A7 The mole concept

Chemistry often involves determining the amount of a

Objectives

substance required to produce a product. For example,

By the end of this topic you will

be able to:

how much ammonia and nitric acid are required to

● dene the terms relative atomic

produce 1 kg of the fertiliser ammonium nitrate? The

mass, relative molecular mass

mass of an atom is so small that chemists have had

and relative formula mass

● calculate relative molecular and

to devise another method of measuring the amount of

formula masses

substances; this method uses the mole.

● dene the terms mole and

molar mass

● give Avogadro’s constant

A7.1 The mole and mass

● perform calculations involving

moles, masses and number of

Relative atomic, molecular and formula masses

particles.

Yo u lear nt in Unit 3. 3 t ha t be cause t he ma ss of atoms is ex t remely s mal l,

scientists use a m uc h s malle r unit t han a g ram to compare t h eir mas s es ,

known as relative atomic m a ss . They designed a s y st e m wh ic h c ompares

t he mass of an ato m wit h on e -t we lf t h t he ma ss of a carbo n - 12 a tom.

A carbon-12 atom wa s assign e d a mass of 12.0 0 a tomic mass un i ts or

amu, t herefore, on e -t welf t h t he mass of a carb o n - 12 a tom has a ma s s of

1.0 0 amu.

Relative atomic mass, t herefore, compares t he mass of an atom of an

element to one-twe lf t h t he ma ss of a carbo n - 12 a tom. B ec au se it is a

compara tive valu e , re la tive a to mic mass has no units. Relative a to mic

mass is given t he s y mb ol A
r

Key fact

n t he denition of relative atomic mass given in t he Key fact box, we use t he

!

word ‘average’ because relative atomic mass takes into account t he relative
Relative atomic mass, A , is the
r

abundance of each isotope. The relative atomic mass of an element, to t he

average mass of one atom of an

nearest whole number, can be found in t he periodic table on page 360. For
element compared to one-twelfth

example, t he relative atomic mass of calcium is 40 and of uorine is 19. the mass of an atom of carbon-12.

When calculating t he masses of covalent and ionic compounds we use t he

same logic by comparing t heir masses to t he carbon-12 atom.

Key fact

Molecular elements and compounds formed by covalent bonding are

Relative molecular mass, M , is

r

composed of molecules. We use t he term relative molecular mass to

the average mass of one molecule

compare t he mass of a molecule of a molecular element or compound wit h

of an element or compound

one-twelf t h t he mass of a carbon-12 atom. Relative molecular mass is given

compared to one-twelfth the mass

t he symbol M
r
of an atom of carbon-12.

Compounds formed by ionic bonding are represented by formula units. We

use t he term relative formula mass to compare t he mass of a formula unit of

Key fact
an ionic compound wit h one-twelf t h t he mass of a carbon-12 atom.
!

Relative formula mass is the

To determine t he relative molecular mass or relative formula mass, we

average mass of one formula unit

add toget her t he relative atomic masses of all t he elements present in t he

of a compound compared to one-

compound. Since relative molecular and formula masses are comparative

twelfth the mass of an atom of

values, t hey have no units.

carbon-12.

101
The mole concept The mole and mass

Moles, mass and number of particles

We can now combine our calculation of moles and mass, and moles and

number of par ticles.

Examples

1 Calculate t he number of molecules in 1.8 g of water, H O.

2

M(H O)  (2  1)  16  18 g mol
2

i.e. mass of 1 mol H O  18 g

2

1.8
___

∴ number of moles in 1.8 g  mol  0.1 mol

18

23

1 mol H O contains 6.0  10 molecules

2

23

∴ 0.1 mol H O contains 0.1  6.0  10 molecules

2

22

 6.0  10 molecules

23

2 Calculate t he mass of 1.5  10 molecules of hydrogen chloride, HCl.

23

1 mol HCl contains 6.0  10 molecules

23

1.5  10
23 __________

∴ number of moles in 1.5  10 molecules  mol  0.25 mol

23

6.0  10

M(HCl)  1  35.5  36.5 g mol

i.e. mass of 1 mol HCl  36.5 g

∴ mass of 0.25 mol HCl  0.25  36.5 g  9.13 g

3

3 Calculate t he number of aluminium ions, Al , in 40.8 g of aluminium

oxide, Al O
2 3

M(Al O )  (2  27)  (3  16)  102 g mol

2 3

i.e. mass of 1 mol Al O  102 g

2 3

40.8
_____

∴ number of moles in 40.8 g  mol  0.4 mol

102

3

1 mol Al O contains 2 mol Al ions.

2 3

3

∴ 0.4 mol Al O contains 0.4  2 mol Al ions

2 3

3

 0.8 mol Al ions

3 23

1 mol Al ions contains 6.0  10 ions

3 23

∴ 0.8 mol Al ions contains 0.8  6.0  10 ions

23

 4.8  10 ions

Summary questions

1 Calculate the mass of:

a 0.25 mol of sodium sulfate, Na SO b 1.2 mol of glucose, C H O

2 4 6 12 6

2 Calculate the number of moles in:

a 20 g of neon b 63.0 g of magnesium carbonate.

3 Calculate the number of molecules in 1.5 mol of hydrogen chloride, HCl.

23

4 Calculate the mass of 2.5  10 formula units of calcium phosphate,

Ca (PO )
3 4 2.

5 Calculate the number of molecules in 34 g of ammonia, NH

3

6 Calculate the number of chloride ions in 6.8 g of zinc chloride, ZnCl

2

105
 The mole and mass The mole concept

2 Calculate t he mass of 0.2 mol of sulfuric acid, H SO

2 4

Exam tip
✔
First calculate t he molar mass of H SO
2 4

When performing calculations

1

M(H SO )  (2  1)  32  (4  16)  98 g mol

2 4

in chemistry, including those

involving the mole, it is essential i.e. mass of 1 mol H SO  98 g

2 4

that you show each step of your

∴ mass of 0.2 mol of H SO  0.2  98 g  19.6 g

2 4

working clearly by making a clear

statement. You must not just put

down a set of numbers without

Moles and number of particles

stating what you are calculating.

23

The number of par ticles in one mole is always 6.0  10 . Using t his fact we

can calculate t he number of par ticles in any number of moles. Remember

t hat t he type of par ticle in a substance depends on t he type of bonding in

t he substance.

● f a substance is an element, e.g. metals and t he noble gases, t hen t he

par ticles are individual atoms

● f a substance is a molecular element, e.g. oxygen, or a covalent

compound, e.g. water, t hen t he par ticles are molecules made up

of atoms

● f a substance is an ionic compound, e.g. sodium chloride, t hen t he

par ticles are formula units made up of ions.

Examples

1 Calculate t he number of atoms in 0.5 mole of copper, Cu.

23

1 mol Cu contains 6.0  10 atoms.

