CT Performance Using the
ANSI=IEEE Standard
5.6.4.1 When Using a Class T CT
5.6.4.2 When Using a Class C CT and Performance
by the ANSI=IEEE Standard
5.6.4.3 When Using a Class C CT and Performance
with the CT Excitation Curves

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

5.7 Performance Evaluation for Ground Relays
5.8 Effect of Unenergized CTs on Performance
5.9 Flux Summation Current Transformer
5.10 Current Transformer Performance on the DC Component
5.11 Summary: Current Transformer Performance Evaluation
5.11.1 Saturation on Symmetrical AC Current Input
Resulting from the CT Characteristics and the
Secondary Load
5.11.2 Saturation by the DC Offset of the Primary
AC Current
5.12 Current Transformer Residual Flux
and Subsidence Transients
5.13 Auxiliary Current Transformers in CT Secondary Circuits
5.14 Voltage Transformers for Protective Applications
5.15 Optical Sensors
Bibliography

Chapter 6
Protection Fundamentals and Basic Design Principles
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Differential Principle
6.3 Overcurrent-Distance Protection and the Basic Protection
Problem
6.3.1 Time Solution
6.3.2 Communication Solution
6.4 Backup Protection: Remote vs. Local
6.5 Basic Design Principles
6.5.1 Time–Overcurrent Relays
6.5.2 Instantaneous Current–Voltage Relays
6.5.3 Directional-Sensing Power Relays
6.5.4 Polar Unit
6.5.5 Phase Distance Relays
6.5.5.1 Balanced Beam Type: Impedance
Characteristic
6.5.6 R–X Diagram
6.5.7 MHO Characteristic
6.5.8 Single-Phase MHO Units
6.5.9 Polyphase MHO Units
6.5.9.1 Three-Phase Fault Units
6.5.9.2 Phase-to-Phase Fault Units
6.5.10 Other MHO Units
6.5.11 Reactance Units
6.6 Ground Distance Relays

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

6.7 Solid-State Microprocessor Relays
6.8 Summary
Bibliography

Chapter 7
System-Grounding Principles
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Ungrounded Systems
7.3 Transient Overvoltages
7.4 Grounded-Detection Methods for Ungrounded Systems
7.4.1 Three-Voltage Transformers
7.4.2 Single-Voltage Transformers
7.5 High-Impedance-Grounding Systems
7.5.1 Resonant Grounding
7.5.2 High-Resistance Grounding
7.5.3 Example: Typical High-Resistance Neutral
Grounding
7.5.4 Example: Typical High-Resistance Grounding
with Three Distribution Transformers
7.6 System Grounding for Mine or Other Hazardous-Type
Applications
7.7 Low-Impedance Grounding
7.7.1 Example: Typical Low-Resistance Neutral Reactor
Grounding
7.7.2 Example: Typical Low-Resistance Neutral
Resistance Grounding
7.8 Solid (Effective) Grounding
7.8.1 Example: Solid Grounding
7.8.2 Ground Detection on Solid-Grounded Systems
7.9 Ferroresonance in Three-Phase Power Systems
7.9.1 General Summary for Ferroresonance
for Distribution Systems
7.9.2 Ferroresonance at High Voltages
7.10 Safety Grounding
7.11 Grounding Summary and Recommendations
Bibliography

Chapter 8
Generator Protection=Intertie Protection for Distributed Generation
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Historical Perspectives
8.1.2 Bulk Power Generators
8.1.3 Distributed Generators
8.1.4 Potential Problems

