Netaji Subhash Engineering College

INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM DESIGN LAB

(PC -El 692)

Group 1

Name University Roll Class Roll

VISHAL GOUR 10905518002 01

TIGNANGSHU CHATTERJEE 10905518003 02

SUMAN CHATTERJEE 10905518004 03

SUHAN ROYCHOWDHURI 10905518005 04

SUDIP MANDAL 10905518006 05

SUCHAYAN DAS 10905518007 06

SUBHASISH PAL 10905518008 07

SUBHARANJAN DE 10905518009 08
 Experiment- 01

° AIM - Design of sensors for measurement of process parameters

(temperature sensor using thermistor)

° OBJECTIVE- To measure surrounding temperature.

(i) Theory
° (i.i) WHAT IS ARDUINO?

Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-to-

use hardware and software. Arduino boards are able to read inputs
- light on a sensor, a finger on a button, or a Twitter message - and
turn it into an output - activating a motor, turning on an LED,
publishing something online. You can tell your board what to do by
sending a set of instructions to the microcontroller on the board. To
do so you use the Arduino programming language (based on
Wiring), and the Arduino Software (IDE), based on Processing.

° (i.ii) BASIC TYPES OF TEMPERATURE MEASURING SENSORS

• THERMOCOUPLES- Thermocouples are voltage devices that

indicate temperature measurement with a change in voltage.
• Resistive Temperature Measuring Devices- Resistive temperature
measuring devices also are electrical. Rather than using a voltage as
the thermocouple does, they take advantage of another
characteristic of matter which changes with temperature - its
resistance.
• Infrared Sensors- Infrared sensors are non-contacting sensors.
• Thermometers- Thermometers are well-known liquid expansion
devices also used for temperature measurement.
• Bimetallic Devices- Bimetallic devices take advantage of the
expansion of metals when they are heated.
° (i.iii) Reason of choosing Thermistor above all of them

Thermistors are simple, inexpensive, and accurate components that

make it easy to get temperature data for your projects. Remote
weather stations, home automation systems, and equipment
control and protection circuits are some applications where
thermistors would be ideal. They’re analog sensors, so the code is
relatively simple compared to digital temperature sensors that
require special libraries and lots of code.

° (i.iv) HOW THERMISTORS WORK?

Thermistors are variable resistors that change their resistance with

temperature. They are classified by the way their resistance
responds to temperature changes. In Negative Temperature
Coefficient (NTC) thermistors, resistance decreases with an increase
in temperature. In Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC)
thermistors, resistance increases with an increase in temperature.

NTC thermistors are the most common, and that’s the type we’ll be
using in this tutorial. NTC thermistors are made from a
semiconducting material (such as a metal oxide or ceramic) that’s
been heated and compressed to form a temperature sensitive
conducting material.

The conducting material contains charge carriers that allow current

to flow through it. High temperatures cause the semiconducting
material to release more charge carriers. In NTC thermistors made
from ferric oxide, electrons are the charge carriers. In nickel oxide
NTC thermistors, the charge carriers are electron holes.
 (ii) Procedure
(ii.i) Since the thermistor is a variable resistor, we’ll need to
measure the resistance before we can calculate the temperature.
However, the Arduino can’t measure resistance directly, it can only
measure voltage.

The Arduino will measure the voltage at a point between the

thermistor and a known resistor. This is known as a voltage divider.
The equation for a voltage divider is:

In terms of the voltage divider in a thermistor circuit, the variables

in the equation above are:

This equation can be rearranged and simplified to solve for R2, the
resistance of the thermistor:

Finally, the Steinhart-Hart equation is used to convert the resistance

of the thermistor to a temperature reading.
 (iii) Circuit Diagram

(iii.i) Connect the thermistor and resistor to your Arduino like this:

The value of the resistor should be roughly equal to the resistance

of your thermistor. In this case, the resistance of my thermistor is
100K Ohms, so my resistor is also 100K Ohms.

The manufacturer of the thermistor might tell you it’s resistance,

but if not, you can use a multimeter to find out. If you don’t have a
multimeter, you can make an Ohm meter with your Arduino by
following our Arduino Ohm Meter tutorial. You only need to know
the magnitude of your thermistor. For example, if your thermistor
resistance is 34,000 Ohms, it is a 10K thermistor. If it’s 340,000
Ohms, it’s a 100K thermsitor.
 (iv) Codes

° (iv.i) CODE FOR SERIAL MONITOR OUTPUT OF TEMPERATURE READINGS

After connecting the circuit above, upload this code to your Arduino
to output the temperature readings to the serial monitor in
Fahrenheit:

int ThermistorPin = 0;
int Vo;
float R1 = 10000;
float logR2, R2, T;
float c1 = 1.009249522e-03, c2 = 2.378405444e-04, c3 = 2.019202697e-
07;

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
}

void loop() {

Vo = analogRead(ThermistorPin);
R2 = R1 * (1023.0 / (float)Vo - 1.0);
logR2 = log(R2);
T = (1.0 / (c1 + c2*logR2 + c3*logR2*logR2*logR2));
T = T - 273.15;
T = (T * 9.0)/ 5.0 + 32.0;

Serial.print("Temperature: ");
Serial.print(T);
Serial.println(" F");

delay(500);
}
° Serial Monitor Output
 (iv.ii) To display the temperature in degrees Celsius, just comment
out line 18 by inserting two forward slashes (“//”) at the beginning
of the line.