23 23

∴ 0.5 mol Cu contains 0.5  6.0  10 atoms  3.0  10 atoms

2 Calculate t he number of moles of carbon dioxide, CO , t hat contain

2

23

2.0  10 carbon dioxide molecules.

23

1 mol CO contains 6.0  10 molecules.

2

23

2.0  10
23 __________

∴ number of moles in 2.0  10 molecules  mol

23

6.0  10

 0.33 mol

We can extend our calculations of moles and par ticles to look at t he

number of moles or par ticles inside a compound. For example:

● 1 mol of water, H O, consists of: 1 mol of H O molecules, or 2 mol of

2 2

H atoms and 1 mol of O atoms

● 2 mol of potassium carbonate, K CO consists of: 2 mol of K CO

2 3 2 3

 2

formula units, or 4 mol of K ions and 2 mol of CO ions.

3

Exam tip
✔

Example

It is essential that you place the

Calculate t he number of hydrogen atoms in 1.5 mol of met hane, CH

correct unit after each value given 4

in your calculations, especially your

1 mol CH contains 4 mol H atoms.

4

final answers. The only values that

have no units are relative atomic, ∴ 1.5 mol CH contains 1.5  4 mol H atoms  6 mol H atoms
4

molecular and formula masses.

23

1 mol H atoms contains 6.0  10 atoms.

Your answer is incorrect if it has the

23 24
wrong unit or no unit, unless it is
∴ 6 mol H atoms contains 6  6.0  10 atoms  3.6  10 atoms

the value for relative mass.

104
The mole concept The mole and mass

Molar mass

Key fact

The mass of one mole of a substance is known as its molar mass, or M

!

Molar mass, M, is the mass, in

The molar mass of an element or a compound is given t he unit grams

1 grams, of one mole of a substance.

per mole or g mol . For example, because 12.00 g of carbon contains

23

6.0  10 carbon atoms, or 1 mol of carbon atoms, t he molar mass of carbon

is 12 g mol

The molar mass of different elements and compounds will be different even

t hough t hey are all t he mass of one mole, just as t he mass of one dozen

apples will be different from t he mass of a dozen g rapes even t hough t hey

are bot h a dozen. This is because t he mass of t he atoms of each element is

different, just as t he mass of an apple is different from t he mass of a g rape.

Calculating molar mass

Looking at t he ndings above, it can be seen t hat:

23

● because 40 g of calcium contains 6.0  10 Ca atoms, or 1 mol of

Ca atoms, t he molar mass of calcium is 40 g mol

23

● because 28 g of nitrogen contains 6.0  10 N molecules, or 1 mol of

2

N molecules, t he molar mass of nitrogen is 28 g mol

2

23

● because 180 g of glucose contains 6.0  10 C H O molecules, or 1 mol

6 12 6

of C H O molecules, t he molar mass of glucose is 180 g mol

6 12 6

23

● because 84 g of magnesium carbonate contains 6.0  10 MgCO

3

formula units, or 1 mol of MgCO formula units, t he molar mass of

3

magnesium carbonate is 84 g mol

Therefore, t he molar mass of an element or compound is t he relative atomic,

molecular or formula mass amount expressed in grams per mole.

More examples

M(H O)  (2  1)  16  18 g mol
2

M(CuSO )  64  32  (4  16)  160 g mol

4

M(Ca (PO ) )  (3  40)  (2  31)  (8  16)  310 g mol

3 4 2

M((NH ) CO )  (2  14)  (8  1)  12  (3  16)  96 g mol

4 2 3

Moles and mass

Molar mass gives us t he relationship between t he number of moles and t he

mass of an element or compound. We can use t he molar mass to calculate

t he mass or number of moles of an element or compound.

Examples

1 Calculate t he number of moles in 10 g of calcium carbonate, CaCO

3

First calculate t he molar mass of CaCO

3

M(CaCO )  40  12  (3  16)  100 g mol

3

i.e. mass of 1 mol CaCO  100 g

3

10
____

∴ number of moles in 10 g  mol  0.1 mol

100

103
 The mole and mass The mole concept

Examples

1 Calculate t he relative molecular mass of nitrogen, N

2.

N consists of 2 atoms of N.
2

∴ relative molecular mass of N  (2  14)  28

2

2 Calculate t he relative molecular mass of glucose, C H O

6 12 6.

C H O consists of 6 atoms of H, 12 atoms of H and 6 atoms of O.

6 12 6

∴ relative molecular mass of

C H O  (6  12)  (12  1)  (6  16)  180

6 12 6

3 Calculate t he relative formula mass of magnesium carbonate, MgCO

3.

MgCO consists of 1 atom of Mg, 1 atom of C and 3 atoms of O.

3

∴ relative formula mass of

MgCO  (1  24)  (1  12)  (3  16)  84.

3

The mole

We use different terms to represent a xed amount of somet hing, e.g. a dozen

apples represents 12 apples and a pair of gloves represents two gloves. The

same concept is used in chemistr y. The mole represents a xed number. t

can be used to describe anyt hing, e.g. a mole of apples, a mole of gloves, a

mole of atoms or a mole of molecules. However, a mole represents a ver y

large number and is, t herefore, used mainly as a measurement of atomic

sized par ticles.

Key fact

Like relative atomic mass, t he mole has been dened using t he carbon-12

A mole is the amount of a

isotope because of its high abundance and stability. t was found t hat 12.00 g

substance that contains the same

23

of carbon-12 contains 6.0  10 atoms of carbon-12. One mole represents

number of particles as there are

23

t he number of atoms in 12.00 g of carbon-12, i.e. 6.0  10 . This number is

atoms in 12.00 g of carbon-12.

known as Avogadro’s constant , or N

A

23

n ot her words, a mole is t he amount of a substance t hat contains 6.0  10

par ticles of t he substance.

Looking at t he denition of a mole in t he Key fact box:

● ‘amount’ can refer to t he mass of a substance or t he volume of a

substance if t he substance is a gas

● ‘par ticles’ can refer to atoms, molecules, formula units or ions.

n t he same way t hat it was found t hat 12.00 g of carbon-12 contains

23

6.0  10 carbon-12 atoms, it was found t hat:

23

● 40 g of calcium (Ca) contains 6.0  10 Ca atoms

23

● 28 g of nitrogen (N ) contains 6.0  10 N molecules

2 2

23

● 180 g of glucose (C H O ) contains 6.0  10 C H O molecules

6 12 6 6 12 6

23

● 84 g of magnesium carbonate (MgCO ) contains 6.0  10 MgCO

3 3

formula units.

f we look at t he masses given above we see t hat each mass has t he same

numerical value as t he relative mass of t he element or compound and each

is t he mass of one mole of par ticles of t he substance.