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

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Gas, 45
Plow bolts, 11
Plows:
Ballast and parts, 9C
Snow and parts, 9C
Steam and parts, 9C
Plugs:
Basin, rubber, 46
Cast-iron pipe, 3
Electric, 25, 26, 44
Pipe, 43
Tie, 1C
Plumbago, 47
Plumbs and levels, 45
Plungers, pump, 9A
Plush, 24
Pneumatic hose, 46
Pneumatic tools and parts, 45
Point blocking, switch, cast iron, 1A
Points:
Glazier, 45
Switch, 1A
Well drive, 9A
Pokers:
Fire, 36
Front end, 36
Stove, 36
Polarized relays:
 Signal, 2A
Telegraph, 2B
Poles:
Block signal, 2A
Ice, 36
Log, 36
Pike, 36
Push, 36
Signal lamp, 36
Telegraph, 2B
Tent, 36
Train-order, 2A
Trolley, 49
Window, 36
Polish:
Enameline, 36
Mexoline, 36
Silver, 36
Spear silver, 36
Star metal, 36
Stove, 36
Tripoline, 36
Pomade, Putz, 36
Pop valves and parts, 23
Poplar lumber, 30
Porcelain knobs, 25, 26, 44
Porcelain insulators, 25, 26, 44
Portable furnaces, 45
Portable scales, 9A
Postal scales, 48
Post mauls, 1C
Post-hole augers, 1C
Post-hole diggers, 1C
Post-hole tampers, 1C
Posts:
Bumping and parts, 1C
Bridge, wood, 4
Cedar, fence, 4
End door, corner, and side steel, 18
End door, corner, and side wood, 30
Fence, 4
Interlocking, 2A
Mile, 4
Rail, 4
Roadway, 4
Stockyard, 4
Whistle, 4
Potash, Prussiate of, 47
Potassium, cyanide of, 47
Pots:
Glue and shellac, 45
Marking, 36
Tallow, 36
Powder, blasting, 3
Power pumps and parts for water stations, 9A
Preserves, 41
Preservers, life, 35
Presses:
Letter, 36
Seal, 36
Waybill, 36
Pulls:
Drawer, buildings, 45
Drawer, coaches, 24
Pullers:
Nail, 45
Spike, 1C
Pulley blocks, 45
Pulleys:
Awning, 45
Bell cord, 24
Frame, 45
Shop machinery, 31
Pumice stone, 47
Pump lagging, 46
Pumping station machinery, 9A
Pumps:
Air and parts, 22
Hand, water and parts, 9A
Oil, 36
Power and parts for water station, 9A
Steam and parts for water stations, 9A
Toilet and parts, coaches, 24
Water and parts, 9A
Punches:
Belt, 45
Track, 1C
Purlins:
Car, steel, 18
Car, wood, 30
Push buttons:
Buildings, 44
Cars, 24
Push cars and parts, 1C
Putty, 47
Putty knives, 47