This program will display Celsius and Fahrenheit at the same time:

int ThermistorPin = 0;
int Vo;
float R1 = 10000;
float logR2, R2, T, Tc, Tf;
float c1 = 1.009249522e-03, c2 = 2.378405444e-04, c3 = 2.019202697e-07;

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
}

void loop() {

Vo = analogRead(ThermistorPin);
R2 = R1 * (1023.0 / (float)Vo - 1.0);
logR2 = log(R2);
T = (1.0 / (c1 + c2*logR2 + c3*logR2*logR2*logR2));
Tc = T - 273.15;
Tf = (Tc * 9.0)/ 5.0 + 32.0;

Serial.print("Temperature: ");
Serial.print(Tf);
Serial.print(" F; ");
Serial.print(Tc);
Serial.println(" C");

delay(500);
}
 ° (iv.iii) CODE FOR LCD OUTPUT OF TEMPERATURE READINGS

To output the temperature readings to a 16X2 LCD, follow our

tutorial, How to Set Up an LCD Display on an Arduino, then upload
this code to the board:

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>

int ThermistorPin = 0;
int Vo;
float R1 = 10000;
float logR2, R2, T;
float c1 = 1.009249522e-03, c2 = 2.378405444e-04, c3 = 2.019202697e-07;

LiquidCrystal lcd(12, 11, 5, 4, 3, 2);

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
}

void loop() {

Vo = analogRead(ThermistorPin);
R2 = R1 * (1023.0 / (float)Vo - 1.0);
logR2 = log(R2);
T = (1.0 / (c1 + c2*logR2 + c3*logR2*logR2*logR2));
T = T - 273.15;
T = (T * 9.0)/ 5.0 + 32.0;

lcd.print("Temp = ");
lcd.print(T);
lcd.print(" F");

delay(500);
lcd.clear();
}
° LCD Display Output
 (v) Different Applications of
Temperature Sensors

(v.i) These are used in electric motors for measuring the

motor winding temperature, internal housing
temperature, bearing temperature, brushes temperate
and external body temperature.

(v.ii) These are used in electric cables for measuring the

cable internal temperature and in this application, these
are used in the form of heat shrink tube or metal
housing.

(v.iii) These are used in mechanical engines for

measuring the engine oil temperature and engine
bearing temperature.

(v.iv) These are frequently used in humidity and air

control conditioning equipment.

(v.v) These are used in HVAC (heating ventilation and air

conditioning) system for controlling the temperature of
shopping malls building,etc.
 (vi) Conclusion

So,here we can conclude that thermistor is an easy and cheapest

component which can be used alongwith arduino to measure the
surrounding temperature changes.

Well,if the point of view is accuracy then RTD's can be used but as
our project is based on home applications so,thermistor is a much
safer option.

All necessary precautions have been undertaken and all

components have been worked under safe voltage.

(vii) Reference

We have learnt and gathered some basic information about this

experiment from the following websites:

(vii.i) https://www.wwdmag.com/water/7-basic-types-temperature-
measuring-sensors

(vii.ii) https://circuitdigest.com/electronic-circuits/heat-sensor

(vii.iii) https://youtu.be/-_XkGju35MI
 Experiment 04

AIM- DESIGN AN APPROPRIATE SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUIT

USING DIFFERENT SENSORS (PRESSURE SENSOR)

(i)Theory

(i.i) What is Strain Gauge?

A strain gauge is a passive transducer, that converts mechanical

displacement into the change of resistance. A strain gauge sensor is
a thin wafer-like device that can be attached to a variety of materials
to measure applied strain. These are used as a fundamental sensor
in many types of sensors like pressure sensors, load cells, torque
sensors etc.

(i.ii) Strain Gauge Working Principle

The foil type strain gauges (Figure #1) are very common in which a
resistive foil is mounted on a backing material. These are available
in a variety of shapes and sizes for different applications. The
resistance of the foil changes as the material to which the gauge is
attached undergoes tension or compression due to change in its
length and diameter.

This change in resistance is proportional to the applied strain. As

this change in resistance is very small in magnitude so its effect can
be only sensed by a Wheatstone bridge. This is the basic strain
gauge working principle.
A circuit diagram is shown in Figure #2. In this circuit diagram, a
strain gauge is connected into a Wheatstone bridge. This circuit is so
designed that when no force is applied to the strain gauge, R1 is
equal to R2 and the resistance of the strain gauge is equal to R3. In
this condition the Wheatstone bridge is balanced and the voltmeter
shows no deflection.

But when strain is applied to the strain gauge, the resistance of the
strain gauge sensor changes, the Wheatstone bridge becomes
unbalanced, a current flows through the voltmeter. Since the net
change in the resistance is proportional to the applied strain,
therefore, resultant current flow through the voltmeter is
proportional to the applied strain. So, the voltmeter can be
calibrated in terms of strain or force.

In the above circuit, we have used only one strain gauge. This is
known as ‘quarter bridge’ circuit. We can also use two strain gauges
or even four strain gauges in this circuit. Then this circuit is called
‘half bridge’ and ‘full bridge’ respectively. The full bridge circuit
provides greater sensitivity and least temperature variation errors.

(i.iii) Gauge Factor of Strain Gauge

The gauge factor of strain gauge is defined as the unit change in

resistance per unit change in length.

i.e. gauge factor Gf = (∆R/R)/( ∆l/l)

where, R = nominal gauge resistance,

∆R = change in resistance,
l = length of the specimen in an unstressed condition,
∆l = change in specimen length.
It can be proved mathematically,

Gauge factor, Gf = 1 + 2v + (∆ρ/ρ)/(∆L/L)

If the change in resistivity due to strain is almost negligible, then

gauge factor of strain gauge, Gf = 1 + 2v

Where, v is Poisson’s ratio. It may be defined as the ratio of strain in

the lateral direction to the strain in the axial direction. The Poisson’s
ratio for most metals lies in the range of 0 to 0.5 and this gives a
gauge factor of 2 approximately.

