Block Diagram of CRT:-

Block Diagram of CRO:-

Constructional Features of CRT:-
1. Electron Gun Assembly
• It generates and focuses a narrow beam of electrons.
• Components of the Electron Gun:
o Heater (Filament): Heats the cathode to emit electrons.
o Cathode: Emits electrons when heated.
o Control Grid: Controls the number of electrons (intensity of the beam).
o Accelerating Anodes: Accelerate and focus the electron beam using high
voltage.
o Focusing Anode: Focuses the beam to form a sharp spot on the screen.

2. Deflection System
• Deflects the electron beam to move across the screen in both vertical and
horizontal directions.
• Made of two pairs of parallel metal plates:
o Vertical Deflection Plates (Y-plates): Control vertical movement of the
beam (represents the input signal).
o Horizontal Deflection Plates (X-plates): Control horizontal movement
(controlled by time base signal).

3. Fluorescent Screen
• The inside face of the screen is coated with phosphor material.
• When electrons hit the screen, phosphor glows and forms a visible spot.
• The spot follows the deflection path, producing a waveform.

4. Aquadag Coating
• A conductive coating on the inside of the CRT envelope.
• Collects secondary electrons emitted by the screen.
• Maintains the proper electric field inside the CRT and prevents charging of the
screen.
Principle of Operation of CRO:-
The electron gun inside the CRT emits a beam of electrons.
This electron beam is accelerated and focused into a narrow, sharp beam using
accelerating and focusing anodes.
The beam passes through two sets of deflection plates:
• Vertical Deflection Plates (Y-axis): These plates receive the input signal. The
varying voltage causes the beam to deflect up and down.
• Horizontal Deflection Plates (X-axis): These plates receive a sawtooth
waveform from the time base generator, causing the beam to sweep left to right
at a uniform rate.
The deflected beam strikes the phosphor-coated screen, creating a visible glowing
spot.
As the electron beam moves across the screen (horizontally) and is deflected vertically
according to the input signal, it traces a graph of voltage (Y) versus time (X).

Screens and Graticules:-

1. Screens:
• The front end of the CRT is the display screen, coated internally with
phosphorescent material (like zinc orthosilicate).
• When the electron beam hits the phosphor, it glows and produces a visible
spot or trace.
• The screen is usually flat or slightly curved and sealed with the rest of the glass
envelope.

2. Graticules:
• A graticule is a grid or scale printed or etched on a transparent plate placed in
front of the screen.
• It is usually divided into horizontal and vertical divisions (typically 10 horizontal
× 8 vertical divisions).
• Each division helps in measuring voltage, time, frequency, and other
parameters.
Types of Graticules:
• Internal Graticule: Placed inside the CRT, closer to the phosphor screen.
• External Graticule: Placed outside the CRT, usually made of transparent plastic
or glass.

Uses of Graticules:
• Measuring amplitude (by counting vertical divisions × volts/div setting).
• Measuring time period or frequency (by counting horizontal divisions ×
time/div).
• Estimating phase difference, rise time, modulation, etc.

Block Schematic Description of CRO:-

(a) Vertical Amplifier:
• The vertical amplifier is responsible for amplifying the input signal before
applying it to the vertical deflection plates (Y-plates) of the CRT.
• Signals received from electronic circuits are usually weak and must be boosted
to produce enough vertical deflection.
• It ensures that the waveform's height (amplitude) on the screen accurately
represents the voltage level of the input signal.
• It also includes attenuators to reduce very large signals.
• Often consists of multiple amplifier stages and high-frequency bandwidth to
preserve signal integrity.

(b) Time Base Generator (Horizontal Sweep Generator):

• It generates a ramp or sawtooth waveform which is applied to the horizontal
deflection plates (X-plates).
• The sawtooth waveform causes the electron beam to move left to right at a
constant speed, and then quickly return to the starting point (called flyback).
• This horizontal motion allows the waveform to be traced against time on the
screen.
• The sweep rate can be adjusted using the Time/Div control.
(c) Trace Synchronization:
• Without synchronization, the waveform on the screen would move or jitter,
making observation difficult.
• Trace synchronization ensures the horizontal sweep is synchronized with the
input signal's frequency.
• It allows the waveform to appear stable and stationary on the screen.
• The sweep starts at the same point on every input waveform, preventing phase
shift or drifting.