Q.
Quadrants:
Interlocking, 2A
 Locomotive, 17
Quarter round:
Buildings, 4
Coaches, 30
Queensware, 41

R.
Racks:
Basket, 24
Towel for buildings, 36
Towel for coaches, 24
Radial stays, 11
Radiator nipples, 43
Radiator valves, 43
Radiators, 36
Rails, all weights and kinds except scrap, 8
Rail scrap, 50
Rail anchors for wreckers, 1C
Rail anchor track, 1B
Rail barn door, 45
Rail benders and parts, 1C
Rail braces, 1B
Rail creepers, anti, 1B
Rail cutters, 1C
Rail drills and parts, 1C
Rail hooks, 1C
Rail joints, standard, 1B
Rail joints, insulated, 2A
Rail posts, 4
Rail punches, 1C
Rail tongs, 1C
Rail unloader and parts, 9C
Railroad crossings, 1A
Railings fittings, iron, 43
Rails, guard, 1A
Rainbow packing, 46
Rakes, garden, 36
Ranges, dining car and parts, 24
Rasps, 45
Ratchet braces, 45
Ratchet drills, 1C
Ratchet jacks, 45
Ratchet jacks track, 1C
Ratchet wheel keys, 18
Ratchets, 24
Deck sash, 24
Headlight burner, 36
Mail car lamp burner, 36
Rattan, 24
Rattan chisel point brooms, 1C
Rat traps, 39
Resonators, telegraph, 2B
Reamers, 45
Receivers, gas, coach, 24
Receptacles, electric, 25, 26, 44
Reducing valves and parts, 23
Reducers:
Pipe, cast-iron, 3
Pipe, 43
Vitrified, 3
Reels, cable
Signal Department, 2A
Building, electrical wire, 44
Hose, 36
Reflectors:
Headlight, 36
Lamp, 36
Lantern, 36
Regulators, muffler pop, 23
Reinforcing bars, 3
Relays:
Signal, 2A
Telegraph, 2B
Relay magnets, 2B
Release rods, 18
Relief valves and parts, 23
Repeating relays, telegraph, 2B
Repeating sounders, telegraph, 2B
Replacers, car, 36
Reservoir paint, 47
Resin, 47
Resistance coils, electric, 2A, 25, 26, 44
Rests:
Foot, stove, 36
Seat, 24
Return bends, pipe, 43
Reverse levers, 17
Reverse-lever springs, 12
Reverse-shaft springs, 12
Rice, 41
Rigging, draft, 20
Ringers, bell and parts, 23
Rings:
Harness, 45
Lantern, 36
Packing, piston, 46
Packing, valve stem, 46
Rubber for flue expanders, 45
Seal, 36
Ventilator, 36
Riprap, 7
Rivets:
Boiler, 11
Brass, 45
Copper, 45
Drawbar yoke, 18
Structural, 11
Tank, 11
Tinner, 45
Road crossing bells, 2A
Road crossing signs, 4
Rock:
Crushed, 7
Crushers, 9C
Riprap, 7
Rock salt, 1C
Rod bolts for locomotives, 11
Rod bolts for switch head rods, 1A
Rod straps for locomotives, 17
Rods:
All kinds for cars, 18
Bottom, 18
Brake, 18
Brass, 14
Connection for switches, 1A
Cylinder, 18
Connection, interlockers, 2A
Cylinder lever push, 18
Cross tie, 18
Draft, 18
Driving, 17
End of cars, 18
Hand brake, 18
Head for switches, 1A
Main, 17
Piston, 17
Release, 18
Side, 17
Slip switch, 1A
Steel drill, 15
Switch, 1A
Tie for switches, 1A
Top brake, 18
Transom truss, 18
Uncoupling, 18
Rollers:
Barn door, 45
Car door, 20
Flue, 45
Vestibule curtain, 24
Roofing caps, 3
Roofing, galvanized, car, 20
Roofing gravel, 3
Roofing lumber:
Buildings, 4
Cars, 30
Roofing paper, 3
Roofing slate, 3
Roofing tin, sheets, 15
Roofs, car, paper, 3
Roofs, car, galvanized, 20
Rope:
Manila, 46
Wire, 15
Ropes, switch, 36
Rosin, 47
Round edge steel for draft keys, 15
Round flat head pins, 11
Round head bolts, 11
Roundhouse smoke jacks, 3
Rowboats, 35
Rubber boots, 46
Rubber cloth, 46
Rubber:
Corrugated, 24
Gaskets, 46
Mats, 24
Packing, 46
Pads, 24
Pails, 36
Rings for flue expanders, 45
Sheets, 46
Tubing, 46
Rubbers:
Eames brake, 46
Mail car, 24
Rugs, 24
Rules, 45
Rulers, 48
Ruling pens, 48
Running-board braces for cars, 18
Running boards:
Steel, 32
Wood, 30
Russia iron, 15

