,

CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS (0625) '@ CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS (0625)

• A curved speed time graph means changing acceleration.

cylinder with water and the rlse of water is the volume • Third law of motion: If object A exerts a force on object B,
Acceleration Is the rate of change in velocity per unit of or the object then object B will exert an equal but opposite force on
time, and a vector as It's direction Is specified
1. General Physics
• • • Finding the mass: Use balance
• An object will float in a fluid If it's density is lesser than the
object A

l I density of the II quid, i.e. The volume of fluid displaced has HOOKE'S LAW
1.1. Length and Time a greater mass than lhe object Itself.
DISTANCE TIME GRAPHS ~
i', • Example: an orange with Its peel has a density of • Springs extend in proportion to load, as long as they are
LENGTH 3 under their proportional limit.
0.84g/cm , we can predict that it will float In water
• Limit of proportionality: point at which load and extension
• A rule (ruler) is used to measure length for distances ~ because It Is less than 1 g/cm3 (density of water). We can
are no longer proportional
between 1mm and 1 meter. also say, that an orange without its peel, which has a
• Elastic limit point at which the spring will not return to Its
• For even smaller lengths, use a micrometer screw gauge. density of 1.16g/cm3, will sink because It is greater than original shape after being stretched
• SI unit fur I ~ is the meter (m)
lZtSJ]_Cf I t I
• I• 1glcm3.
• To find out volume of regular object, use mathematical ~ Load (In Newtons)= Spring Constant x extension
fonnula • Gradient = ~ = ~ = Speed (mis)
z2-.r1 t 1 F=kx
• To find out volume of irregular object, put object into
• Therefore, distance:
measuring cylinder with water. When object added, It
displaces water, making water level rise. Measure this
• With constant speed: Speed x Time
I I l u
V
• With constant acceleration 1: Final Spwl~Jnitia/. s,,,~d x elastic lmul
rise. This is the volume. s
Time ~
, fadme

TIME
t
ACCB.ERATION BY GRAVITY propo1 bou:il luu1t
• lnte1'Vi1l d time Is measured using docks or a stopWittctl
• SI unit for time is the second(s) • An object in free-fall near to the Earth has a constant
• To find the amount of time it takes a pendulum to make a acceleration caused by gravity due to the Earth's uniform 1.5. Forces
spin. time -25 circles and then divide by the same number gravitational field
• Objects are slowed down by air resistance. When
e.g. copper
as the number of circles. • Force is measured in Newtons
deceleration caused by air resistance = acceleration by
gravity, i.e. no net force acting on a body in free fall, the Force = Mass x Acceleration
1.2. Motion
body reached terminal velocity
• 1 Newton is the amount of force needed to give 1kg an E,1en.sion
Speed is the distance an object moves in a time frame. It acceleration of 1m/s2
is measured in meters/second (mis) or kilometers/hour 1.3. Mass and Weight • A force may produce a change in size and shape of a CIRCULAR MOTION
(lan/h). body, give an acceleration or deceleration or a change in
• Mass: A measure of matter in a body and the body's
_ S d _ Total Distance direction depending on the direction of the force. • An object at steady speed in circular orbit is always
resistance to motion.
• • pee • - - Total Time • The resultant of forces acting in the same dimension will accelerating as its direction is changing, but it gets no
• Weight is the force of gravity on a body as a result of its
be their sum, provided a convention for directions is set. closer to the center. The speed of the ball stays constant.
• Speed is a scalar quantity as it only shows magnitude. mass.
Therefore, the resultant of 2 forces acting in the same • Centripetal force is the force acting towards the center of
• Speed in a specified direction is velocity, which is a vector dimension, in the opposite direction will be the difference a circle. It is a force that is needed, not caused, by circular
Weight = Mass x G
in their magnitude in the direction of the greatest. motion,
• Weights (and hence masses) may be compared using a • If there is no resultant force acting on a body. it either • For example, when you swing a ball on a string round in a
balance remains at rest or continues at constant speed in a circle, the tension of the string is the centripetal force. If
SPEED TIME GRAPHS
straight line the string is cut then the ball will travel in a straight line at
1.4. Density a tangent to the circle at the point where the string was
RESISTIVE FORCES cut.
Mass (m) • Centrifugal force is the force acting away from the center
Density (p) • Friction: the force between two surfaces which impedes of a circle. This is what makes a stingshot go outwards as
Volume (V) motion and results in heating you spin it. The centrifugal force Is the reaction to the
I I I f • Air resistance is a form of friction
tZ_~EL
• Area under the line equals to the distance travelled
• Density of a liquid: Place measuring cylinder on balance.
Add liquid. Reading on measuring cylinder= V, change in
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION
centripetal force. It has the same magnitude but opposite
direction to centripetal force.
• Gradient .11.=:h mass on balance = m. Use formula.
=
z:2-z1
~=Acceleration
t
= (m/s)2
• Density of solid: LS.Moments
• Positive acceleration means the velocity of a body is • First law of motion: If no external force is acting on it, an
• Finding the volume: To find out volume of a regular
increasing object will, if stationary, remain stationary, and if moving,
• Deceleration or negative acceleration means the velocity object, use mathematical formula. To find out volume • A moment is the measure of the turning effect on a body
keep moving at a steady speed In the same straight line.
of an irregular object, put object into a measuring and is defined as: •
of a body is decreasing • Second law of motion: F = ma
Moment (Nm)= Force (N) x Perpendicular

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 CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS (0625)
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS (0625) ~
has to be made with the acting forces (F1 • Due to the process, th1
ilogl Advantage s Disadvant ages
. Type
distance from Pivot (m) Solar cells/
Therefore, Increasing force or distance from the pivot -~ photoYotta le cells:
made of materials Variable amount of
lncneases the moment of a force
sunshine In some
•" •
This explains why levers are force magnifiers
l1 I that deliver I No CO2 produced
countries
• Turning a bolt is far easier with a wrench because the electrical current
perpendicular distance from pivot is massively 6JJJt.r:ien cy .e.ner!f'o"'"'' 100 when it absorbs
1 X
= "'•cuuEner911m~t
Increased, and so Is the turning effect. Efficien cy= U•e/ul P~r Output X 100 light
P01«.r tnput
• In equilibrium, clockwise moment= anticlockwise moment Solar panelsg ,
thene is no resultant force acting on the body. ~ (absorbs energy and
• This can be proven by hanging masses of the same
1.11. Energy Resources use it to heat water
weight on opposite sides of a meter rule on a pivot at
~ I distances from the pillO( showing that the meter Renewable SOUfces are not exhaustible
1.12. Work and Power
..
rule In stationary. Non-renewable sources of energy are exhaustible