(d) Triggering Modes:

Triggering stabilizes the waveform by controlling when the sweep begins. CROs typically
have three main triggering modes:

1. Auto Mode:
• The sweep keeps running automatically, even if no signal is applied.
• Useful for observing signals that may start or stop.

2. Normal Mode:
• The sweep starts only when the input signal crosses a certain voltage level
(trigger point).
• If the trigger condition is not met, the screen stays blank.
• Best for periodic signals.

3. Single Mode:
• The CRO waits for the trigger condition to occur once, captures that
waveform, and then stops the sweep.
• Useful for one-time or rare events like glitches or faults in a signal.
(e) Front Panel Controls:
The front panel of a CRO contains various knobs and buttons for controlling signal
display. Key controls include:

1. Vertical Gain (Volts/Div):

• Adjusts the vertical scaling.
• Helps in measuring the amplitude of the waveform accurately.

2. Time/Div:
• Sets the horizontal scaling.
• Controls how much time is represented per division on the X-axis (time base).

3. Focus:
• Adjusts the sharpness of the electron beam spot.
• Makes the waveform clear and easy to read.

4. Intensity:
• Controls the brightness of the trace on the screen.

5. Position Knobs:
• Vertical Position: Moves the trace up and down on the screen.
• Horizontal Position: Moves the trace left or right on the screen.
(f) Probe Characteristics:
CRO probes are used to connect the test point to the input of the oscilloscope. Two
common types are:

1:1 Probe:
• The signal is fed directly into the CRO without any attenuation.
• Good for low voltage signals.
• Input signal = Output displayed on CRO.

10:1 Probe:
• Attenuates the signal by a factor of 10 before feeding it to the CRO.
• Suitable for measuring high voltage signals.
• Increases input impedance, which reduces the loading effect on the circuit.
• Example: If 10 V is applied to the probe, the CRO input receives only 1 V.

Features of Dual Trace Oscilloscope:-

A Dual Trace Oscilloscope allows observation of two different signals
simultaneously using a single electron beam and one CRT.
Key Features:

1. Two Vertical Input Channels (CH1 and CH2):

o Accept two independent signals.
o Each channel has its own vertical amplifier.

2. Single Beam Operation:

o Instead of using two separate beams, it switches the input signals quickly
to show both waveforms on the screen using time-sharing.
 3. Beam Switching Techniques:
o Uses either Chopper mode or Alternate mode to switch between
channels.
o The switching is so fast that the human eye perceives both signals as
continuous.

4. Vertical Mode Selector:

o Options include:
▪ CH1: Only Channel 1 is displayed.
▪ CH2: Only Channel 2 is displayed.
▪ DUAL: Both channels are shown using beam switching.
▪ ADD: Adds both signals together and displays the result.

5. Single Time Base:

o Both channels are displayed with a common horizontal sweep, which
allows direct comparison of waveforms.

6. Useful for:
o Comparing phase difference between two signals.
o Observing input and output of a circuit simultaneously.

Chopper Beam Switch:-

The Chopper mode is one of the methods used in dual-trace oscilloscopes to alternate
between two input signals.

Working Principle:
• In Chopper mode, the oscilloscope rapidly switches between CH1 and CH2
multiple times during one sweep.
• The chopping frequency is much higher than the sweep frequency.
• It is typically used for slow-moving or DC signals.

Advantages of Chopper Beam Switch:

• Provides a clear display of both channels even for low-frequency signals.
• Reduces the chance of distortion or drift between channels.
• Especially useful when both signals are quasi-static or slowly varying.
Alternate Beam Switch:-
The Alternate mode is another beam-switching technique used in dual-trace CROs.

Working Principle:
• The CRO displays CH1 during one sweep, then CH2 during the next sweep,
and continues to alternate.

• Only one channel is displayed per sweep cycle.

Advantages:
• More suitable for high-frequency signals.