NB When writing t he mole as a unit, it is usually abbreviated to mol

102
 A7 The mole concept

Chemistry often involves determining the amount of a

Objectives

substance required to produce a product. For example,

By the end of this topic you will

be able to:

how much ammonia and nitric acid are required to

● dene the terms relative atomic

produce 1 kg of the fertiliser ammonium nitrate? The

mass, relative molecular mass

mass of an atom is so small that chemists have had

and relative formula mass

● calculate relative molecular and

to devise another method of measuring the amount of

formula masses

substances; this method uses the mole.

● dene the terms mole and

molar mass

● give Avogadro’s constant

A7.1 The mole and mass

● perform calculations involving

moles, masses and number of

Relative atomic, molecular and formula masses

particles.

Yo u lear nt in Unit 3. 3 t ha t be cause t he ma ss of atoms is ex t remely s mal l,

scientists use a m uc h s malle r unit t han a g ram to compare t h eir mas s es ,

known as relative atomic m a ss . They designed a s y st e m wh ic h c ompares

t he mass of an ato m wit h on e -t we lf t h t he ma ss of a carbo n - 12 a tom.

A carbon-12 atom wa s assign e d a mass of 12.0 0 a tomic mass un i ts or

amu, t herefore, on e -t welf t h t he mass of a carb o n - 12 a tom has a ma s s of

1.0 0 amu.

Relative atomic mass, t herefore, compares t he mass of an atom of an

element to one-twe lf t h t he ma ss of a carbo n - 12 a tom. B ec au se it is a

compara tive valu e , re la tive a to mic mass has no units. Relative a to mic

mass is given t he s y mb ol A
r

Key fact

n t he denition of relative atomic mass given in t he Key fact box, we use t he

!

word ‘average’ because relative atomic mass takes into account t he relative
Relative atomic mass, A , is the
r

abundance of each isotope. The relative atomic mass of an element, to t he

average mass of one atom of an

nearest whole number, can be found in t he periodic table on page 360. For
element compared to one-twelfth

example, t he relative atomic mass of calcium is 40 and of uorine is 19. the mass of an atom of carbon-12.

When calculating t he masses of covalent and ionic compounds we use t he

same logic by comparing t heir masses to t he carbon-12 atom.

Key fact

Molecular elements and compounds formed by covalent bonding are

Relative molecular mass, M , is

r

composed of molecules. We use t he term relative molecular mass to

the average mass of one molecule

compare t he mass of a molecule of a molecular element or compound wit h

of an element or compound

one-twelf t h t he mass of a carbon-12 atom. Relative molecular mass is given

compared to one-twelfth the mass

t he symbol M
r
of an atom of carbon-12.

Compounds formed by ionic bonding are represented by formula units. We

use t he term relative formula mass to compare t he mass of a formula unit of

Key fact
an ionic compound wit h one-twelf t h t he mass of a carbon-12 atom.
!

Relative formula mass is the

To determine t he relative molecular mass or relative formula mass, we

average mass of one formula unit

add toget her t he relative atomic masses of all t he elements present in t he

of a compound compared to one-

compound. Since relative molecular and formula masses are comparative

twelfth the mass of an atom of

values, t hey have no units.

carbon-12.

101
 The mole and chemical formulae The mole concept

The empirical formula is K CrO

2 4

Note: To determine t he simplest mole ratio, divide t he number of moles

of each element by t he smallest number, i.e. 0.083.

2 On analysis, a sample of glucose was found to contain 40.0% carbon,

6.7% hydrogen and 53.3% oxygen. The molar mass of t he compound is

180 g mol . Determine t he molecular formula of glucose.

f t he mass of t he sample is assumed to be 100 g, t hen t he percentage of

each element can be expresses in grams.

C H O

mass (g) 40 6.7 53.3

molar mass (g mol ) 12 1 16

40 6.7 53.3
___ ___ ____
number of moles  3.3  6.7  3.3

12 1 16

simplest mole ratio 1 2 1

The empirical formula of glucose is CH O

2

To determine t he molecular formula, calculate t he molar mass of CH O:

2

M(CH O)  12  (2  1)  16  30 g mol
2

M(glucose)  180 g mol

180
____

Ratio between M(glucose) and M(CH O)   6

2

30

∴ t he molecular formula is 6  t he empirical formula.

The molecular formula of glucose is C H O .

6 12 6

Percentage composition

The percentage composition of a compound indicates the percentage,

by mass, of each element in the compound. For example, the percentage

composition of water shows what percentage of the mass of a water molecule

is made up of hydrogen and what percentage is made up of oxygen.

f we know t he formula of a compound, t he percentage composition, by

mass, of each element present can be calculated by calculating t he mass of

1 mol of t he compound and t he mass which each element contributes to

1 mol of t he compound.

Examples

1 Calculate t he percentage composition of hydrogen and oxygen in water.

M(H O)  (2  1)  16  18 g mol
2

i.e. mass of 1 mol H O  18 g

2

Mass of hydrogen in 1 mol H O  2  1  2 g

2

2
___

∴ percentage hydrogen   100%

18

 11.11%

Mass of oxygen in 1 mol H O  16 g

2

16
___

∴ percentage oxygen   100%

18

 88.89%

112
The mole concept The mole and chemical formulae

Summary questions

1 Dene the terms ‘molar concentration’ and ‘standard solution’.

2 Calculate the mass concentration and molar concentration if 2.8 g of potassium hydroxide is dissolved in

distilled water to make up 500 cm of solution.

3 What mass of calcium chloride, CaCl , needs to be weighed to make a solution of volume 200 cm and
2

concentration 0.1 mol dm ?

4 How many moles of sodium carbonate are present in 400 cm of sodium carbonate solution, which has a

concentration of 0.25 mol dm ?

A7.4 The mole and chemical formulae Objectives

By the end of this topic you will

Empirical and molecular formulae

be able to:

n terms of moles, a chemical formula shows how many moles of each

● explain the terms empirical

element combine to form one mole of t he compound. For example, H O

2 formula, molecular formula and

represents 2 mol of hydrogen atoms combined wit h 1 mol of oxygen atoms.

percentage composition

n Unit 5.1 you learnt t hat chemical formulae can be written in t hree main
● determine the empirical and

ways. We will be considering two of t hese ways here.

molecular formulae of a

● The empirical formula , which gives t he simplest whole number mole compound

ratio between t he atoms or ions in t he compound. ● determine the percentage

composition of a compound.
● The molecular formula , which gives t he actual number of moles of

atoms of each element present in one mole of t he compound.

onic compounds are always represented by empir ical formulae , which give

t he ratio of t he ions wit hin t he compound.

Covalent compounds are represented by molecular for mulae . The empir ical

and molecular for mulae of covalent compounds may be t he same, e.g. water

(H O), ammonia (NH ) and met hane (CH ), or t he molecular for mula
2 3 4

may be a simple whole number multiple of t he empir ical for mula, e.g. t he

molecular for mula of butene is C H and its empir ical for mula is CH
4 8 2

f we know t he propor tions of t he elements, by mass, in a compound, t hen

we can use t his to work out t he empirical formula of t he compound. f t he

molecular formula of a compound is different from t he empirical formula

and we know t he molar mass of t he compound, we can use t his to work out

its molecular formula.