(i.iv) Introduction to Simple Signal Conditional Circuit

A simple signal conditioning circuit should allow the output of the

amplifier to be independent of the sensor used, providing
interchangeability and high level output at very low cost. A laser
trimmed resistor on the sensor's compensation board programs
the gain of an external amplifier to normalize the pressure
sensitivity variation.
 (ii) Circuit Diagrams

(ii.i) Strain Gauge Circuit Diagram

(ii.ii) Basic Signal Conditioning Circuit Diagram

 (iii) Circuit Details of Signal Conditioning
Circuit
The current source is controlled by the ±1% band-gap reference diode,
VR. The reference current IO is defined by:

I
O = (EO - eO)/R2 [1]
Where: E O - diode reference voltage: 1.235V ±1% (LT1034-1.2 or
LT1004-1.2)
eO - offset of amplifier A1 (~0)
R2 - current set resistor

Selecting amplifier A1 with an offset voltage below 1 mV and a ±1%

tolerance of resister R2 delivers current Io= 0.996 mA with typical
accuracy of ±1.4%.
The differential input stage of the instrumentation amplifier, A -A
has a gain of Gain=1+(R +R )/r.
The gain set resistor r is trimmed for R3=R4=100K and a differential
output voltage of 2V.

(iv) Zero Optional Adjust

If the optional zero adjustment is required, use OP227 amplifiers

instead of the LT1013 and add the zeroing potentiometer P1.

The zero range is typically ±4 mV referenced to the input with a

differential offset below 0.5 mV. This
leaves about a ±3.5 mV zeroing range for the compensation of the
sensor offset which is typically below ±1 mV.
 (v) Output
The output stage of the instrumentation amplifier provides
additional amplification R8/R5 and translates the differential
floating voltage from the first stage into a single ended output
voltage. The equation for the
overall output voltage is:
Vout = 2•A•R8 / R5 = 5.000V @ A = 1 [3]
A is the Ratio between the actual excitation current IO and the
specified current.

(vi) Accuracy & Callibration

The overall accuracy of the span is effected by the accuracy of
feedback resisters R through R . Using ±1% resistors such as
Mepco/Electra 5063Z, the typical gain error will be about ±0.24%. The
accuracy error may be decreased when matched thin film resisters are
used such as Beckman 694-3-A. The combined span error of the entire
signal conditioning circuit at a reference temperature will then typically
be about 1.1% without any adjustment or pressure testing. This will be
superimposed on the sensor's accuracy of ±1%.

(vii) Optional Span Callibration

If additional calibration and normalization is desired, resister R 2

can be replaced with a series combination of a potentiometer and a
resistor (Figure 1). The potentiometer can be adjusted to set the
bridge excitation current (I) to achieve the exact span voltage (S)
with full scale pressure applied to the sensor.
 (viii) Gain Error

If no pressure source is available, the gain error of the amplifier can be

reduced by using the procedure outlined below. This method may be
used instead of using the precision resistors discussed above for R2
through R8. The sensor span error of ±1% will remain, however.
Calibration procedure:

□ replace resistor r with an external resistor 7.50 K ± 0.1%

□ check gain K of the instrumentation amplifier and calculate the
gain ratio X (in reference to the idea
that gain KO = 69.028V/V), where X = K/ KO
□ set current IO = 0.996/X(mA) by adjusting the potentiometer, thus
completing calibration.

Assuming a 6.4 k (50°C) maximum bridge resistance, a 0.996 mA

bridge current and a 1.2V diode reference voltage, it follows that the
maximum output voltage of amplifier A1 can approach 7.4V. Also,
the positive saturation voltage at 1 mA out-put current for the
LTC1051 amplifier is 0.5V. Therefore, the minimum excitation
voltage which is a function of the current source and amplifiers
used would be 7.9V (7.4V + 0.5V) for the LTC1051. For the LT1490,
the minimum excitation voltage should be 7.6V. The maximum
excitation voltage
is limited by the voltage handling characteristics of the specific
amplifier used.
 (ix) Output Span S O Variation

Resistor r is laser trimmed for each unit using the following equation:

Where: Si
= sensor span value (V) at a reference excitation current (IO =0.996
mA).
r = resistance in (k)
RF=100K feedback resistor
Vamp=amplified output

The output span So at the differential output of amplifiers A3- A2

(see Figure 1) for any other feedback
resistor R in K is given by:

Where: A = I/ IO, ratio of excitation current I to reference current IO.

If 100 k feedback resistors are used, the expression for output span
is simplified to:
Sc = 2A [6]
 (x) Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)

(x.i) Schematic diagram of the AID conversion circuit. AID converter

outputs are tristate logic, allowing sampling of paralleled AID channels
without analog multiplexing

The output at Pin4 of the CD4001 is a crystal-controlled I-MHz3

square wave that provides clocking for both the ZN427 and the
7474 synchronizer circuit.
The 7404 provides increased drive capability for the clock pulse.
Consequently, a single clock circuit can provide clocking of up to four
additional AID converter modules.

The analog input-voltage range of the ZN427 is 0-2.5 V. Other input

ranges may be obtained by connecting a resistor network to Pin 6 of
the ZN427, as shown in the application notes provided in the ZN427
specification sheet. The input range of the circuit in Figure 5 is 0-10 V.
(Instructions for adjustment of the lO-kohm gain and l-megohm zero
potentiometers are given in the Calibration section.)
In operation, conversion is initiated by the SC pulse. The digital output
is valid when the end-of-conversion (EOC) output goes "high" (lO-
microsec worst-case,assuming a I-MHz clock; 9 microsec minimum).
Since the 8 digital-output bits of the ZN427 are three-state,these
outputs remain essentially as open circuits until the Output Enable (OE)
Pin 2 is brought to TTL "I."When OE is at TTL "1" (either under
computer control or by connecting EOC to OE), the result of the
conversion is available at the digital-output pins of the ZN427.The EOC
and the digital outputs remain latched untilreceipt of the succeeding SC
pulse.