S.
Saddles, pipe, 43
Safes, iron, 36
Safety hooks, 18
Sail cloth, 35
Sal ammoniac, 47
Sal soda, 47
Salt:
Common, 1C
Rock, 1C
Salts, soldering, 47
Sand:
Building, 3
Fire, 28
Locomotive, 3
Molding, 28
Board chains, 36
Dryers and parts, 19
Sanders, track and parts, 23
Sapolio, 36
Sash balances, 45
Sash cord, 36
Sash lifts:
Building, 45
Coach, 24
Sash, springs, 24
Sash stops, 24
Sash, window:
Building, 4
Coach, 30
Saw blades, hack, 45
Sawdust, 38
Saw sets, 45
Saws:
Band, 31
Circular, 31
Crosscut, 1C
Cut-off, 31
Hand, 36
Rip, 31
Scale weights, 9A
Scales:
Counter, 9A
Platform, 9A
Postal, 48
Spring balance, 9A
Stockyard, 9A
Track, 9A
Wagon, 9A
Scoop shovels, 36
Scoops, battery, 2A
Scrap, all kinds, 50
Scrapers, paint, 47
Scrapers or spatulas, 47
Scratchers, match, 24
Screen, wire, 45
Screw eyes, 45
Screw drivers, 45
Screw spikes, 1B
Screw wrenches, 45
Screws:
Cap, 45
Cork imbedded can, 36
Jack, 45
Lag, 11
Machine iron, 45
Machine brass, 45
Set, 45
Wood, brass, 45
Wood, bright, 45
Scythe stones, 1C
Scythes, all kinds, 1C
Seals, car, 36
Sealing wax, 48
Seat arm rests, 24
Seat castings, coach, 24
Seats:
Coach, 24
Hopper, building, 36
Hopper, coach, 24
Tank valve, 9A
Second-hand bridges, iron, 6
Section signs, 4
Seeds, garden and grass, 36
Segments, interlocking, 2A
Semaphore blades, 2A
Semaphores, interlocking, 2A
Set chisels, 45
Set screw wrenches, 45
Set screws, 45
Sets:
Rivet, 45
Saw, 45
Settees, 36
Settee arms, 36
Settee legs, 36
Sewer pipe, 3
Sewers, interlocking, 2A
Shackles, interlocking, 2A
Shades:
Coach window, 24
Electric, 26, 44
Lamp (oil), 36
Roller, 36
Window, 36
Shafts, tumbling, 17
Shafting, steel, shop, 15
Shakers, stove, 36
Shears:
Office, 48
Tinner, 45
Sheet asbestos, 46
Sheet brass, 15
Sheet copper, 15
Sheet lead, 15
Sheet fiber, 25, 26, 44
Sheet rubber, 46
Sheet steel:
Light, 15, 110 and thicker, 16
Washers, 11
Sheet tin, 15
Sheet zinc, 15
Sheeting, 24
Iron, 20
Wood, 30
Sheets, 24
Shelf brackets, 45
Shellac, 47
Shellac and glue pots, 45
Shims:
Expansion, 1C
Wood truck, 4
Shingles, 4
Ship augers, 45
Shoes:
Car brake, 20
Engine, 19
Shop ventilators, 3
Shop lockers, 36
Shovels:
Fire, 36
Scoop, 36
Snow, 36
Steam, and parts, 9C
Track, 1C
Siding, lumber:
Buildings, 4
Cars, 30
Side bars, pressed steel, 19
Side rod, 17
Side-rod bolts, 11
Side-rod forgings, 17
Sighting blocks, 1C
Sighting boards, 1C
Signal batteries, 2A
Signal blades, 2A
Signal cord, 36
Signal parts, 2A
Signal poles, 2A
Signal and interlocking material, 2A
Signals:
Interlocking, 2A
Automatic block, 2A
Signs:
Caboose, 36
Coach, 36
Roadway, 4
Silk, 24
Silk curtains, 24
Silk tassels, 24
Sill steps, 18
Sills:
Car, wood, 30
Stone, building, 3
Tender, end, 30
Silverware, 41
Skidding tongs, 1C
Skids, 36
Skins, chamois, 47
Slab zinc, 14
Slag, ballast, 7
Slash bars, 36
Slate, electrical, 26, 44, 49
Slate pencils, 45
Slate roofing, 3
Sledges, 1C
Sleeves, cast-iron pipe, 3
Slide plates for switches, 1A
Slip switch crossings, 1A
Slip switch rods, 1A
Slips, pillow, 36
Slot arms, 2A
Slow posts, 4
Slow and stop boards, 4
Smaltz, 47
Smoke jacks for round house, 3
Smoke jacks for stoves, 36
Snatch blocks, 45
Snaths, scythe, 1C
Snips, tinners, 45
Snow plows and parts, 9C
Snow shovels, 36
Soap chips, 37