To determine t he empirical formula, we need to calculate t he number of

moles of each element present and t hen determine t he simplest mole ratio

of t hese elements.

Examples

1 A sample of a solid is decomposed and found to contain 6.52 g of

potassium, 4.34 g of chromium and 5.34 g of oxygen. What is t he

empirical formula of t he compound?

K Cr O

mass (g) 6.52 4.34 5.34

molar mass (g mol ) 39 52 16

6.52 4.34 5.34

____ ____ ____
number of moles  0.167  0.083  0.333

39 52 16

simplest mole ratio 2 1 4

111
 The mole and concentration of solutions The mole concept

i.e. number of moles HCl in 1 dm  0.25 mol

Therefore, molar concentration  0.25 mol dm

2 Calculate t he molar concentration of a solution of sodium hydroxide

which contains 6 g of sodium hydroxide dissolved in distilled water to

make 200 cm of solution.

Calculate t he molar mass of sodium hydroxide, NaOH.

M(NaOH)  40 g mol

i.e. mass of 1 mol of NaOH  40 g

6
___

∴ number of moles in 6 g NaOH  mol  0.15 mol

40

200 cm of solution contains 0.15 mol NaOH

0.15
3 ____

∴ 1 cm of solution contains mol NaOH

200

0.15
3 3 ____

and 1000 cm (1 dm ) of solution contains  1000 mol NaOH

200

 0.75 mol NaOH

Therefore t he molar concentration  0.75 mol dm

3 Determine how many moles of sodium sulfate are present in 250 cm of a

sodium sulfate solution which has a molar concentration of 0.2 mol dm

1 dm of solution contains 0.2 mol Na SO ,

2 4

i.e. 1000 cm of solution contains 0.2 mol Na SO

2 4

0.2
3 _____

∴ 1 cm of solution contains mol Na SO

2 4

1000

0.2
3 _____

and 250 cm of solution contains  250 mol Na SO

2 4

1000

 0.05 mol Na SO
2 4

Therefore, number of moles of sodium sulfate present  0.05 mol

4 You wish to make a sodium chloride solution wit h a molar

concentration of 0.25 mol dm , but you only have 11.7 g of sodium

chloride. What is t he maximum volume of solution you can make?

Calculate t he molar mass of sodium chloride, NaCl.

M(NaCl)  23  35.5  58.5 g mol

i.e. mass of 1 mol  58.5 g.

11.7
_____

∴ number of moles in 11.7 g  mol

58.5

 0.2 mol

Required solution has a molar concentration of 0.25 mol dm ,

i.e. 0.25 mol NaCl is contained in 1 dm of solution

or 0.25 mol NaCl is contained in 1000 cm of solution.

1000
_____ 3

∴ 1 mol NaCl is contained in cm of solution

0.25

1000
_____ 3

and 0.2 mol NaCl is contained in  0.2 cm of solution

0.25

 800 cm of solution

Therefore, the maximum volume of solution which can be made is 800 cm

110
The mole concept The mole and concentration of solutions

0.2
3 _____

∴ 1 cm of t he required solution contains mol K CO

2 3

1000

and 250 cm of t he required solution contains

0.2
_____

 250 mol K CO  0.05 mol K CO

2 3 2 3

1000

Therefore 0.05 mol K CO is required to make t he solution.

2 3

M(K CO )  (2  39)  12  (3  16)  138 g mol

2 3

i.e. mass of 1 mol K CO  138 g

2 3

∴ mass of 0.05 mol K CO  0.05  138 g  6.9 g

2 3

Therefore t he mass of K CO required is 6.9 g

2 3

Making a standard solution

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

● manipulation and measurement.

3 3

You are going to make 250 cm of sodium carbonate solution with a concentration of 0.1 mol dm

You will be supplied with sodium carbonate, distilled water, a balance, a sheet of weighing paper, a 100 cm beaker,

a glass rod and a 250 cm volumetric ask.

Method

1 Calculate the mass of sodium carbonate required to make the solution. (Use the calculation given in the example

above to help you.)

2 Weigh a sheet of weighing paper on a balance.

3 Weigh the mass of sodium carbonate you determined in your calculation on the sheet of weighing paper.

4 Carefully transfer the sodium carbonate to the beaker, making sure it is all transferred.

5 Add some distilled water and stir the solution with the glass rod until all the sodium carbonate has dissolved completely.

6 Transfer the solution to the volumetric ask.

7 Rinse the glass rod with distilled water over the beaker and transfer the washings to the ask. Wash the beaker

with distilled water three times and transfer these washings to the ask each time.

8 Add distilled water to just below the line in the volumetric ask. Add the nal quantity of distilled water drop by

drop until the bottom of the meniscus is on the line.

9 Place the stopper on the ask. Holding the stopper in place, invert the ask three times to mix the solution.

Calculations

We can extend our calculations involving solutions as shown in t he examples

below.

Examples

1 Calculate t he molar concentration of a solution of hydrochloric acid,

HCl, which has a mass concentration of 9.125 g dm

M(HCl)  1  35.5  36.5 g mol

i.e. mass of 1 mol HCl  36.5 g

9.125
______

∴ number of moles HCl in 9.125 g  mol  0.25 mol

36.5

109
 The mole and concentration of solutions The mole concept

Objectives A7.3 The mole and concentration of solutions

By the end of this topic you will

You have already come across ways of describing solutions such as dilute,
be able to:

concentrated and saturated. However, we can express t he concentration

● explain what is meant by

of a solution in more precise ways, which allow us to perfume calculations

concentration of a solution

involving solutions. The concentration of a solution is a measure of t he

● explain the terms mass

quantity of a solute dissolved in a xed volume of t he solution. The volume

concentration and molar

3 3

of solution usually used is 1 dm , i.e. 1000 cm

concentration

Concentration of a solution can be expressed in two ways.

● dene the term standard

solution ● Mass concentration , which gives t he mass of solute dissolved in 1 dm

● perform calculations involving of solution. The unit for mass concentration is grams of solute per cubic

concentrations of solutions. decimetre of solution or g dm

● Molar concentration , which gives t he number of moles of solute

dissolved in 1 dm of solution. The unit for molar concentration is moles

of solute per cubic decimetre of solution or mol dm

t is ver y impor tant to note t hat concentration is expressed as t he quantity of

3 3

solute in 1 dm of solution and not in 1 dm of solvent.

Example

A solution of sodium hydroxide contains 10.0 g of sodium hydroxide

dissolved in 1 dm of solution. Express t he concentration of t he solution in

Did you know?

?
3 3

g dm and mol dm

Molar concentration may also

3

The solution contains 10.0 g of NaOH in 1 dm

be called molarity. The unit for

3
molarity is M. A solution with a
Therefore, mass concentration  10.0 g dm

concentration of 1 mol dm may

To determine t he molar concentration, nd t he number of moles of sodium

be described as a ‘1 molar solution’

hydroxide present:
or ‘1 M solution’.