Type Advantages Disadvantages • Work Is done whenever a force makes something move.
1.7. Centre of Mass I Fuel: burnt to make Harmful wastes:
thermal energy, W= L':.E
Centre of mass: imaginary point in a body where total Cheap, Plentiful, (Greenhouse/
makes steam, turns Low-tech pollutant gas,
mass of body seems to be acting. • The unit for work is the Joule 0).
its turbine Radiation) by 1
• An object will be In stable equilibrium when it returns to • 1 joule of work= force of 1 Newton moves an object
Wave energy: meter
original position given a small displacement
• For an object that Is displaced, it will stabilize only if the
force caused by it's weight is within it's base.
, generators driven
by up and down
No greenhouse
Difftcult to build Work done (J) = Force (N) x Distanc e (m)
gases produced
motion of waves at
sea. W=FD
Won't topple Will topple
Tidal energy: dam • Power is the rate of work
built where river • The unit for power is Watts (W)
1 ¥ • meets sea, lake fills Expensive • 1W= lJ/s
No greenhouse
' 'J ~\· ,. when tides comes Can't be built
l in & empties when gases produced Work Done (J)
everywhere Power (W)
Example tide goes out; water Time Taken (s)
Energy type I What It ls
flow runs generator
jKinetic Due to motion Car moving
..... J Hydroelectrlc: river 1.13. Pressu re
Gravitational From potential to fall Book on shelf Low impact on
& rain fill up lake
Chemical In chemical bonds Bonds in starch (food) environme nt Few areas of the
behind dam, water • Pressure is the force per unit area.
produced at world suitable
Strain Compress/stretch Stretched elastic band released, turns Energy
turbine :. generator constant rate Force (N)
• For an object to start rotating it needs to have an Atoms Released in nuclear Pressure
Nuclear 1; (Pa) = Area (m2)
unbalanced moment acting on It rearranged /split plant Geoeherrnal: water
Deep drilling

1.8. Scalars and Vectors

- Internal
Electrical
Motion of molecules
Carried by electrons
In a glass of water
Battery to bulb I
pumped down to
hot rocks rising as
steam
No CO:i produced difficult and
expensive
F
P=A
light Carried in light waves From sun
• A scalar is a quantity that only has a magnitude (so
it ca Nuclear fission: • Unit Pascals (Pa)= Ntm2
Carried in sound Produces a lot of • In Liquids
only be positive) for example speed. Sound From speaker uranium atoms split Produces
waves I energy with very
• A vector quantity has a direction as well as a magnitud, by shooting radioactive waste
little resources Pressure (Pa)= Density (kg/m3) x Gravity (m/s2)
for example velocity, which can be negative. neutrons at them
• Calculating resultant force: Wind: windmills are P= hpg
moved by the No CO2/
breeze. They Few areas of the
Greenhouse gasses • Therefore, as the depth of a fluid increases, the pressure
generate electricity world suitable. caused by the whole liquid increases.
produced
, ,· from kinetic energy. • Measuring Pressure: Manomete r
,, • Measures the pressure difference
,, • The height difference shows the excess pressure in
addition to the atmospher ic pressure.
,::;;;; ·'
,. I

F,
. J ,f 0

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 CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS (0625)
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UqUld Gas
Solid • Evaporatiqn can be accelerated by: • Axed points are definite temperatures at which
M1!'91Dft • Increasing temperature: more particles have energy
Atoms vibrate bUt collide with each I ... something happens and are used to calibrate a
to escape thermometer. For example, melting and boiling point of
can't change Particles slide past \other and bounce In
each other. all directions • Increasing surface area: more molecules are close to water
position .•. fixed
the surface • Sensitivity. Change In length or volume per degree
volume and shape
• Reduce humidity level in air (draught): if the air Is less • Rarce: The values which can be measured using the
•I t
• The more the kinetic energy in a gas, the faster it's humid, fewer particles are condensing. thermometer
particles move and therefore the gas is at a higher • Unearlfy: Uniform changes in the physical property with a
mercury 2.3. Pressure Changes in Gases change In temperature over the measured temperature
temperature.
• The pressure gases exert on a container is due to the values.
'~.
{I • Pressure Is inversely proportional to the volume given a Responsiveness: How long it takes for the thermometer to
particles colliding on the container walls.
• The greater the kinetic energy in gasses the faster they constant temperature. react to a change in temperature
• Measuirg Presswe: Barometer Q
• Tube with vacuum at the top and mercury filling the move and the more often they collide on the container's • If the volume increases and the temperature stays • Callbratlrc a thermometer:
constant, the particles hit the surface less often, thus • Place thermometer in pure water.
rest. walls. l-~ I
• Pressure of the air pushes down on reservoir, forcing decreasing the pressure. • Place the thermometer above the steam of the pure
• Therefore, the volume is constant. then increasing the
boiling water, this is 100 •c.
mercury up the tube. temperature will increase the pressure.
• Measure height of mercury P1V1 = P1V1 • Liquid-in-glass thermometer:
• Thus, if there is a change in momentum of the particles,
• - 760 mm of mercury is 1 atlll. the kinetic energy decreases, decreasing the collisions on
fr t mercury/alcohol
PV = constant expansion thread
the container wafts and thus the pressure. bulb reservoir
~ • The constant is valid at a fixed mass of gas at a constant
temperature.
·Y8CCUffl
:~: t·~-, • As the temperature increases of a fixed mass of gas, the
l 1
BROWNIAN MOTION 11 ~. pressure increases as the average kinetic energy
men:ury
increases... Refer card 'Simple Kinetic Molec!Aar Model of 9lasss~m7 glass bulb
ler,glllh gins tube • Gas molecules move randomly. This is because of
~1~ ...
Matter' for more detail.
~plllary/bof'e 7 ~
repeated random collisions with other gas molecules, • As temperature rises or falls, the liquid (mercury or
,~i z=>
which constantly change the direction they move in. (/) alcohol) expands or contracts.
I
i C} 2.4. Thermal properties and • Amount of expansion can be matched to temperature on
• Small molecules move much faster and have higher
i
energy than larger molecules. They can effectively move temperature a scale.
11 ,/.I.
large molecJ.Jes due to repeated random bombardment- • To Increase sensltMty:
this can be seen by larger smoke particles moving. • Solids, liquids and gasses expand when they are heated • Thinner capillary
• Therefore, the random motion of particles in a suspension as atoms vibrate more and this causes them to become • Less dense liquid
is evidence for the kinetic molecular model of matter. further apart, taking up a greater volume. • Bigger bulb
2. Thermal Physics ~ • Due to differences in molecular structure of the different • Depending on the melting and boiling point of the liquid
states of matter, expansion is greatest in gases, less so in being used, the range is defined.
liquids and lowest in solids • The linearity depends on the liquid being used
2.1. Simple Kinetic Molecular Model of
~ • Applications and consequences of thermal expansion:
• Thermocouple thermometer:
Matter
I • overhead cables have to be slack so that on cold days,
when they contract, they don't snap or detach.
2.2. Evaporation
• Gaps have to be left in bridge to allow for expansion , - - - e - -. ,