(x.ii)Self-Test Module

Although optional, the self-test circuit shown in Figure 6 is very useful in

off-line testing and calibration of the amplifier and AID converter
circuitry and in online monitoring of AID output. The module consists of
two circuits, a square-wavegenerator and an LED digital- display circuit.
The LM555 integrated circuit is configured as an astable multivibrator
whose output at Pin 3 is a 100-Hz square wave. This portion of the self-
test module can be used in off-line operation to provide SC pulses to
the input of the synchronizer circuit (Figure 5). The digital-display circuit
permits continuous monitoring of the state of each of the 8 output bits of
the AID converter. Each of these 8 bits is connected to an input of one
of the 7404 inverters. The inverter outputs are each connected through
a 330-ohm series resistor to the negative lead of an LED. The positive
lead of each LED is tied to the 5-V source. When an output bit of the
AID converter is a logic "1," output of its corresponding inverter is a
logic "0," allowing the inverter to sink current and thereby illuminate its
LED. Conversely, a logic "0" at an AID output turns off the LED.
(x.iii)Power Supply

The power supplies for the strain-gauge signal processing circuitry

must meet stringent criteria for precision and stability. The use of the
powersupply configuration supplied by Fridlund and Fowler (1978) is
highly recommended. This design provides the ±IS V and +5 V
needed for proper operation of the strain-gauge circuitry. The +5-V
supply supplies power for the TTL gating the strain-gauge circuitry;
the ±15 V is supplied using a dual-tracking configuration, wherein the
negative rail "tracks" momentary fluctuations at the positive rail such
that symmetrical amplitudes are maintained. The tracking
configuration is essential for maintaining astable offset voltage in the
analog circuitry and consequent accuracy in AID conversion. The
power supply in Fridlund and Fowler (l978) provides precision and
zero-point stability to within I%and enables linear processing of
signals with amplitudes up to 10 V.

Schematic diagram of AID self-test circuit, which

allows both off-line calibration and on-line monitoring of ongo-
ing AID conversion using the integral LED display.
(x.iv) Calibration

Calibration of the strain-gauge amplifier and the AID

converter circuitry requires a sine-wave generator, an
oscilloscope, a digital voltmeter with I% accuracy, a
frequency counter, and a set of standard weights to be
used as force standards. With the strain-gauge cable
disconnected from the amplifier, a lO-kohm resistor is
attached across the inputs of the amplifier (pin 5 on Al and
A2, Figure 2). A 30-Hz I-V (peak-to-peak) sine wave
(referenced to ground) is applied to Pin 5 of AI. The 5-kohm
CMRR potentiometer is then adjusted for the minimal
voltage observed with the oscilloscope connected to the
output (Pin 10) of Amplifier A3. The lO-kohm resistor at the
instrumentation amplifier inputs is then removed, and the
strain-gauge output cable is restored. With zero force on
the transducer, the 10-kohm balance potentiometer (Figure
2) is adjusted for a null (.00 V de) output at Amplifier A3 Pin
10. Calibration of the 60-Hz notch filter is accomplished by
setting the sine-wave generator for a 60.0-Hz, I.O-V (peak-
to-peak) signal that is input to the 100-kohm resistor at Pin I
of the Stage I AFlOO-1CJ (Figure 3). The 20-kohm
potentiometer is then adjusted for minimal output on an
oscilloscope connected at AF I00-1CJ Pin I!.
(x.v) Graph

Transfer function of a pressure sensor.

 (xi) Conclusion

So we can conclude that signal conditioning circuit works perfectly

fine with strain gauge and we get the required voltage output .We
use the A/D convertor to convert the sensor output of the pressure
sensor into voltage output.

Many others sensors can be used alongwith signal conditioning

circuit like RTD, thermistor etc but pressure sensor gives us much
accurate output alongwith with speed and efficiency.

All components have been used with utmost care and being worked
under safe voltage permissible

(xii) Reference

We have learnt and gathered some basic information about this

experiment from the following websites:

(xii.i) https://www.maximintegrated.com/en/design/technical-
documents/app-notes/7/7130.html

(xii.ii) https://www.yourelectricalguide.com/2019/06/strain-gauge-
working-principle-load-cell-rosettes-applications.html
 Experiment No.-03

Aim- Estimate the time to empty the tank for the level control
system(Gravity flow)

Objective- To estimate the time to empty the tank for the level
control system(Gravity flow)

(i) Theory
(i.i) Control System
Definition: A combination of various elements connected as a unit
to direct or regulate itself or any other system in order to provide a
specific output is known as a Control system. We know controlling is
basically known as the act of regulating or directing.

So control system is used to direct the functioning of a physical

system to carry out the desired objective.

For example, from a television system, refrigerator, air conditioner

etc.

(i.ii) Need for a Control System

Control systems are considered as one of the major aspects of our
growing technology. Every sector of the industry is linked with the
control system in some or the other way.

Like in space technology, power system, transportation system,

robotics, machine tool controlling etc., everything needs controlling.
So these are basically control systems.
It is noteworthy here that the input and output of a control system
must have appropriate mathematical relationship between them.
When there exists linear proportionality between input and output
of the system then it is known as a linear control system, otherwise
a non-linear system.
(i.iii) Components of a Control System
Majorly the control system is divided into two major domains: 1.
Controlled process: The part of the system which requires
controlling is known as a controlled process or plant. 2. Controller:
The internal or external element of the system that controls the
process is known as the controller.

Further, some other aspects are as follows:

Input: For every system to provide a specific result, some excitation
signal must be provided. This signal is usually given through an
external source. So, the externally provided signal for the desired
operation is known as input.
Output: The overall response of the system achieved after
application of the input is known as output.
Disturbances: Sometimes even on providing required input, the
system fails to generate the desired output. So the signal that
causes variation in the desired output is known as disturbances.
Now, disturbances can be of two types depending on its origin. If
the disturbance is generated from the system itself then it is known
as internal disturbances. While if the disturbance is generated from
somewhere outside the system and unknowingly acting as another
input to the system causing an adverse effect on the output. Then it
is known as external disturbances.

(i.iv) Types of Control System

These are majorly classified on the basis of whether the output is
involved in controlling action or not.