M(NaOH)  23  16  1  40 g mol

i.e. mass of 1 mole NaOH  40 g

Key fact

! 10
___

∴ number of moles in 10.0 g NaOH  mol

40

A standard solution is one whose

 0.25 mol
concentration is known accurately.

Therefore, molar concentration  0.25 mol dm

A standard solution

A solution whose concentration is known accurately is referred to as a standard

solution. A standard solution is made in a volumetric ask as shown in Figure

meniscus of the solution

3 3 3

7.3.1. These asks come in various sizes, e.g. 100 cm , 250 cm , 500 cm and

etched line indicating 1 dm . A known mass of solute is added to the ask and distilled water is then

volume, e.g. 250 cm

added until the solution reaches the mark on the neck of the ask.

To make a standard solution which does not have a volume of 1 dm , t he

mass of solute required must be calculated rst.

volumetric flask contains

a fixed volume of solution

Example
when the meniscus is on

the etched line,

Determine t he mass of potassium carbonate which must be dissolved in

3

e.g. 250 cm

distilled water to make 250 cm of potassium carbonate solution wit h a

concentration of 0.2 mol dm

3 3

 Figure 7.3.1 A volumetric ask 1000 cm (1 dm ) of t he required solution contains 0.2 mol K CO
2 3

108
The mole concept The mole and gas volumes

Examples

1 Calculate t he volume occupied by 6.4 g of oxygen, O at stp.

2

Calculate t he molar mass of O gas.

2

M(O )  2  16  32 g mol
2

i.e. mass of 1 mol of O  32 g

2

6.4
____

∴ number of moles in 6.4 g  mol  0.2 mol

32

volume of 1 mol O at stp  22.4 dm

2

3 3

∴ volume of 0.2 mol O gas at stp  0.2  22.4 dm  4.48 dm

2

2 Calculate t he mass of 600 cm of carbon dioxide, CO , at r tp.

2

Volume of 1 mol CO at r tp  24 000 cm

2

600
3 _______

∴ number of moles in 600 cm  mol

24 000

 0.025 mol

M(CO )  12  (2  16)  44 g mol

2

i.e. mass of 1 mol CO  44 g

2

∴ mass of 0.025 mol CO  0.025  44 g

2

 1.1 g

3 Calculate t he number of molecules in 6.72 dm of ammonia, NH , at stp.

3

Volume of 1 mol NH at stp  22.4 dm

3

6.72
3 _____

∴ number of moles in 6.72 dm  mol

22.4

 0.3 mol

23

1 mol NH contains 6.0  10 molecules

3

23

∴ 0.3 mol NH contains 0.3  6.0  10 molecules

3

23

 1.8  10 molecules

22

4 Calculate t he volume occupied by 4.5  10 molecules of hydrogen

chloride gas, HCl at r tp.

23

1 mol HCl contains 6.0  10 molecules.

22

4.5  10
22 __________

∴ number of moles in 4.5  10 molecules  mol

23

6.0  10

 0.075 mol

volume of 1 mol HCl at r tp  24 dm

∴ volume of 0.075 mol HCl at r tp  0.075  24.0 dm

 1.8 dm

Summary questions

1 Calculate the mass, volume and number of molecules in 2.5 mol of

ammonia, NH
3

2 Calculate the number of atoms in 4.8 dm of neon gas at rtp.

3 Calculate the volume of 16 g of sulfur dioxide, SO , at stp.

2

4 Determine the mass of 840 cm of oxygen gas, O , at rtp.

2

107
 The mole and gas volumes The mole concept

Objectives A7.2 The mole and gas volumes

By the end of this topic you will

Gases have ver y small masses because of t heir low densities, so chemists have
be able to:

investigated t he relationship between t he number of moles of a gas and t he

● state Avogadro’s law

volume occupied by t he gas.

● dene molar volume

● perform calculations involving n 1811, Amedeo Avo ga dro notice d t h at a ll gase s un d er t h e same c on d iti on s

moles and volumes of gases. of temperature and pre ssure, an d o cc u pying t he same volume, con t ain

t he same number of mo le cules. He propose d Avogad ro’s law

As an example, using Avogadro’s law, we can say t hat 100 cm of oxygen gas

at a temperature of 25 °C and pressure of 101.3 kPa has t he same number of

Key fact

!
3

molecules as 100 cm of nitrogen gas at 25 °C and 101.3 kPa.

Avogadro’s law states that equal

23

f t he number of molecules in each gas is 6.0  10 , i.e. 1 mol, it follows t hat

volumes of all gases, under the

1 mol of all gases under t he same conditions of temperature and pressure

same conditions of temperature

and pressure, contain the same must occupy t he same volume.

number of molecules.

Molar volume

The volume of one mole of a gas is known as its molar volume, or V

m

Key fact

!
Molar volume is, t herefore, t he volume of a gas which contains

23

6.0  10 molecules of t he gas.

Molar volume, V is the volume
m

occupied by 1 mol of a gas.

Since temperature and pressure bot h affect t he volume of a gas, molar

volume will depend on bot h of t hese. Chemists mostly work wit h two sets

of conditions.

● Stand ard temperature and pressure , or stp, which equates to a

temperature of 0 C (273 K) and a pressure of 101.3 kPa (1 atmosphere).

3 3

Molar volume at stp is 22.4 dm or 22 400 cm

● Room temperature and pressure , or rtp, which equates to a

temperature of 25 °C (298 K) and a pressure of 101.3 kPa (1 atmosphere).

3 3

Molar volume at r tp is 24.0 dm or 24 000 cm

Molar volume gives us t he relationship between t he number of moles and

t he volume of a gas. We can use t he molar volume to calculate t he volume or

number of moles of a gas.

Examples

1 Calculate t he volume occupied by 0.25 mol nitrogen, N , at stp.

2

Volume of 1 mol of N at stp  22.4 dm

2

3 3

∴ volume of 0.25 mol of N at stp  0.25  22.4 dm  5.6 dm

2

2 Calculate t he number of moles in 2.4 dm of oxygen gas, O , at r tp.

2

Volume of 1 mol of O at r tp  24.0 dm

2

2.4
3 _____

∴ number of moles in 2.4 dm of O at r tp  mol  0.1 mol

2

24.0

We can now combine our calculations wit h t hose in Unit 7.1 to involve

moles, mass, volume and number of par ticles.

106
 The mole and chemical reactions The mole concept

2 What volume of carbon dioxide, measured at stp, would be produced

3 3

when 20 cm of hydrochloric acid wit h a concentration of 1.5 mol dm

reacts wit h excess aluminium carbonate?

The balanced equation for t he reaction is:

Al (CO ) (s)  6HCl(aq) 2AlCl (aq)  3CO (g)  3H O(l)

2 3 3 3 2 2

The volume and molar concentration of t he reactant, hydrochloric

acid, is known. The volume of t he product, carbon dioxide is to be

determined.