it • Bimetal thermostat when temperature gets too high, .-·. .\

I~ 6i,;~ 1
• It is the escape of more energetic particles from the
l~\~\:_C> bimetal strip bends, to make contacts separate until ; '""'
Copptr
surface of a liquid.
temperature falls enough, then metal strip will 0-···•·---'··- 0
Solid Uquid Gas • If more energetic particles escape, the liquid contains few Ho1 lurw:1lc,11 Cold Junction
become straight again and contacts touch, to maintain
Rxed volume but high energy particles and more low energy particles so
No fixed shape or a steady temperature
Axed shape and \ changes shape the average temperature decreases. • The probe contains 2 different metals joined to form 2
volume, gases fill
volume depending on its ii Cl i. junctions.
up containers contact~
container • The temperature difference causes a tiny voltage which

Strong forces of \ Weaker attractive

Almost no
intermolecular l
I'
I • 1 : . '::
1!1
l"r ,., A., makes a current flow.
• A greater temp. difference gives a greater current.
attraction between forces than solids- -=- t---- V
forces- large I ,:: • Thermocouple thermometers are used for high
particles- particles medium distances I wire
I ~ wire bimetallic strip temperatures which change rapidly and have a large
dose to each other. between particles distances between I ii ::
particles range (·200C" to 11 00"C)
1

Rxedpattem No fixed pattern, Particles far apart,

I :.l base
(lattice) liquids take shape and move quickly • In the above graph, the number of particles with higher
IJa ;I I t~I 2.5. Thermal Capacity
l rl • Temperature can be measured by observing a physical
of their container kinetic energies has gone down.'
property that changes with temperature. Examples • The rise in temperature of a body Is an Increase In the
• Therefore a body in contact with an evaporating liquid
include alcohol and mercury• used in thermometers. internal energy of that body. The average kinetic energy
with subsequently cool. 011:. f'
,>
.,I
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 CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS (0625) CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS (0625)

odler, they do no( have enough energy to bounce away

or a gas partide is directly proportional to the
again so they stay dose together, and a liquid forms. 1.
~ture. When or that gas particle. particles move
When a liquid cools, the particles slow down even more. en•
faster due to greater kin!!tic energy, they collide more
often, which Is felt by heat Eventually they stop moving except for vibrations and a
• This relationship Is shown by the thermal capacity of a solid forms.
• Specific H!!at capacity (c) is the amount of energy
~:1· ,~
required to raise the temperanre of 1 kg of a certain 2,.7. Thermal Properties
substance by 1°c. _.,E - ':.>'-...J
• Concuttools the flow of heat through matter from places
c=..JL_
m<U' or higher temperature to places of lower temperature T""""
~
without movement or the matter as a whole "/,.
• Thermal Capacity (Ql Is the amount of energy required to (Uc• Matt Black White Sliver
raise the temperature of an oi¥ct 11j 1°C. Emitter Best ➔ Worst
• Transverse Waves
Renector Worst ➔ Best
Q=mc • Travelling waves in which oscillation Is perpendicular
11 Absorber Best ➔
' ...___ Worst to direction of travel
IMPORTANT:The Q's In baCh equations are NOT the same,
~ - • Has crests and troughs
• In non-metals• when heat Is supplied to something, Its
how!Yerthe e's are. 81: :1 • An emitter sends out thermal radiation. • For example, light, water waves and vibrating string
atoms vibrate faster and pass on their vibrations to the • A reflector reflects thermal radiation, therefore is a bad
adjacent atoms. absorber.
2.6. Melting and Boiling • In metals - conduction happens in the previous way and In • An emitter will cool down quickly, an absorber will heat up
• Melting Is when a solid turns Into a liquid.
a quicker way-electrons are free to move, they travel t\ more quickly and a reflector will not heat up quickly.
randomly in the metal and collide with atoms and pass on \., • The amount of radiation also depends on the surface ...-t IIMIII\'.
• The temperature Increases thus kinetic energy In solid I u11• Tran~,
the vibrations Good conductors are used whenever heat temperature and surface area of a body.
Increases and particles vibrate more rapidly. l- wave I -Wavelength --I
is required to travel quickly through something ~ • Consequences of energy transfer include:
• When mefting starts there is no increase in temperature
• Bad conductors (Insulators) are used to reduce the .. • Metal spoon in a hot drink will warm up because it
of the substance because thermal energy supplied Is
amount of heat lost to the surroundings z conducts heat Compression Expansion
being used to break bonds between particles of the solid :::>
• Convection Is the flow of heat through a fluid from places Cl) • Convection currents create sea breezes. During the '
thus making It Into a liquid.
• The latent heat of fusion Is the amount of energy needed of higher temperature in places of lower temperature by day the land is warmer and acts as heat source.
movement of the fluid itself.
0
to m!!lt 1Kg of a substance During the night the sea acts as the heat source.
• The melting point Is the temp. at which a substance • As a fluid (liquid or gas) warms up, the particles which are t) I~• • A black saucepan cools better than a white one, white ~--....._..,,_.., __
liquefy warmer become less dense and rise. houses stay cooler than dark ones.
• Bolling Is when a liquid turns into a gas • They then cool and fall back to the heat source, creating a • Longitudinal Waves
The temperature Increases thus kinetic energy in liquid cycle called convection current • Travelling waves in which oscillation is parallel to
increases and particles vibrate more rapidly. • As particles circulate they transfer energy to other 3. Properties of Waves, direction of travel.
• When~ stans, there is no increase in temperature particles. If a cooling object Is above a fluid it Wll create a • Has compressions and rarefactions
of the substance because the thermal energy supplied is convection current as well. Including Light and Sound • For example, sound waves
being used to break bonds between particles of the liquid
thus making It Into a gas. Compression Rarefaction
• The latent heat of vaporization is the amount of energy
3.1. General Wave Properties
_,,, ~
needed to boll 1Kg of a substance -"- ~WM/WvVW#INNHMN\/WMWllNMN
.... • Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. ;,
• The boili11t point is the temp. at which a substance boils Lomotu<lmnl w.1ve I-- Wu,-clcni;1h-
-- - - • Examples of wave motion include:
Specific latent beat of fusion vaporization = • WaterWaves
Energy Transferred • Ropes Speed (m/s) = Frequncy(Hz) x Wavelength(m)
Mass
0 I • Springs
• Frequency: the number of waves passing any point per V = F>.
E second measured in hertz (Hz)
Lr/L., = - • Refraction:
m • Racldon Is the flow of heat from one place to another by
means of electromagnetlc waves. It does not require a 1 • Speed and wave length is reduced but frequency stays
• The difference between boiling and evaporation Is that medium. Frequency=- -- the same and the wave changes direction
• Bolling occurs at a fixed temperature and throughout
ol•, Period
• Thermal radlatlon is mainly Infra-red waves, but very hot • Mechanical waves slow down when they pass from a
the liquid Period: time taken for one oscillation in seconds
objects also give out light waves. Infra-red radiation Is denser to a rarer material and vice versa
• Evaporation occurs at arrt temperature and only on • Wavefront the peak of a transverse wave or the • Note: Electromagnetic waves like light increase in
thestrface part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
compression of a longitudinal wave speed from an optically denser to a rarer medium.
• Condensation Is when a gas rums back Into a liquid. Speed: how fast the wave travels measured In mis • When wave is slowed down, it is refracted towards
• When a gas Is cooled, the particles lose energy. They • Wavelength: distance between a point on one wave to the
(J normal (i > r)
move more and more slowly. When they bump into each corresponding point on the next wave in length • When wave is sped up, it is refracted away from
, Amplitude: maximum displacement of a wave from its normal (i < r)
., undisturbed point. • Shallow water Is denser than deep water
0
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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS (0625) CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS (0625)