Soap, common, 36
Soap dishes, 24
Soap holders:
Building, 36
Coach, 24
Soap:
Jelly oil, 37
Laundry, 36
Toilet, 36
Soapstone, 47
Soapstone pencils, 45
Sockets:
Drill, 45
Electric, 2A, 25, 26, 44
Soda ash, 47
Soda:
Arsenate of, 47
Arseniate of, 47
Bicarbonate of, 47
Caustic, 47
Sal, 47
Soft steel, 15
Soil pipe fittings, 3
Solder, 14
Soldering irons or coppers, 45
Soldering nipples, 43
Soldering sticks, 2A, 2B, 26, 44
Soldering unions, 43
Sole leather, 46
Solid pulleys, 45
Sounders, telegraph, 2B
Spades, 1C
Spatulas or scrapers, 47
Spectacles:
Train order, 2A
Automatic block, 2A
Speeders, track and parts, 1C
Speed recorders and parts, 23
Spelter, 14
Spices, 41
Spike braces for screw spike, 1C
Spike mauls, 1C
Spike pullers, 1C
Spikes:
Boat, 1C
Track, 1B
Wire, 45
Wrought, 45
Spindle taps, 45
Spittoons, 36
Splice bars, telegraph, 2B
Splices, track, 1B
Split keys, 45
Sponges, 47
Spoons, telegraph, 2B
Spot boards, 1C
Spout, down, and fittings, 45
Spouts:
Crane, 9A
 Grain, 9B
Tank, 9A
Spreaders, ballast and parts, 9C
Spring balance scales, 9A
Spring cotters, 45
Spring dampeners, 20
Spring hanger bolts, 11
Spring hanger gibbs, 17
Spring steel, 15
Spring steel wire, 45
Springs:
Buffer, 12
Caboose, 12
Centering, 12
Chair cushion, 24
Coach bolster, 12
Coach seat, 24
Coil, engines and cars, 12
Counterbalance, 12
Cushion, 24
Door, buildings, 45
Door, coaches, 24
Drawbar, 12
Engine, 12
Equalizer, 12
Fire door opener, 23
Freight-car bolster, 12
Freight-car drawbar, 12
Interlocking, 2A
Locomotive driving, 12
Locomotive throttle, 12
Locomotive truck, 12
Oil box, 20
Passenger buffer, 12
Piston packing, 12
 Pop valve, 23
Reverse lever, 12
Reverse shaft, 12
Sash, coach, 24
Steam pump, 9A
Throttle, 12
Trailer, 12
Truck, 12
Upholstering, 24
Valve strip, 12
Sprinkling cans, 36
Spun cotton, 24
Spun yarn, 24
Square head bolts, 11
Square nuts, 11
Squares:
Steel, 45
T, 45
Stack bolts, 11
Stacks:
Pumping station, 9A
Shop building, 49
Staffs:
Brake, 18
Flag, 36
Stakes, grade, 4
Stamps, steel, 45
Standpipes and parts, 9A
Stands:
Switch, 1A
Waybill press, 36
Staples:
 Fence, 1C
Standard hardware, 45
Stockyard, 1C
Star polish, 36
Starch, corn, 41, 47
Station lamps, 36
Station signs, 4
Staybolt iron, 15
Staybolt taps, 45
Staybolts:
Radial, 11
Flexible, 11
Steaks and chops, 41
Steam chest studs, 11
Steam chests, 19
Steam cocks, 43
Steam derricks and parts, 9C
Steam ditchers and parts, 9C
Steam engines and parts:
Power plants, 49
Pumping stations, 9A
Steam gauges and parts, 23
Steam hose, 46
Steam hose clamps, 46
Steam pipe bolts, 11
Steam pumps and parts, pumping stations, 9A
Steam shovels and parts, 9C
Steam traps, 24
Steam wreckers and parts, 9C
Steel angles, 6, 15
Steel axles, 29
Steel balls, 45
Steel bars, 15
Steel billets for locomotive rods, 17
Steel boiler, 16
Steel brake shoes:
Locomotive, 19
Car, 20
Steel bridges, 6
Steel castings:
Car, 20
Locomotive, 19
Shop machinery, 19
Steel channels, 6–15
Steel, crushed, 47
Steel draft rigging, 20
Steel drill rods, 15
Steel erasers, 48
Steel figures, 45
Steel fire box, 16
Steel, galvanized sheet, 15
Steel I beams, 6–15
Steel letters, 45
Steel locomotive jacket, 15
Steel machine, 15
Steel pipe, 42
Steel rails, 8