1) 1000 cm HCl(aq) contains 1.5 mol HCl.

1.5
3 _____

∴ 1 cm contains mol HCl

1000

1.5
3 _____

and 20 cm contains  20 mol HCl  0.03 mol HCl

1000

2) 6 mol HCl form 3 mol CO

2

∴ 2 mol HCl form 1 mol CO

2

1
__

3) 0.03 mol HCl forms  0.03 mol CO  0.015 mol CO

2 2

4) Volume of 1 mol CO at stp  22.4 dm

2

∴ volume of 0.015 mol CO at stp  0.015  22.4 dm

2

 0.336 dm

Summary questions

1 Ethene (C H ) burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and steam

2 4

according to the following equation:

C H (g)  3O (g) 2CO (g)  2H O(g)

2 4 2 2 2

If 2.8 g of ethene burn in excess oxygen,

a calculate the number of moles in 2.8 g of ethene

b calculate the number of moles of carbon dioxide formed

c calculate the mass of carbon dioxide formed

d calculate the volume of carbon dioxide formed at stp.

2 Calcium carbonate decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide

when heated. Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide released when 300 g

of calcium carbonate is heated.

3 Carbon monoxide gas reacts with oxygen gas to form carbon dioxide

gas. Calculate the volume and mass of carbon monoxide gas required to

produce 4 dm of carbon dioxide gas at rtp.

4 Potassium carbonate reacts with nitric acid (HNO ) to produce potassium

3

nitrate, carbon dioxide and water. Calculate the mass of potassium

chloride formed when 40 cm of potassium carbonate solution with a

concentration of 0.5 mol dm reacts with excess nitric acid.

118
The mole concept The mole and chemical reactions

Example

Calculate t he volume of sulfur trioxide gas formed at r tp when 9.6 g of oxygen

reacts wit h excess sulfur dioxide.

The balanced equation for t he reaction is:

2SO (g)  O (g) 2SO (g)

2 2 3

The mass of t he reactant, oxygen, is known. The volume of t he product, sulfur

dioxide, is to be determined.

1) M(O )  32 g mol
2

i.e. mass of 1 mol O  32 g

2

9.6
____

∴ number of moles in 9.6 g  mol  0.3 mol

32

2) 1 mol O forms 2 mol SO

2 3

3) 0.3 mol O forms 2  0.3 mol SO  0.6 mol SO

2 3 3

4) Volume of 1 mol SO at r tp  24.0 dm

3

3 3

∴ volume of 0.6 mol SO at r tp  0.6  24.0 dm  14.4 dm

3

Molar concentration and chemical reactions

A balanced chemical equation for a reaction which involves a solution whose

volume and molar concentration are known can also be used to determine

t he mass of t he ot her reactant, or t he mass or volume of a product, using t he

same four steps as for solving mass and volume problems.

Examples

1 To prepare t he salt, sodium sulfate, a student adds 50 cm of sodium

hydroxide solution wit h a concentration of 2.0 mol dm to excess

sulfuric acid. Calculate t he mass of sodium sulfate t hat would form.

The balanced equation for t he reaction is:

2NaOH(aq)  H SO (aq) Na SO (aq)  2H O(l)

2 4 2 4 2

The volume and molar concentration of t he reactant, sodium hydroxide,

are known. The mass of t he product, sodium sulfate, is to be determined.

3 3

1) 1000 cm (1 dm ) NaOH(aq) contains 2 mol NaOH

2
3 _____

∴ 1 cm NaOH(aq) contains mol NaOH

1000

2
3 _____

and 50 cm NaOH(aq) contains  50 mol NaOH  0.1 mol NaOH

1000

2) 2 mol NaOH forms 1 mol Na SO

2 4

1
__

3) 0.1 mol NaOH forms  0.1 mol Na SO  0.05 mol Na SO

2 4 2 4

4) M(Na SO )  (2  23)  32  (4  16)  142 g mol

2 4

i.e. mass of 1 mol Na SO  142 g

2 4

∴ mass of 0.05 mol Na SO  0.05  142 g  7.1 g

2 4

117
 The mole and chemical reactions The mole concept

Example

Calculate t he mass of lead(II) hydroxide t hat could be produced when a

solution containing 3.4 g of hydroxide ions reacts wit h a solution containing

excess lead ions.

The ionic equation for t he reaction is:

2

Pb (aq)  2OH (aq) Pb(OH) (s)

2

The mass of t he hydroxide ions present in t he solution is known. The mass

of t he product, lead(II) hydroxide, is to be determined.

1) M(OH )  16  1  17 g mol

i.e. mass of 1 mol OH ions  17 g

3.4
____

∴ number of moles in 3.4 g  mol  0.2 mol

17

2) 2 mol OH ions form 1 mol Pb(OH)

2

3) 0.2 mol OH ions form 0.1 mol Pb(OH)

2

4) M(Pb(OH) )  207  (2  16)  (2  1)  241 g mol

2

i.e. mass of 1 mol Pb(OH)  241 g

2

∴ mass of 0.1 mol Pb(OH)  0.1  241 g  24.1 g

2

Gas volumes and chemical reactions

Exam tip
✔ A balanced chemical equation for a reaction which involves gases can also be

used to determine t he unknown volume of a reactant or product using t he

You must pay very careful attention

mole/volume relationship and t he mole ratio from t he balanced equation

to the conditions under which

for t he reaction.
reactions involving gases occur,

i.e. stp or rtp, to ensure that you

When answering questions involving volumes of gases, use t he same four

use the correct value for molar

steps as are used in solving mass–mass problems.

volume.

Example

Nitrogen reacts wit h hydrogen to produce ammonia. Calculate t he minimum

volume of hydrogen t hat would be required to react completely wit h 6.0 dm

of nitrogen at r tp.

The balanced equation for t he reaction is:

N (g)  3H (g) 2NH (g)

2 2 3

The volume of t he reactant, nitrogen, is known. The volume of t he ot her

reactant, hydrogen, is to be determined.

1) Volume of 1 mol N at r tp  24 dm
2

6.0
3 ____

∴ number of moles in 6.0 dm  mol  0.25 mol

24

2) 1 mol N reacts wit h 3 mol H

2 2

3) 0.25 mol N reacts wit h 3  0.25 mol H  0.75 mol H

2 2 2

4) Volume of 1 mol H at r tp  24.0 dm

2

3 3

∴ volume of 0.75 mol H at r tp  0.75  24.0 dm  18.0 dm

2

Problems can also be solved involving bot h mass and volume using t he same

four steps.

116
The mole concept The mole and chemical reactions

4) Use t he number of moles of MgO from 3), and its molar mass, to

determine t he mass of MgO produced.