• Plane (flat) mirrors produee a reflection.

• D@ep wam- tD shalow Wil!N: speed decreases, Vlr1Ual Image
Rays from an object reflect off the mirror Into our eyes,
wavelength decreases, and frequency remains
but we see them behind the mirror. When the object Is closer to the optical centre than F' Is
constant
The Image has these properties:
Image is the same size as the object 'i
• Image Is the same distance from the mirror as object 'i ''r---.,,::-...
A line joi~ corresponding poin«s of the image and \
'i ,:~···~
object meet the mirror at a right angle 'i
Image Is virtual: no rays acrually pass through the \
,I'
-- -- -- -- Image and the Image cannot be formed on a screen ,,
• Shalow water tD deep water. speed increases wavelength • Magnifying glass: when a convex lens Is used like this• an
increases, and frequency remains constant Incident ray - - - - - - - object Is closer to a convex (converging) lens than the
~ principal focus (like the diagram above), the rays never
I,I • Note: converge. Instead, they appear to come from a position
• The emergent ray is parallel to the Incident ray only if behind the lens. The image Is upright and magnified, It Is a
the sides of the glass are parallel) virtual Image.
~ • i = angle of incidence, r = angle of refraction • Images can be:
• Light put in at one end is totally Internally reflected until it • Enlarged: The image is larger than the object.
• Laws of reflection: Same size: The image is the same size as the object.
comes out the other end.
-- -- -- --
• Reflection: • qle d lnddence =arcte d reflection • Appllcatlon: Optical Rbres • Diminished: The image is smaller than the object
• Waves bounce away from surface at same angle they • The Incident ray, reflected ray and normal are always Upright The image Is In the same vertical orientation
• Used in communications: signals are coded and sent
strike it on the same plane (side of mirror)
along the fiber as pulses of laser light as the object.
• Angle of incidence = angle of reflection • Critical angle: angle at which refracted ray is parallel to
• Used In medicine: an endoscope, an instrument used
• The incident ray, normal and reflected ray all lie on the the surface of material.
·~-:1 by surgeons to look inside the body; contains a long 3-S. Dispersion of Light
same plane. • If the a111le of incidence is greater than the critical angle I~ bun<le of optic fibers.
• Speed, wawlength and frequency are unchanged by there is no refracted ray, there is total internal reflection.
reflection Refraction by a prism:
• If the angle of incidence is less than the critical angle the
incidence ray will split into a refracted ray and a weaker 3.4. Thin Converging Lens • When light is refracted by a prism, the Incidence ray is not
water waye c,neg;on at aPliio surface reflected ray. parallel to the emergent ray, since the prism's sides are
• Prtnclpal focus: the point where rays parallel to the
not parallel.
/ae~ts~ principal axis converge with a converging lens.
If a beam of white light is passed through a prism it is
Focal~ distance from principle focus and the optical
I dispersed into a spectrum.
center.
White light is a mixture of colors, and the prism refractS
I • Pr1nclpal axis: line that goes through optical center, and
each color by a different amount - red is deviated least &
the 2 foci.
violet most
• Opdcal center. the center of the lens
Monochromatic light is that of a single frequency and
• Real: image can be caught on a screen
colour.
• Virtual: image cannot be caught on a screen
I< crtdc:al ..... I •crklcal aage. The visible spectrum of light Is acronymed as ROYGBN
l•.-.ionglo --
\-- -
77 77 7 7 7 r/ 7 7 7 7,, ~~= Speed of light in vacuum Real Image
Refractive Index
Speed of light in a medium
• Diffraction: When object is further away from the optical centre than
6 Pis
• Waves bend round the sides of an obstacle or spread Refractive Index = !11 i
out as they pass through a gap. SlD r
• Wider gaps produce less diffraction. 1
• When the gap size Is equal to the wavelength, Critical angle= sin-1 -
n
maximum diffraction occurs
3-3- Refraction of Light
.r;:

~,,>:
• Refractlon is the bending when light travels from one
medium to another due to the change in speed of the ray
of light
Q)
A) A ray through centre of the lens passes straight through
;
to form a
spectrum
Examples of stellar spectra
,/ the lens.
~ l] ~ r,I Bl A ray parallel to the principal axis passes through the focus
::-.:-;:::
--..... on the other side of the lens
C) A ray through P will leave the lens parallel to the principal
3.2. Reflection of Light axis

0' a
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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS (0625) CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS (0625)

~ompresslon
space between them
• l
Pennanent Magnet Electromagnet
3.6. Electromagnetic Spectrum •. u, • They attract magnetic materials by Inducing (permanent Use: For applications where
or temporary) magnetism in them. Use: for applications where magnetic field needs to be
":::::: ~-= • Will exert little or no force on a non-magnetic material magnetism is needed over turned on & off- scrap metal
• The direction of an electric field at a point is the direction long periods - fridge doors
11111111111111(
/'--J moving
of the force on a positive charge at that point
Induced Magnetism:
,,,,~\\\ • Magnets attract materials by inducing magnetism in 4.2. Electric Charge
'1 \ ~ ~ them; the material becomes·a magnet as well.
" $ "; \ • There are 2 types of charges: positive and negative.
• The side of the material facing the magnet will
ROMAN MEN INVENTED VERY UNUSUAL XRAY GUNS
·v1mmm·ir~li n[l~l., become the opposite pole as the magnet Unlike charges attract and like charges repel.
• The SI unit of charge is the Coulomb (C).
• All electromagnetic waves: ~agnettc Non-ferrousMon-magnetlc The presence or an electrostatic charge can be detected
• Travel at the speed or light approximately 3 x materials materials using a leaf electroscope.
Compression: High pressure section of a longitudinal • If a charged object is placed near the cap, charges are
I08m/ s. Iron Plastic
• They travel at around the same speed in air too. wave induced.
Rarefaction: Low pressure section of a longitudinal wave Nickel Wood
Don't need a medium to travel through (travel through • The metal cap gets one type of charge (positive or
Cobalt Rubber
a vacuum) negative) and the metal stem and gold leaf get the
• Can transfer energy . other type of charge so they repel each other.
• Are produced by particles oscillating or losing energy
in someway
l'rt>lll<flC)' = f
r r- \\~•·tlm~h = ). --j Vtloc:ity_of
pn'l"'l!"IK,n V
- • Methods of inducing magnetism:
m
• A piece of steel becomes permanently magnetized when
• Are transverse waves ., --
...... r\ placed near a magnet, but its magnetism is usually weak.
• Applications: ' - •
• It can be magnetized more strongly by stroking it with one -··
• Radio waves: radio and television communications L ~,.\\JI
• Microwaves: satellite television and telephones
pV end of a magnet
• Most effective method: place it in a solenoid and pass a ::--
• Safety issue: cause internal heating of body tissues
large, directcurrent{d.c.) through the coil.
• Infrared: electrical appliances (radiant heaters and
grills), remote controllers for televisions and intruder
The higher the fr~quency, the higher the pitch.
• The higher the amplitude, the louder the sound
' • Methods of demagnetisation:
ml
Electric field: region in which electric charge experiences
a force.
alarms • If a magnet is hammered, its atomic magnets are
• tr a sound is repeated 0.1 seconds or more after it is first The direction of an electric field at a point is the direction
• X-rays: medicine (x-ray photography and killing cancer heard, the brain senses it again. thrOINl'l out or line and it becomes demagnetized. of the force on a positive charge at that point
cells) and security • Heating a magnet to a high temperature also
• Therefore, given the adequate distance, if sound reflects • Conductors: materials that let electrons pass through
• Safety issue: is a mutagen, it cause cancer (mutations) demagnetize it
off a surface, and comes back, an echo is produced. them. Metals are the best electrical conductors as they
• Monochromatic: light of a single wavelength and color • Stroking with another magnet to destroy the
(used in lasers) have free electrons. E.g. copper
Speed cl sOll'ld In van1ous media alignment of poles • Insulators: materials that hardly conduct at all. Their
Meclwn State Speed • Place magnet with poles opposite to that which is electrons are tightly held to atoms and hardly move, but
3.7.Sound induced by a d.c. current and insert into coil with d.c. they can be transferred by rubbing. E.g. Rubber
COl'ICl"ele Solid SOO0m/s
current Simple Reid Patterns:
• Sound is a mechanical wave. Pl.re Water Liquid 1400 mis • Most efficient method: place magnet inside a solenoid • Parallel plates
• Sound waves come from a vibrating source e.g. Air Gas 330 mis connected to an alternating current (a.c.) supply.
loudspeaker Vin Gas <Vin Liquid <Vin solid Soft Iron vs. Steel •' t I
• As the loudspeaker cone vibrates, it moves fOl'Wclrds and
backwards, which squashes & stretches the air in front - Remember to talce into account that sound has gone th1 Solt Iron Steel :~ ; 1:
• As a result, a series of compressions (squashes) and Gets magnetized faster but
rarefactions (stretches) travel out through the air, these Slow to be magnetized but
loses its magnetism as soon I.---
are sound waves retains acquired magnetism -,~c:j::
4. Electricity and Magnetism as inducing magnet is
for a long time.
• Humans can hear frequencies between 20 and 20 0OOHz. removed.
• Properties:
4-1. Simple phenomena of magnetism High susceptibility but low Low susceptibility but high ·~-
• Sound waves are longltudlnat. they have
retentivity retentivity. • Point charge
compressions and rarefactions and oscillate
backwards and forwards. MAGNETS: Use: core in the transformer Use: making magnets.
• Sound waves need a medium to travel through as it
moves due to oscillating particles. • Magnets have a magnetic field around them • Permanent Magnet vs. Electromagnet
• Ultrasomd Waves: high frequency sound waves, • They have 2 opposite poles (North and South) whlch exert
medically used to look at structures and organs inside the forces on other magnets. Like poles repel and unlike poles Pennanert Magnet Electromagnet
human body, i.e. to form an Image or a fetus in a attract This is caused by the interaction of magnetic Design: hard magnetic Design: Uses a solenoid to
pregnancy fields. material create magnetic field
• Therefore, if magnets are facing each other with .
opposite poles, they will come together given a small ~'
I)
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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS (0625) ..