1. Open Loop Control System

In the open-loop system, the applied input or the controlling factor
is independent of the system output. Open-loop control system is
sometimes termed as a non-feedback system. This is so because no
comparison is done between input and output of the system for
controlling actions. The figure below represents the block diagram
of the open-loop system:
Example: Immersion rod

An immersion rod is used for heating of water. When the input is

provided i.e., the external supply is given then the rod starts heating
the water. But there is no way provided by which the rod can sense
the required level of heating i.e., feedback is not present.
Thus it is an example of an open-loop control system.

2. Closed-Loop Control System

In a closed-loop system, the applied input or controlling factor
depends on the output of the system. It is also known as feedback
control system because in such systems comparison between input
and achieved output is done to get the desired output signal.

Let us have a look at the block diagram of the closed-loop system:

Example: Air conditioners

Air conditioners are used for regulating the temperature of a room.
So these control systems make use of thermostats as a feedback
unit.
The actual temperature of the room is first measured and
accordingly the temperature is adjusted to get the desired value of
room temperature. Features
•Sensitivity: Sensitivity is the ability to show instant variation in
output whenever there exists any change in input. There are
external parameters like temperature change or other atmospheric
conditions that hinder the actual performance of the system. So a
control system must be sensitive only to the actually applied input
and not to other external parameters.
•Stability: The system must be stable while providing the output
without showing fluctuation with time.
•Bandwidth: The permissible frequency range of the system
specifies its bandwidth. And so to have a good frequency response
the system must possess high bandwidth.
•Noise: Unwanted signals that hinders the performance of the
system adversely is known as noise. A good control system must
show the least susceptibility towards the noise.
•Accuracy: The system must produce accurate output, so as to have
least chances of error in the achieved output value.
•Speed: Speed defines the processing time of the system within
which the specified output is achieved. So the speed of the system
must be high enough to deliver the output timely.

This is all about the basic introduction of the control system.

(i.v) Liquid Level Control System

Liquid Level Control System is a system specifically designed to
control the level of fluid in tanks. The main aim possessed by these
systems is to control the rate with which the pump delivers fluid to
the tank and so it can reach the desired level inside the tank.

The purpose of the liquid level system is to maintain a specific level

of fluid inside the tank. The liquid level control systems find major
applications in industrial processes.
(i.vi) Working of Liquid Level Systems
The crucial components of the water level control system are as
follows:

Fluid tank: Also known as a storage tank, used to hold the desired
amount of fluid.
Measurement system: Senses the level of the fluid inside the tank.
Controller: The controller is used to maintain the desired level by
starting and stopping the pump when gets information by the
measurement system.
Gravity Flow: The water from the tank is allowed to flow by gravity.
GPM/GPH Flow based on PVC Pipe Size
(i.viii) Coefficient of Discharge
Coefficient of discharge is stated as the ratio between the actual
flow discharge and theoretical flow discharge. It is also referred to
as the ratio of mass flow rate at nozzle's discharge edge to the
standard nozzle which enlarges an exact working fluid maintained
at the similar initial conditions and pressures.
It has no dimensions and depends directly on the rate of flow and
velocity of working fluid. It is symbolized by Cd and its value is
different for each fluid depending on the kind of measurement of
flow. In nozzle flow measurement, the efficiency of Cd is higher
when compared to the flow measurement at the orifice. The
discharge coefficient is raised by increasing the overall pressure
ratio and reducing the convergence semi angle. Also, the range of
Cd is commonly superior in supercritical series.
Express the relation of discharge coefficient

(i.ix) Properties of coefficient of discharge

It is a non-dimensional quantity which differs directly as the flow of
discharge.
The value of Cd is high in nozzle measurement of flow, whereas its
value is small in orifice measurement of flow.
It can be increased by lowering the convergent angle in flow
measurement. It can also be increased when the pressure of
working fluid is enhanced.
Write the Cd value for the following flow measuring equipment as in
Table (1).
Total Time required to empty the Tank

Cd = 0.81

(ii) Procedure

Total Time Estimate the total actual time required to empty the tank
by selecting

•Tank Radius
•Tank Height
•Pipe diameter
The total time taken to empty the tank is then scaled to desired
time as mentioned by deciding a suitable factor toempty the Tank.
 (iii) Simulation

Readings

(iii.i)

(iii.ii)
Graphs

(iii.iii)

(iii.iv)
 (iv) Conclusion

After seeing the graphs and the outputs we can conclude that:

On increasing the pipe diameter and keeping the radius and

height of the tank constant ,we see that the time taken
decreases.
On increasing the radius of the tank and keeping the height and
the pipe diameter constant ,we see that the time taken
increases.
On increasing the height of the tank and keeping the pipe
diameter and radius of the tank constant ,we see that the time
taken increases again.
On decreasing the height and the radius of the tank and keeping
the pipe diameter constant ,we see that the time taken also
decreases .

All observations and outputs have been thoroughly checked and the
experiment was done with accuracy and knowing the complications
of real world .

(v) Reference

https://flexpvc.com/Reference/WaterFlowBasedOnPipeSize.shtml
 Experiment no.-04

Aim- Design an alarm annunciator for flow control system

Objective- To design an alarm annunciator for flow control system

(i)Theory
In process industry the information about the event which may lead
to a catastrophic situation need to be acknowledged with utmost
care. The alarm annunciator is such a component which will inform
operator using audio and visual indication. As we all are aware that
the process plants are divided into two major areas viz. plant area
and control room area. Generally control rooms are always away
from the plant for safety reasons. The operators who are operating
the plant are remotely operating the plant seating in the control
room. It will not be always possible for the operator to monitor the
process parameters continuously. In case, due to malfunction of
regulatory controller or any process component, the operator has
to take control of the plant and drive it smoothly to the safe region.
The main hurdle in this crucial task is to indicate the occurrence of
the event to the operator in shortest possible time. It is also true
that the attention of the operator needs to be drawn to the console
in such a situation. This task can be accomplished by two ways, by
flashing a window or switching on the hooter.