M(MgO)  24  16  40 g mol

i.e. mass of 1 mol of MgO  40 g

∴ mass of 0.5 mol of MgO  0.5  40 g  20 g

2 Determine t he mass of sodium carbonate required to produce 23.4 g

of sodium chloride, when t he sodium carbonate reacts wit h excess

hydrochloric acid.

The balanced equation for t he reaction is:

Na CO (s)  2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq)  CO (g)  H O(l)

2 3 2 2

The mass of t he product, sodium chloride, is known. The mass of t he

reactant, sodium carbonate, is to be determined.

1) M(NaCl)  23  35.5  58.5 g mol

i.e. mass of 1 mol NaCl  58.5 g

23.4
_____

∴ number of moles in 23.4 g  mol  0.4 mol

58.5

2) 1 mol Na CO forms 2 mol NaCl.

2 3

1
__

3)  0.4 mol Na CO forms 0.4 mol NaCl  0.2 mol Na CO

2 3 2 3

4) M(Na CO )  (2  23)  12  (3  16)  106 g mol

2 3

i.e. mass of 1 mol Na CO  106 g

2 3

∴ mass of 0.2 mol  0.2  106 g  21.2 g

3 Determine t he decrease in mass t hat would occur when 21.0 g of

magnesium carbonate is heated until its mass remains constant.

The balanced equation for t he reaction is:

MgCO (s) MgO(s)  CO (g)

3 2

The decrease in mass is due to t he loss of carbon dioxide, t herefore, to

nd t he decrease in mass, t he mass of carbon dioxide produced must be

determined.

The mass of t he reactant, magnesium carbonate, is known. The mass of

t he product, carbon dioxide, is to be determined.

1) M(MgCO )  24  12  (3  16)  84 g mol

3

i.e. mass of 1 mol MgCO  84 g

3

21.0
_____

∴ number of moles in 21.0 g  mol  0.25 mol

84

2) 1 mol MgCO forms 1 mol CO

3 2

3) 0.25 mol MgCO forms 0.25 mol CO

3 2

4) M(CO )  12  (2  16)  44 g mol

2

i.e. mass of 1 mol CO  44 g

2

∴ mass of 0.25 mol CO  0.25  44 g  11.0 g

2

Therefore, t he decrease in mass is 11.0 g

We can also apply t he mole concept to ionic equations using t he same

four steps.

115
 The mole and chemical reactions The mole concept

We can clearly see t hat t he mass of t he water produced is t he same as t he

total mass of t he original reactants, hydrogen and oxygen, i.e. 36 g.

We can use balanced chemical equations to determine t he quantities of

unknown reactants and products in a reaction. f t he quantity of one reactant

or product is known, it is possible to calculate t he quantities of any of t he

ot her reactants and products.

Mass and chemical reactions

When answering questions involving masses of reactants and products, you will

always be given the mass of one reactant or product and be asked to determine

the mass of another reactant or product. To do this we use our mole/mass

relationship and the mole ratio from the balanced equation for the reaction.

The steps involved in solving mass–mass problems are as follows:

1) Calculate t he number of moles of t he known reactant or product using

its given mass and its molar mass. The known reactant or product is t he

one whose mass you have been given in t he question.

2) Use t he balanced chemical equation to determine t he mole ratio

between t he known and t he unknown reactants and/or products. The

unknown reactant or product is t he one whose mass you are calculating.

3) Use t he number of moles of t he known reactant or product found in step

1), and t he mole ratio found in step 2), to calculate t he number of moles

of t he unknown reactant or product.

4) Use t he number of moles of t he unknown reactant or product found in

step 3), and its molar mass, to determine its mass

Note: f you have not been given t he equation for t he reaction, you must

write t he balanced chemical equation before you begin your calculation.

Examples

1 Calculate t he mass of magnesium oxide formed by burning 12 g of

magnesium in excess oxygen.

The balanced equation for t he reaction is:

2Mg(s)  O (g) 2MgO(s)

2

The mass of t he reactant, magnesium is known. The mass of t he product,

magnesium oxide, is to be determined.

1) Find t he number of moles of Mg using its mass and molar mass:

Calculate t he molar mass of Mg.

M(Mg)  24 g mol

i.e. mass 1 mol of Mg  24 g

12
___

∴ number of moles in 12 g of Mg  mol  0.5 mol

24

2) Use t he balanced chemical equation to determine t he mole ratio

between Mg and MgO:

2 mol Mg form 2 mol MgO.

∴ 1 mol Mg forms 1 mol MgO

3) Use t he number of moles of Mg from 1), and t he mole ratio from 2),

to calculate t he number of moles of MgO produced:

0.5 mol Mg forms 0.5 mol MgO

114
The mole concept The mole and chemical reactions

2 Calculate t he percentage, by mass, of nitrogen in ammonium

phosphate, (NH ) PO
4 3 4

M((NH ) PO )  (3  14)  (12  1)  31  (4  16)  149 g mol

4 3 4

i.e. mass of 1 mol (NH ) PO  149 g

4 3 4

Mass of nitrogen in 1 mol (NH ) PO  3  14 g

4 3 4

 42 g

42
____

∴ percentage nitrogen   100%

149

 28.19%

Summary questions

1 On analysis a compound was found to contain 11.64 g of sodium, 16.20 g of sulfur and 12.15 g of oxygen.

Determine the empirical formula of the compound.

2 A liquid used in rocket fuel is found to consist of 3.04 g of nitrogen and 6.94 g of oxygen. The molar mass of the

compound is 92 g mol . Determine the molecular formula of the compound.

3 Calculate the percentage composition of hydrogen, sulfur and oxygen in sulfuric acid, H SO
2 4

4 Determine the percentage, by mass, of carbon in aluminium carbonate, Al (CO )

2 3 3

A7.5 The mole and chemical reactions Objectives

By the end of this topic you will

The Law of Conservation of Matter be able to:

n Un i t 6 .1 yo u lear nt t hat a to m s are neit her created nor d e st r oye d in ● state the Law of Conservation

c hemical reactions, t h ey are o n ly rear ranged, and t hat when wr iting a of Matter

c hemical e qu a t i o n t he number of a to m s of eac h element on t he r ight ● apply the mole concept to

side of t he e qu a t i o n m u st be t he same as t he number on t he lef t side. balanced chemical equations

This is summed up in t he L aw of C o n s e r vat i o n of M at te r g i ve n in t he using masses

Key fact b ox . ● apply the mole concept to ionic

equations

Since all t he atoms t hat were present at t he beginning of t he reaction are

● apply the mole concept to

present at t he end of t he reaction, it follows t hat t he total mass of t he products

balanced chemical equations

must be t he same as t he total mass of t he original reactants.

using volumes of gases

● apply the mole concept to

We can prove t his using t he reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to make

balanced chemical equations

water. The balanced equation for t he reaction is:

using concentration of solutions.