V-E • The combined resistance of 2 resistol'3 in parallel is
pulled tawards rod, which leaves the bottom or the roll 4 , •• -c less than that of either resistor by itself and the
wtrt, a net positM! charge. current in the two resistors In greater in the source
The attraction Is stronger than repulsion because the
attracting charges are closer than the repelling ones.
' 4.6. Resistance than In the individual resistors and is equal to the sum
of the currents In all the resistors connected in
parallel.
f ~ ij I Resistance (0) = Voltage = V
~ 4-3- current Current I • Advantages of putting lamps in parallel are:
• If one lamp breaks, the other still works
V current: a now of charge, the SI unit is the Ampere (A).
An ammeter measures the current in a circuit and is
Factors affecting resistance:

• Length
• Each lamp gets maximum PD
• In series: PD across the supply= PD across all the
connected in series • 0. ex L components combined
. • Current is a rate of now of charge.
In metals, current is caused by a flow of electrons
• • The electrons have to travel a longer length and thus • In parallel: Current across the source = sum of currents in
encounter more resistance. the separate branches
• Cross-sectional area
Current (A)= Charge (C)
Time (5) •O.cx-} 4,9. Circuit Diagrams
• More electrons can now per unit time, increasing the
I= Q/t :I current and therefore decreasing the resistance.
• +ve and-ve Cell -jr
• Material
current follows path of least resistance • Better conductor= less resistance -HI..-
"" Conventional current flows in the direction opposite to
that which electrons flow in.
• Current Voltage Character of an Ohmic Resistor and a
Filament Lamp:
Battery of cells Or
-+-1..-
• Red= Conventional current
Power supply -<>
• Green = flow of electrons -
~ a.c. power supply ~-~

v~ VU_
Junction of conductors
-
z
::, -L
en I Lamp -©-
1
Ohmic device non-Ohmlc
Fixed resistor -[:=J-
de-vice
Thermistor
I
n I• I
• -¢-
• Ohm's law states that voltage across a resistor is directly Variable Resistor
• le= t.6 x 10- 19C
• proportional to the current through It. This Is only true if
-¢-
18
1c = 6.25 x 10 e the temperature of the resistor or lamp remains constant Light dependent resistor -6-
Heater --ITID---
4-4- Electromotive Force (EMF> 4.7. Electrical Energy Switch ----
• The energy supplied by the source in dfiving a unit charge
• Electrical energy is transferred from the battery or power
• +ve and +ve around a circuit. source to the circuit components then into the Earth or Ground J_
• The maximum voltage a cell can produce is called the surroundings --
• 1 Watt is 1j/s -
electromotive force (EMF), measured in volts.
• When a current is being supplied, the voltage is lower Electric Bell
Electrical power = Voltage (V) x Current (A)
because of the energy wastage inside the cell. n
• A cell produces its maximum PD when not in a circuit and .t,.\ I p = VI Buzzer
not supplying current. B
Electrical energy Voltage (V) x Current x Tim, Microphone
4-5- Potential Difference (P.D) c:r=
E = Vlt
Loudspeaker
• Potential difference, or PD for short, is also known as
Motor
=DJ
voltage. •• 4.8. Series and Parallel Circuits -®--
• Voltage is the amount of energy the cell gives the Generator
electrons it pushes out. Voltage is measured in volts (V) • The current at any point in a series circuit is the same ---0-
• Induced charges: and is measured by a voltmeter (connected in parallel). If The current splits at each branch in a parallel circuit so Ammeter
• Charging a body involves the addition or removal of a cell has 1 Volt, it delivers l Joule of energy to each the total current is always greater than the current in one
-0-
electrons. Voltmeter
coulomb of charge U/C). O) branch -0--
• A charge that •appears• on an uncharged object • Combining resistors Galvanometer
because of a charged object nearby Energy • In Series: RTotal = R1 R2 + -<D-
• For example if a positively charged rod is brought near Voltage = - - - Potential Divider
Charge (l) • In Parallel: RTotal = :i::¾r =2=J--
a small piece of aluminum foll, electrons in foil are "• ,.,
: l
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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS (0625)

L4iiWii4h%iHV
4.11. Digital Electronics
Relay Coll - • Analogue uses a whole range of continuous variations to
9 transmit a signal that Include variations of high and low
states.
Transformer
:JIC
• Digital signals use only 2 states, on and off. '/

Diode
-ti'!- ~ H!i • Logic gates are processors that are circuits containing
~ • Relays:
• A switch operated by an electromagnet transistors and other components. Their function Is shown
Light- emitting diode ~
by the truth table below (3 columns from the right)
-E3-
Fuse
-e-
---- i
• ti • Gata S'ffflbol Input A Input 8
~
oscilloscope -- Output
NOTO.. • Circuit Breaker:
:C)-- 0 1
AND gate 1 • An automatic switch which if current rises over a
' -[>- 0
Nona specified value, the electromagnet pulls the contacts
OR gate
D- -?e
~- ANO Ona apart, breaking the circuit.
Normally closed relay: when coil not energized, switch is 0 0 0
0 • The reset button is to rest everything.
=D- 1 0
NAND gate closed, completing circuit
=D- 1 0 It works like a fuse but is better because It can be
0
1 1 1 reset
NOR gate :D-- OftGata 0 0 0
0 1 1
NOT gate
-t>- =D- 1 0 1 reset button
1 1 1
NAIIIOO.. 0 0
4.10. Action and Use of Circuit 1
0 1 1
Components
...~ =0- 1 0 1
cqnent cunent
z 1 1 0 (]
:, HOR Gate 0 0
A potential divider divides the voltage into smaller parts.

dosed, completing circuit

~
• Normally open relay: when coil energized, switch ls r.n
~
=[>- 0
1
1
0
1
0
0
Iron catchelectromagnet