The ISA (International Society for Automation) standardized the

sequence of operation to attain the uniformity in handling safety
issues across the globe. The ISA published the standard for
annunciator ISA-18.1-1979 (R2004) Formerly ISA-18.1-1979 (R1992).
The standard clearly defines in which situation which sequence f
event to take place.
(i.i) What is Alarm - Annunciator ?
It is basically an audio visual warning system, which highlights the
fault or mishap which is going on, or even before it happens.
This is very necessary for safety concern also, and sometimes the
warning comes before improper procedure which warns the operator to
avoid unwanted accident etc. This is the basic concept of Alarm
Annunciator, and the alarm annunciation system.

(i.ii) Operation of Alarm Annunciator

In order to understand the fundamental operation and connections
of alarm. Annunciator, we have to understand the basic concept of
alarming system in process monitoring. Process alarm switches may
be used to trigger a special type of indicator device known as an
annunciator. An annunciator is an array of indicator lights and
associated circuitry designed to secure a human operator’s
attention by blinking and sounding an audible buzzer when a
process changes into an abnormal state. The alarm state may be
then “acknowledged” by an operator pushing a button, causing the
alarm light to remain on (solid) rather than blink, and silencing the
buzzer. The indicator light does not turn off until the actual alarm
condition (the process alarm) has returned to its regular state.The
two pushbutton switches below labelled “Test” and “Acknowledge.”
Pressing the “Acknowledge” button will silence the audible buzzer
and also turn any blinking alarm light into a steady (solid) alarm light
until the alarm condition clears, at which time the light turns off
completely. Pressing the "Test" button turns all alarm lights on, to
ensure all light bulbs are still functional.
The operator takes corrective action, and he/she removes the event
which caused fault and presses RESET button, closing the window
which was glowing. This takes the alarm to come to its base location,
and ready for next event. The other sequences are also notified by ISA
and which can be referred to by the users. There are two types of
contacts which are most commonly used viz.

• Make to alarm (Normally open)

• Break to alarm (Normally closed)

It is a centralized model, which gives audio visual signals for the

faulty processes. Latest models of annunciators are based upon
microprocessor or microcontroller circuitry, which ensures the
maximum reliability as well as enhanced wide ranges of features
and functionalities.Thiis is the basic and easiest model of process
monitoring. Alarm Annunciator is a centralized model, which gives
audio visual signals for the faulty processes. Latest models of
annunciators are based upon microprocessor or microcontroller
circuitry, which ensures the maximum reliability as well as
enhanced wide ranges of features and functionalities.
 (ii)Procedure

Instructions to run the simulator

1)Select Application.
2)Select number of alarms, Alarm type, ISA Sequence and Min-Max
limit to check the alarms. Then click "Next".
3)In Next step select require symbols from Symbol Library to make
the connection wiring diagram for the alarm annunciator. And click
"Check Connection".
4)Once the connection is done, click "Next Level".
5)In this level, first make sure your system sound is not muted / very
low for alarm. Then check functionality of all windows and
acknowledge it using "Test" and "ACK" button.
6)Select the input from given slider to run the plant and click
"submit". 7)If any alarm is generated then click "ACK" button to
acknowledge it. (If ISA Sequence is 2A then click "Reset" button.).
8)To check functionality of all alarms, please select different input
values from slider and click "Take Action" to create abnormal and
normal conditions for alarm.
9)Check abnormal and normal condition for each alarm you
selected, and then click "Shutdown Plant" to stop the experiment.
Note : You have 3 attempts to shutdown the plant without checking
all alarms
(iii)Block Diagram

Fig 3

(iv) Circuit Diagram

Fig 4
 (v) Simulation

(v.i) First Case

When the level is 50%

The first case is suggesting that the system is completely healthy

and to keep it normally functional we have to keep the label in
between 20% and 80%.
The LSL term signifies level switch(LOW) and the term LSH term
signifies level switch (HIGH).The FT is the flow transmitter and FCV
100 is the control valve which control the outlet flow in the system
with the help of flow controller FY 200 .At this condition we are
seeing that the water level is 50%(i.e. 20%<50%<80%),so both the
alarms are not ringing .The input for inlet source is 100% and the
input for user demand is 0%.
(v.ii)Second Case

When the level is >80%In the second case, we are seeing that in this
situation the tank is completely filled with water. The value of one
process variable has crossed the set point (value>80% of LSH).So
the alarm will ring and the led will be flashed. Now, we have to use
the acknowledge button and have to take required action to set the
process plant in normal state. At this point the input for user
demand is 0% and the inlet for input source is 90%.Now we have to
use the acknowledge button and have to take required action to set
the process plant in its normal state

(v.iii) Third Case

When the water level is below 20%

In this case we found that the level has decrease below the set point
20% and the controlled variable has reached to a height of 10%.
Then the flow rate is sensed by the flow element and the LSL (level
switch low) alarm rings. So now we have to use acknowledge button
and have to take required action to set the process plant in its
normal state.
 (vi) Conclusion

Large scale users of instruments for measurement and control can

benefit from carrying out instrument evaluations before purchasing
instruments which may be chosen to operate in safety critical
applications. Such evaluations can be expensive if carried out on an
individual basis. Evaluation International offers its members
collaborative, independent evaluations. EI provides a cost effective
solution where the annual cost of membership is only about 50% of
the cost of a single instrument evaluation

(vii) Reference

•R. W. Miller, “Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook”, 3 rd

(third) Edition published by 13 McGraw-Hill Professional (1996)

•Bela G Liptak, “Instrument Engineers Handbook: Process Control”,

Chilton, Third ed., 1995

•https://plchla-coep.vlabs.ac.in/exp/annunciator-flow-
control/references.html
 Experiment number- 05

Aim- Electronic system deploying micro controllers

Objective- Automated hinge operation of the door with the help of

pir sensor

(i)Theory

Automatic Door Opening System is a simple automated system,

where the door is automatically opened up on detecting a person
and automatically closes after some time.

Opening and closing of doors have been always a tedious and

boring job, especially in places where a person is always required to
open the door for visitors such as hotels, shopping malls, theaters,
etc.