2H (g)  O (g) 2H O(g)

2 2 2

This means:

2 molecules of H  1 molecule of O 2 molecules of H O

2 2 2

Or, on a bigger scale, t he coefcients show t he number of moles of each

reactant and product. The equation, t herefore, means:

Key fact

2 mol of H  1 mol of O 2 mol of H O

2 2 2

The Law of Conservation of

f we now take t his a step fur t her and use our mole/mass relationship, Matter states that matter can

neither be created nor destroyed

it means:

during a chemical reaction.

2(2  1) g of H  1(2  16) g of O 2[(2  1)  16)] g of H O

2 2 2

4 g of H  32 g of O 36 g of H O
2 2 2

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 Practice exam-style questions The mole concept

b Calcium hydrogencarbonate reacts wit h nitric acid

Practice exam-style questions

according to t he following equation:

Ca(HCO ) (s)  2HNO (aq) Ca(NO ) (aq)  2CO (g)  2H O(l)

3 2 3 3 2 2 2
Multiple-choice questions

During an investigation in t he laborator y, a student

1 The mass of 0.25 mol of potassium carbonate is:

added 8.1 g of calcium hydrogencarbonate to excess

A 24.75 g

nitric acid.

B 34.5 g

i) Determine t he number of moles of calcium

C 38.5 g

hydrogencarbonate used by t he student.

D 552.0 g

(2 marks)

ii) Determine t he number of moles of carbon

2 A mass of 32 g of oxygen:

23
dioxide made. (2 marks)
A contains 6.0  10 oxygen atoms

iii) Determine t he volume of carbon dioxide made

B contains 2 mol of oxygen

23
at r tp. (1 mark)
C contains 6.0  10 molecules of oxygen

c Magnesium reacts wit h hydrochloric acid to

D contains t he same number of molecules of oxygen as

produce magnesium chloride and hydrogen. n

35.5 g of chlorine

anot her investigation, a student reacted 20 cm

3 What is t he mass of 448 cm of carbon dioxide at stp?

of hydrochloric acid wit h a concentration of

3
A 0.88 g
1.5 mol dm wit h excess magnesium.

B 224 g
i) Write a balanced chemical equation for t he

C 448 g
reaction. (2 marks)

D 880 g
ii) Calculate t he number of moles of hydrochloric

acid used. (1 mark)

3

4 You are required to make 250 cm of a solution of

iii) Determine t he number of moles of magnesium

sodium hydroxide which has a concentration of

chloride produced. (2 marks)

3

0.1 mol dm . What mass of sodium hydroxide would

iv) Calculate t he mass of magnesium chloride

you need to weigh out?

produced. (2 marks)

A 0.1 g

d On analysis a compound was found to contain

B 1.0 g

24.45 g of iron and 10.55 g of oxygen. Determine t he

C 4.0 g

empirical formula of t he compound. (2 marks)

D 25.0 g

Total 15 marks

5 A compound was found to consist of 30 g of element

W combined wit h 7 g of Z. f t he relative atomic mass

Extended response question

of W is 40 and t he relative atomic mass of Z is 14, which

8 a i) What do you understand by t he term ‘standard

of t he following is t he correct empirical formula for t he

solution’? (1 mark)

compound?

ii) You wish to prepare 250 cm of potassium

A WZ

carbonate solution of concentration

B W Z
2

0.8 mol dm in t he laborator y. Determine t he

C W Z
2 3

mass of potassium carbonate required.

D W Z
3 2

(3 marks)

6 Hydrogen reacts wit h oxygen according to t he following iii) Name t he piece of apparatus you would use to

equation: make your solution in. (1 mark)

b A student wishes to make a sample of t he insoluble

2H (g)  O (g) 2H O(g)
2 2 2

salt, lead(II) chloride, in t he laborator y. Determine

What volume of steam could be produced at stp if 12.8 g

t he mass of lead(II) chloride which could be made by

of oxygen reacts wit h excess hydrogen?

reacting a solution containing excess lead() nitrate

3

A 8.96 dm

wit h a solution containing 23.4 g of sodium chloride.

3

B 12.8 dm

3 (6 marks)
C 17.92 dm

D 25.6 dm c Ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate are used

extensively by gardeners as fer tilisers to supply plants

wit h t he nitrogen t hey need to make protein for use

Structured question in growt h. By calculating t he percentage, by mass, of

nitrogen in each of t he fer tilisers, determine which

7 This question is concerned wit h t he mole and its

would be t he better value for money if t hey bot h cost

application.

t he same per kilogram. (4 marks)

a Give a denition for t he term ‘mole’. (1 mark)

Total 15 marks

120
The mole concept The mole and chemical reactions

Key concepts

● Relative atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass compare t he

masses of atoms, molecules and formula units wit h one-twelf t h t he mass

of a carbon-12 atom.

● Relative atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass have no units.

● A mole is t he amount of a substance t hat contains t he same number of

par ticles as t here are atoms in 12.00 g of carbon-12.

23

● The number of par ticles in a mole is 6.0  10 , which is also known as

Avogadro’s number or N
A

● Molar mass is t he mass, in grams, of one mole of a substance.

● The molar mass of an element or compound is t he relative atomic mass,

molecular mass or formula mass amount expressed in grams per mole.

Molar mass is given t he unit g mol

● Avogadro’s law states t hat equal volumes of all gases, under t he same

conditions of temperature and pressure, contain t he same number of

molecules.

● Molar volume is t he volume occupied by one mole of a gas. The

molar volume is t he same for all gases under t he same conditions of

temperature and pressure.

● Molar volume at standard temperature and pressure (stp) is 22.4 dm

● Molar volume at room temperature and pressure (r tp) is 24 dm

● The concentration of a solution is a measure of t he quantity of a solute

dissolved in a xed volume of t he solution.

● Mass concentration gives t he mass of solute dissolved in 1 dm of

solution. Mass concentration is given t he unit g dm

● Molar concentration gives t he number of moles of solute dissolved in

3 3

1 dm of solution. Molar concentration is given t he unit mol dm

● A stand ard solution is one whose concentration is known accurately.

A standard solution is made using a volumetric ask.

● The empirical formula of a compound gives t he simplest mole ratio

between t he atoms or ions in t he compound.

● The molecular formula of a compound gives t he actual number of

moles of atoms of each element present in one mole of t he compound.

● f t he propor tions of t he elements, by mass, in a compound are

known, t hen its empirical formula can be determined. f t he molecular

formula of a compound is different from t he empirical formula and t he

molar mass of t he compound is known, its molecular formula can be

determined.

● The percentage composition of a compound indicates t he percentage,

by mass, of each element in t he compound.

● The L aw of Conservation of Matter states t hat matter can neit her be

created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction.

● The coefcients in a balanced chemical equation give t he mole ratios

between t he reactants and t he products.

● Balanced chemical equations can be used to determine quantities of

unknown reactants and products in a reaction. f t he quantity of one

reactant or product is known, it is possible to calculate t he quantities of

any of t he ot her reactants and products.

119