1 1 0

• 4.12. Dangers of Electricity

·-Cb-- • Benefits of Earthing a Metal Case:
• Hazards: • Many electrical appliances, have metal cases, the
To find the voltage (at Vourl we use the following formula:
•• Damaged Insulation: contact With the Wire (live Wire earth wire creates a safe route for current to flow
especially) due to gap in the insulation causes electric through if the live wire touches the casing
• ( R2 ) shock which can cause serious injury Ot'" shodc. ~ Earth terminal COIYlected to metal casing, so in such a
\tour== \111\· x -
Rro1al • Overheating of cables: when long extension leads are case, the current goes through earth wire Instead of
• A variable potential divider (potentiometer) is the same as
the one above but using a variable resistor; it acts like a
• Diodes:
~
• A device that has an extremely high resistance in one
coiled up, they may overheat The current warms the
wire, but the heat has less area to escape from a tight
causing an electric shock.
• A strong current surges through earth wire because it
direction and a low resistance in the other, therefore it bundle. This might cause a fire. has very low resistance
potential divider, but you can change output voltage. effectively only allows current to flow in one direction • Damp conditions: water can conduct a current, so if • This breaks the fuse and disconnects the appliance
• Input Transducers: • Forward bias is INhen the diode is pointing in the electrical equipment is wet someone might get
• lhem,lstDI. input sensor and a transducer. It is a direction of the conventional current and reverse bias electrocuted
temperawre-dependent resistor. At higher
is the opposite • Fuse:
temperature there is less resistance. • A fuse protects a circuit.
It can be used in a rectifier; turns AC current Into DC
current • Thin piece of wire which overheats and melts if
~ current is too high.
,.Clo
• It is placed on the live wire before the switch.
i7}- ·A A A • This prevents overheating and catching fire .
V~ V • A fuse will have a specific current value (e.g. 13
Amps.) so when choosing a suitable fuse, you must
Ug~ dependent resistor (LOR): input sensor and a use the one above minimum value but less than
transducer. When light intensity increases. resistance m--t>r-N maximum value
decreases.

. .6. 6 .D,.
DCO..t

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS (0625) ··1
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~I
• The induced EMF (and current) can be increased by:
91
_. r1·•1.:..
W ~I
~I • A st.ep-up transformer Increases the voltage and a step-
• ITI(Jlling the magnet faster ' ,I
i1 doM! transformer decreases it.
• using a stronger magnet
• increasing the number of turns in the coil s • Transformers used to make high voltage AC currents.
If the magnet is pUlled away, the direction of the induced • Since power lost In a resistor P = P x R, having a lower
current will decrease the power loss.
EMF (and current) Is reversed
1; f: 1 ~l
' ~I
Using south pole Instead of North pole reverses direction 1 ~' • Since transmission cables are many kilometres long they
·i ►.: have a lot of resistance, so a transformer Is used to
of induced EMF (and current)
If the magnet is held still, there Is no EMF l ~I~- increase the voltage and decrease the current to decease
• An Induced current atways flows In a direction such that it ~ ',1-. ~I power lost.
opposes the change which produced it. " V W f. • The advantages of high-voltage transmission:
When a magnet is moved tawards a coil the pole of the J~ ~! • Less power lost
' 11 ~;
tV
coil and magnet next to each other are the same. • Thinner, light, and cheaper cables can be used since
1r f
When the magnet is moved away ·:1e poles are opposite CIJ(rent Is reduced
F
led
(opposite poles attract).
• The pole-type (north or south) is controlled by the ! T➔
ing_
direction in which the current is induced. • cyci.
The direction of the current is given by the right-hand grip
Vologe•llme Gi~IOI AC

4,13- Electromagnetic Effects ne:

• The current is maximum when the coil is horizontal since
field lines are being cut at the fastest rate and owhen the
• Electromagnetic Induction: If a wire Is passed across a
magnetic field/changing magnetic field, a small EMF is b.'
• ·~ i
\..I~- coll is vertical, since It Is cutting NO field lines.
~ 0 t:~ • The EMF can be Increased by:
induced and can be detected by a galvanometer. N s 'II
.-.1~
ir,
~
• increasing the number of turns on the coil
• increasing the area of the coil
• using a stronger magnet 4,16. Electromagnetic Effect of a
z:,
"" • rotating the coll faster
·Iii Current
1.

• The fingers point in the conventional current direction and 4.15. Transformers • Magnetic field around a current carrying wire
\))i \ .
the thumb gives the North Pole.
• AC currents can be increased or decreased by using a __J
transformer.
• The direction of an induced EMF opposes the change
4,14, Applications • Consists of a primary coil, a secondary coil and an iron
causing it
core. •bi~•~~%)~-
• In a direct current (d.c) the electrons flow in a singular
• The induced EMF can be increased by: • The Iron core gets magnetized by the incoming current
• moving the wire faster direction. and this magnetism then creates a current in the leaving
• using a stronger magnet • In an alternating current (a.cl the direction offlow Is wire. ~
• Increasing length of wire in magnetic field, e.g. looping reversed in regular time periods. ~l-i • The power is the same on both sides (assume= 100% • Magnetic field around a current carrying solenoid
the wire through the field several times. • A.C Generator: f~t~.JIII efficiency).
• The current and EMF direction can be reversed by: • The coil is made of insulated copper wire and is ' ~-
. • You can figure out number of coils and the voltage with:
• moving the wire in the opposite direction rotated by turning the shaft; the slip rings are fixed to
• turning the magnet round so that the field direction is the coil and rotate with it. Output voltage _ Turns on output coil
reversed • The brushes are 2 contacts which rub against the slip Input voltage - Turns on input coil
• Aemlng's right-hand rule gives the current direction: rings and keep the coil connected to the outside part
of the circuit, usually made of carbon.
6\\1 Vp Np
When the coil is rotated, it cuts magnetic field lines, so Vs= Ns
if an EMF is generated, which makes a current flow. • Increasing the strength of the field
V," x I1n = V0w x Io..i • Increasing the current increases the strength of the field
c.. .... • Each side of the coil travels upwards then downwards
then upwards etc. so the current flows backwards then t) \t Increasing the number of turns of a coll Increases the
VpxJp = Vsxis
strength increases the strength of the field.
~-~ forwards then backwards etc. so it is an alternating
~... • Reversing the current direction reverses the magnetic
'\. current. (Under 100% efficiency)
field direction (right-hand rule).
Bar magnet pushed int.o coil
• When magnetic field Is changed across the primary coil by • The direction of a magnetic field line at a point Is the
connecting it with A.C. an e.m.f. induces across the direction of the force on the N pole of a magnet at that
secondary coll. point
j t) ' • The iron core channels the alternating field through the • Magnetic effect of current is used In a relay and a circuit
~'.Ql~)~: ~~0t))JJI: ! secondary coil, inducing an alternating e.m.f. across it. breaker.
••
-- -0 ·--~
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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS (062 5)