Automatic door opening systems are used in many places like

shopping malls, bur or railway stations, airports, etc. to eliminate
manual control of opening and closing the doors.

Automatic door opening systems can be implemented using

different sensors like Infrared, pressure, ultrasonic, laser etc. This
project deals with an interesting manner of automating the process
of opening and closing the door by detecting the presence of a
human.
Fig 1
(ii)Principle of Automatic Door Opening System

The principle of the project lies in the functioning of the PIR Sensor.
A PIR or Passive Infra-red Sensor, as the name indicates, doesn’t
emit infrared rays but only detects them.

All humans emit infrared radiations in the form of body heat. A PIR
Sensor will capture the difference between the room temperature
and body temperature in the form of change in infrared radiation.

This change in infrared pattern is converted to a voltage. The

voltage from the Data Out of the PIR Sensor can be given to a
microcontroller for further processing like controlling a motor etc.

(iii)Circuit Design
(iii.i)Components

•AT89C51 Microcontroller
•AT89C51 Programmer Board
•11.0592 MHz Quartz Crystal
•2 x 22pF Ceramic Capacitor
•2 x 10KΩ Resistor
•10µF Electrolytic Capacitor
•Push Button
•16 x 2 LCD Display
•3 x 1KΩ Resistor
•10KΩ POT
•Passive Infrared Sensor (PIR Sensor)
•L293D Motor Driver
•Motor
•Connecting Wires

(iii.ii)Component Description
°PIR Sensor

•PIR( Passive Infra-Red) Sensor is a pyroelectric device.

•Generally, a human body emits heat in the form of infrared energy.

A PIR sensor detects the motion by checking for the sudden
changes in the surrounding infrared pattern.
PIR Pin Configuration
•The PIR sensor has a 3-pin connection.

•Pin 1 is the Vcc pin. It must be connected to 5V supply.

•Pin 2 is the Data Out pin.

•Pin 3 is the Ground pin. It must be connected to ground.

•The range of this sensor is 30 feet. It can be reduced to 15 feet

using a jumper.

The output of a PIR sensor is a digital output. So interfacing a PIR

with microcontroller is very easy and simple as all you need to do is
to check for the pin to go high or low.

For proper operation, the PIR sensor must be given a warm up time
of 20 to 60 seconds. During this time, the PIR sensor calibrates itself
.If the sensor is not given enough calibrating time, the output of the
PIR sensor may be erroneous.
°L293D Motor Driver

The motor driver used in the project is L293D. It is a dual H-bridge

motor driver integrated circuit (IC).

Motor drivers act as current amplifiers since they take a low current
control signal and provide a higher current signal which drives the
motors.

It can drive two motors simultaneously in its common mode, both

in forward and reverse direction. L293D Motor Drive is available in
16-pin Dual in-line Package.
The main components of the project are 8051 Microcontroller, 16x2
LCD Display, PIR Sensor, L293D Motor Driver and a motor.

First we’ll see the connections of microcontroller. A reset switch is

needed to reset the microcontroller. The reset switch is generally
associated with a 10K Resistor and a 10uF capacitor. The
connections are mentioned in the circuit diagram. An 11.0592 MHz
crystal along with two 22pF Capacitors will form the external
oscillator circuit for the microcontroller. The EA pin must be
connected to Vcc using a 10K Resistor.
The 16 x 2 LCD is used to display the status and other messages.
The connections of the LCD are mentioned in the circuit diagram. A
10K POT is connected to Pin 3 of the LCD to adjust the contrast. The
RS, RW and E pins of the LCD must be connected to PORT 0 pins i.e.
P0.0 to P0.2. But before that, the PORT 0 pins must be pulled high
using 1K resistors. The data pins of the LCD i.e. D0 to D7 are
connected to PORT 2 of the microcontroller. The PIR Sensor has
only one data out pin. It must be connected to P3.0 of the
microcontroller. The other two pins are power supply pins.
The next component is the motor driver. Connect the two input pins
i.e. IN1 and IN2 (Pins 2 and 7) to P3.6 and P3.7 of the
microcontroller. Also the Enable 1 (EN1 – Pin1) is connected to Vcc
to enable the driver channel 1. A motor is connected to OUT1 and
OUT2 (Pins 3 and 6) of the motor driver.
 (iv)Working Principle
The aim of this project is to design an Automatic Door Opening
system using 8051 microcontroller, in which the door is
automatically opened and closed by detecting the movement of a
person. Before going to the working of the project, let us see the
basic requirements of the project.

•When a person approaches the door through the doorway, the

system must detect the person and open the door automatically.
•The door should stay open as long as the doorway is not clear i.e.
as long as the system detects a person.
•Once the doorway is cleared, the system must close the door
automatically and wait for the next person.
Considering the above requirements, the working of the project is
explained here. Once we turn on the circuit, the microcontroller will
initialise the PIR sensor with a settling time of 20 seconds for the
sensor to calibrate the surroundings. During this time, the LCD will
display the message as Loading.

Once the setup is done, the PIR sensor is now ready to detect the
human movement within its range. At this time, the microcontroller
will display the message as Scanning on the LCD display. If there is
any human movement in front of the PIR Sensor, it will detect the
movement and indicate the microcontroller by making the data out
pin Logic HIGH.

Now, the microcontroller will open the door by initialising the motor
driver. A welcome message is displayed on the LCD. The door
remains open as long as the data out from the PIR Sensor is high.