Steel, round edge for draft keys, 15
Steel sheet, 110, and heavier, 16
Steel sheet, light, 15
Steel shafting, 15
Steel, soft, 15
Steel, spring, 15
Steel, stack, 16
Steel stamps, 45
Steel, structural, for bridges and buildings, 6
Steel tees, 6–15
Steel tires, 29
Steel tire wheels, 29
Steel, tool, 15
Steel tubing, 14
Steel wheels, locomotive and car, 29
Steel wire, 45
Steel wire cable, 15
Steel wire netting, 15
Stencil-cases, 36
Stepladders, 36
Steps:
Caboose, wood, 30
Coach, steel, 24
Coach, wood, 30
Engine, iron, 19
Sill for cars, 18
Sticks, soldering, 2A, 2B, 26, 44
Stock scales, 9A
Stock and dies, 45
Stockyard gate eyebolts, 1C
Stockyard gate hinges, 1C
Stockyard gate hooks, 1C
Stockyard gate staples, 1C
Stokers, mechanical and parts for power house, 49
Stone:
Ballast, 7
Bolts, 11
Building, 3
Crushed, 3
Curbing, 3
Cut, 3
Drills, 45
Foundation, 3
Hammers, 1C
Lintel, 3
Ornamental building, 3
Paving, 3
Pumice, 47
Riprap, 7
Rubbing, 47
Wedges, 1C
Stones:
Grind, section, 1C
Scythe, 1C
Grind shop, 45
Stools, office, 36
Stop and waste cocks, 43
Stops:
Chimney, 36
Door, buildings, 45
Door, coach, 24
Sash, 24
Stoppers, basin, 46
Storage batteries:
Coach, 26
Signal, 2A
Stove blacking, 36
Stove boards, 36
Stove bolts, 45
Stove drums, 36
Stove jacks, 36
Stove polish, 36
Stovepipe, 36
Stovepipe collars, 36
Stovepipe dampers, 36
Stovepipe elbows, 36
Stovepipe iron, 15
Stovepipe thimbles, 36
Stoves and parts:
Bunk car, 36
Caboose, 36
Coach, 24
Sand, 19
Station, 36
Strainers:
Locomotive, 23
Well, 9A
Strap hinges, 45
Straps:
Bell cord, 24
Door for cars, 18
Lug for cars, 18
Pipe for cars, 18
 Rod for locomotives, 17
Stretchers:
Invalid, 36
Wire, 1C
Street lamps:
Electric, 44
Except electric, 36
Strikers, match, 24
Strips, weather, 24
Stringers, bridge:
Iron, 6
Wood, 4
Stub switch chairs, 1A
Studs:
Belt, 45
Boiler, 44
Cylinder, 44
Steam chest, 44
Substructures for bridges, iron, 6
Suet, 41
Sugar, 41
Sulphur, 47
Sulphuric acid, 47
Supplies for medical boxes, 47
Surgical bandages, etc., 47
Surgical instruments, 47
Sway braces, bridge, 4
Swedish bar iron, 15
Swinging cables for steam shovels, 9C
Switch chairs for stub switches, 1A
Switch clip bolts, 1A
Switch head rod bolts, 1A
Switch lamps, 36
Switch lamp forks, 36
Switch lamp founts, 36
Switch plates, 1A
Switch point blocking, cast iron, 1A
Switch point braces, 1A
Switch heel plates, 1A
Switch points, 1A
Switch rods, 1A
Switch rods for slip switches, 1A
Switch ropes, 36
Switch rope hooks and links, 36
Switch stand connecting rods, 1A
Switch stands, 1A
Switch targets, 1A
Switch ties, all kinds of wood, 5A
Switches:
Complete, track, 1A
Electrical, 2A, 2B, 25, 26, 44, 49
Siphon cocks, 43
Sirup, 41
S Wrenches, 45

T.
Table cloths, 41
Table lamps, 36
Tables:
Telegraph, 36
Turn, 6
Tablets, paper, 48
Tableware for dining cars, 41
Tableware for camps, 36
Tackle blocks, 45
Tacks, 45
Tags, chain, 20
Tail pin keys, 18
Tail pins, 18
Tallow, 37
Tallow pots, 36
Tampers, post hole, 1C
Tamping bars, 1C
Tamping picks, 1C
Tank boxes, 36
Tank buckets, 36
Tank hose, 46
Tank-hose strainers, 23
Tank-indicator hands, 9A
Tank rivets, 11
Tank spouts, 9A
Tank steel, 16
Tank valves, 9A
Tank valve seats, 9A
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