li#ii&iJ;;tii¾ii•
motor runs on a direct current .
4-17. Force on a Curr ent-C arryi ng is free to (t topes
:ot1 is made of insulate d copper wire and • lndustna1 Us@: to check for leaks - radioiso
n is
Cond ucto r :e betwee n the poles of the magne t.
:ommu tator (split-ring) is fixed to the
coll and rotates
. (tracers) added to oil/gas. At leaks radiatio
detected Using a Gelger counter, e.g. Radlum-226 nucleus ➔ Radon-222
226
+ helium-4 nucleus

magne tic field, it Archaeological Use: carbon 14 - used for carbon 88 '122Rn + -1Hc
Rn ~ 86 2
• If a curren t carryin g conduc tor is in a It • dating
warps the field lines. commu tator \J; ij I
·n the coil overshoots the vertical, the Beta decay:
ten out it. so the forces
The field lines from the magne t want to straigh nges directio n of the curren t throug h
naturally. . 5.2. Detection of Ractioactivity electron and an
nge directio n and keep the coll turning • A neutron changes Into a proton, an
the wire creatin ga t the nucleon
This causes a catapu lt like action on brushes are two contacts which rub agains al'ltlneutrlno so an element with the same
force to battery , radiation around e.g.
Imutato r and keep the coil connec ted • Background radiation: srnall arnount of numbe r but with a proton numbe r 1 higher
,ally made of carbon ls in the
us all lirne because of radioactive rnateria
._. ....... c..,;,,o horizon tal. ➔ xenon-131 + antineutrino + beta particle
, max. turning effect is when the coil is sources such e.g. iodine-131
environ ment it rnainly cornes from natural
, but it always and 1a1 /
•re is no force when the coil ,s vertical
rshoots this position
• as soil,
even rocks, air, building rnaterials, fOOd and drink-
space. 5.'.J
~ 1a1 Xe + o-wR+ o0 u
S,i
Gamma em1ss1on:
• A Geiger-Muller (GM) tube can be used to detects o, fJ
can be done and -y radiation
Reversing rotation
by: change In mass
T
·~~eeffect increased by:, • Gamma emission by itself causes no
energy
number or atomic number; they just emit
~- lncrea,
:reasing the curren t Reversing the battery 5.3. Type of Radioactive Emissions or atomic numbe r
directio n of force • Some isotopes do not change in mass
If you reverse current , you will reverse Usinga i
ing a stronge r magne t - s rearran ge
however they emit energy as their particle
of force.
•
If you reverse directio n offield, you will
reverse directio n

magne tic field is

increas h the strengt h of
·easing
the rmagne tic field
Reversing the poles
~;
• Radioactive ernissions occur random
ly over space & time
themselves to become more stable

The directio n of the force, current or ,;, ~ --- ~I Alpha (o) Beta (fl) 5,5, Half Life
lncreas i the numbe r of
:reasing - - Gamma ('Y)
given by Aemlf'C's left-han d rule: Helium nucleus
turr
turns on the coil. One high Electro-
!l-_ Nallre I (2 protons and taken for half the
~ speed magnetic • Half-life d a radioisotope: is the time
Left Hand Rua. ~- neutrons)
~) electron radiation nuclei present in any given sample to decay.
Dnc:Uon-
I.~z:, ilji Charge +2 • Some nuclei are more stable than others.
Ato mic Physics •1 none
of Force ·n ~I n in half-life
I • Remember to factor background radiatio
Penetratlonjstopped by paperj Stopped by Only reduced curves
it ~I calculations involving tables and decay
1. The Atom aluminum by lead
• Effect froml Very
fields Deflected S.6, Safety Precautions
~)) ~· fi deflected Not deflected
Atoms consist of:
Ionizing
Nucleus: central part of atom made of protons Very strong contain er
:, -r - effect Weak Very weak • Radioactive material is stored In a lead
two types of
~ /c~ (positiv ely charge d) and neutron s. These • Picked up with tongs, not bare hands
bound togethe r Speed at people
~ particle s are called nucleons. They are }v of light j }v of light v of light • Kept away from the body and not pointed
by the strong nuclea r force. time as possible
• left out of its container for as short a
- ~
Direction
Electrons: almost mass-less particles which orbit
nucleus in shells
• Depending on their charge, they will be
electric and magnetic fields.
affected by

5,7, Rutherford's Experiment

of Cul'ffllt Experiment2
This is proved by Rutherford's Gold Foil
atom 5.4, Radioactive Decay particles, Which are
Proton runber: numbe r of protons in an ~ ~! t • Thin gold foil Is bombarded With alpha
s+ positively charged.
Nucleo n runber: the numbe r of nucleons (proton
neutrons) in an atom arrangement were repelle d so
• Radloacttve decay: A radioisotope (Unstable • Most passed straight through, but few
atoms a more stable deflected at
• The following is the nudde notatio n for of neutrons and protons) is altered to make strongly that they were bounced back or
arrangement. large angles.
~-A r nucleus and a be largely
-~: i - +
:::. z
X== r
• The parent nucleus becomes a daughte
particle (decay products).
• The nucleus changes when undergo
ing alpha or beta
Rutherford concluded that the atom must
empty space, with its positive charge and
concentrated in a tiny nucleus .
most of its mass

4-18. D.C. Moto r decay

• lsotnpe:
differe nt
~
• Atoms of the same elemen t that have
Carbon 14. Alpha decay:
numbe rs of neutron s e.g. Carbon 12 and -.
# ll j s and radio-
• There are non-radioactive isotope lower and nucleon
isotopes. • An elemen t with a proton number 2
made (2p + 2n) ~
which break down numbe r 4 lower, and an alpha particle is
• Radio isotope s are unstabl e atoms,
~ giving radiation
• Uses:
erapy) - rays
a magne tic field, • Medical use: cancer treatm ent (radioth
• When a current -carryin g coil is in kill cancer cells using cobalt- 60
experie nces a Wming effect

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