When there is no human movement, the data out of the PIR Sensor
becomes LOW. Once the data out is LOW, after a small delay, the
door is automatically closed and comes back to initial position.
 (v)Code
#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
LiquidCrystal lcd(13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8);

#define PIR_sensor 14
#define m11 0
#define m12 1

void setup()
{
lcd.begin(16, 2);
pinMode(m11, OUTPUT);
pinMode(m12, OUTPUT);
pinMode(PIR_sensor, INPUT);
lcd.print(" Automatic ");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print(" Door Opener ");
delay(3000);
lcd.clear();
lcd.print("CIRCUIT DEGEST ");
delay(2000);
}

void loop()
{
if(digitalRead(PIR_sensor))
{
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("Movement Detected");
lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
lcd.print(" Gate Opened ");
digitalWrite(m11, HIGH); // gate opening
digitalWrite(m12, LOW);
delay(1000);
 digitalWrite(m11, LOW); // gate stop for a while
digitalWrite(m12, LOW);
delay(1000);
lcd.clear();
lcd.print(" Gate Closed ");
digitalWrite(m11, LOW); // gate closing
digitalWrite(m12, HIGH);
delay(1000);
digitalWrite(m11, LOW); // gate closed
digitalWrite(m12, LOW);
delay(1000);
}

else
{
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print(" No Movement ");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print(" Gate Closed ");
digitalWrite(m11, LOW);
digitalWrite(m12, LOW);
}
}
 (vi) Applications
•Automatic Door Opening System can be implemented where the
door is automatically opened and closed without any manual
control.

•Since the door is opened only when a person is detected and

remains close all other times, it can save a lot of energy in the form
air conditioning.

•An automatic door system with sliding doors can be useful for aged
and disabled.

•Can be implemented with additional features like face detection to

track the trajectory in security applications.

(vii) Advantages and Disadvantages

•ADVANTAGE:

1) The automatic gates donot need any physical effort to open or

close.
2) Automatic gates are used durable, strong and can be available in
customized
3) It is very convenient to enter and leave the automatic gates.
4) Low cost.
5) Easy to use.
6) Power consumption is less.

•DISADVANTAGES:

1) Power failure causes inconvenience.

2) Cannot used for security purposes.
 (viii) Conclusion

This project is a simple design of automatic door opening system

where PIR sensor serves the main input function and here arduino
uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328p. We have
considered two feedbacks to this architecture that when we
implement an effective system then there can be a display unit for
showing number of persons entered in a particular room along with
this system we can use face-detection through camera for
automated attendance system.

Thus, we can conclude that this is a simple and low cost architecture
of automatic door opening system but having lots of benefits such
as we can conserve energy, reduces human efforts, saves time etc.

(ix) Reference

https://circuitdigest.com/microcontroller-projects/automatic-
door-opener-project-using-arduino
 Experiment number-06
Aim- Electronic circuit design with pcb layout using suitable software.

Objective- To design a fridge door alarm using PCB layout.

(i) Theory
A fridge door open alarm circuit is explained with its detailed
working and circuit. The objective of this circuit is to produce an
audible alarm when the fridge is left open for more than a preset
time. This versatile door alarm is made possible with the use of two
555 timer IC’s.

Both the 555 ICs are wired as Astable Multivibrators. A Light

Dependent Resistor (LDR) is used as the light sensor for this circuit.
It is basically a light-sensitive device that works on the principle of
photo-conductivity. An LDR is made of semiconductors with high
resistance. When light falls on the device, the output of the LDR
varies, and this output can be used to buzz an alarm for the door
open circuit. It is connected in parallel to the timing capacitor C1 of
555 timers, IC1. In the door alarm circuit below, R2 represents the
LDR. When the door is completely closed there will be no light
inside the fridge and thus the LDR offers high resistance and keeps
the resistor R1 fully charged. When the door is left open, the lamp
inside the fridge will keep glowing, and thus LDR will be illuminated,
and its resistance falls. This makes the capacitor C1 to stop charging
and starts to discharge. In simple words, this is because at low
resistance LDR bypasses much of the current in the parallel path
and capacitor gets less current. Now IC 1 starts slightly oscillating
and after a preset time of 25 (time T1) seconds, its output goes high.
This output makes the 555 timer IC2 to produce oscillations and
results in a beeping sound for the next 20 (time T2) seconds and
this cycle is repeated until the door is closed.
IC 555 TIMER
Key components of the circuit

LDR(light dependent resistor)

(ii) Circuit Design

(ii.i) Circuit Components

(ii.ii) Circuit Diagram

(ii.iii) Circuit Operation

The operation of this circuit is based on the simultaneous

communication between two NE555 IC’s. IC1 evaluates &
corresponds with the input of the LDR while IC2 uses the output
sent from IC1 to regulate the buzzer as per the position of the fridge
door.

(iii) Working Explanation

When the fridge door is closed, the resistance of the LDR is almost
1MὨ. The output voltage of the potential divider appears across the
capacitor and it remains in charged condition (Voltage greater than
2/3Vcc) making the output LOW. When the Fridge door is open, the
light falls over LDR which lowers down the resistance of LDR and
causes the capacitor to discharge. After this (Voltage lower than
2/3Vcc), the output starts to oscillate at a certain frequency and
output is HIGH. Again, the capacitor charges and reaches a
threshold continued by the discharge of the capacitor. This
continues till the LDR resistance goes high which happens in the
absence of light. Now, the second NE555 timer IC starts to oscillate
and the output switches between HIGH & LOW causing the
connected buzzer & LED to beep & blink in a fluctuating pattern
respectively, which is combinational because of the oscillations of
the first timer and the second timer internal oscillation. During the
HIGH condition of the first timer output, the second timer RESET will
trigger. Thus, the capacitor C2 charges (Voltage higher than 2/3Vcc)
and output go LOW. In a short time span the capacitor starts to
discharge (Voltage lower than 2/3Vcc) causes the output HIGH.
Hence, the buzzer connected to output generates a beeping sound.
 (iv) Applications
Commonly used in appliances such as refrigerators, Temperature
Controlled Freezers & beverage coolers to ensure that the appliance
is not left open for too long by accident.

(v) Conclusion
So we can conclude that the application is much useful for
refrigerators and other cooling devices being used to save electricity
.All the instruments have been worked under safe voltage and
current which proper care and precautions.

(vi) Reference
https://www.google.com/amp/s/circuits-diy.com/amp/how-to-make-
fridge-door-alarm-circuit-using-555-timer-ic/