• Offers better waveform clarity for fast or periodic signals.

Disadvantages:
• Not suitable for low-frequency signals, as you might not see both traces
simultaneously.
• The eye might notice flickering or discontinuity.

Block Diagram of DSO:-

Block Shematic Description of CRO:-
1. Input Attenuator:
• Adjusts the amplitude of the input signal.
• Protects internal circuits from high voltage signals.
• Can switch between different attenuation levels (e.g., 1:1, 10:1).

2. Analog Amplifier:
• Amplifies the attenuated signal to a suitable level.
• Ensures signal integrity is maintained before digitization.
• Often includes AC/DC coupling and gain control.

3. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC):

• Most important component in a DSO.
• Converts the analog signal into digital values (discrete numbers).
• Sampling rate is crucial: Higher sampling rate gives a more accurate
representation.
• Example: 1 GS/s means 1 billion samples per second.

4. Digital Signal Processor (DSP) or Acquisition Memory:

• Stores the digitized data in a memory buffer.
• Performs functions like averaging, filtering, and peak detection.
• Can store large volumes of data for long-duration signals.

5. Time Base (Clock Generator):

• Controls the sampling intervals of the ADC.
• Ensures regular timing between each sample.
• Can be adjusted via the Time/Div control.
6. Trigger Circuit:
• Decides when to start capturing a waveform.
• Helps in stabilizing repetitive waveforms.
• Trigger conditions include edge trigger, pulse width, and video sync.
• Essential for capturing one-time or rare events accurately.

7. Control System / CPU:

• Acts as the brain of the DSO.
• Manages display, signal processing, user interface, and triggering.
• May allow for automated measurements, such as RMS, frequency, rise time,
etc.

8. Display Unit (LCD/TFT Screen):

• Shows the reconstructed waveform.
• Can zoom in, store, and review past waveforms.
• Supports color-coded signals, grid, and measurements.

9. User Interface (Front Panel Controls):

• Includes knobs, buttons, or touchscreen controls.
• Used to adjust Time/Div, Volts/Div, trigger settings, and more.
• Modern DSOs often come with USB ports, LAN/WiFi, and PC connectivity.

Advantages of DSO:-
• Stores signals for long-term analysis.
• Can capture very fast or very slow events.
• Supports advanced math functions, FFT, and automated measurement.
• Portable and easy to interface with computers for data sharing
1. Amplitude Measurement
• Definition: Maximum height of the waveform from the center (0V reference line).
• Steps:
1. Count the number of vertical divisions from the center line to the peak.
2. Multiply by the Volts/Div setting.
o Formula: Amplitude (Vp) = Vertical divisions × Volts / Div

2. Time Period (T) Measurement

• Definition: Time taken for one complete cycle of the waveform.
• Steps:
1. Count the number of horizontal divisions for one full cycle.
2. Multiply by the Time/Div setting.
o Formula: Time Period (T) = Horizontal divisions × ( Time / Div )

3. Frequency (f) Measurement

• Definition: Number of cycles per second.
• Formula: f = 1 / T
• Use the Time Period measured from above.

4. Phase Angle (θ) Measurement

• Definition: Angular difference between two waveforms (usually sine waves).
• Steps:
1. Display both waveforms (Channel 1 and Channel 2).
2. Measure the horizontal displacement between corresponding points (like
zero crossings).
3. Measure the total time period of the waveform.
o Formula: Θ = ( Time difference / Time Period ) x 360
5. Modulation Index (for AM signals)
• Definition: Ratio of the amplitude of the modulating signal to the carrier signal.
• Steps (using envelope method):
1. Measure the maximum amplitude (Amax) and minimum amplitude
(Amin) of the modulated wave envelope.
o Formula: Modulation Index (m) = ( Amax – Amin ) / ( Amax + Amin )

6. Delay Time Measurement

• Definition: Time difference between two signals or between a trigger point and
waveform start.
• Steps:
1. Display both waveforms.
2. Measure the horizontal displacement between them (usually from rising
edge to rising edge).
o Formula: Delay Time = Horizontal divisions × ( Time / Div )