Control Systems

Lec 1

Md. Ishfak Tahmid

Lecturer, Dept. of EEE,SUST

Copyright:
Dr. Mohammad Ariful Haque
Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET
Ref. Book
1) Control Systems Engineering by Norman
S. Nise
2) Modern Control System by Richard C.
Dorf and Robert H. Bishop
 What is a control system?
• A control system consists of subsystems and processes
(or plants) assembled for the purpose of obtaining a
desired output with desired performance, given a
specified input.
What is a control system?
 Example
• Elevator control
 Advantages of Control system
• Power amplification
• Remote control
• Convenience of input form
• Compensation for disturbances
 Types of control system
• Open Loop control system

• Closed Loop Control System

Configuration of a control system
Multi-loop feedback control system
Multi-variable control system
Response of a control system
 Design Objectives
• Transient response

• Steady-state response

• Stability

• Motor sizing, choice of sensors, cost, robust

design
Design Process
Examples
Examples
Examples
Rotating Disk Speed Control
Rotating Disk Speed Control
Control Systems
Lec 2
Md. Ishfak Tahmid
Lecturer, Dept. of EEE,SUST

Copyright:
Dr. Mohammad Ariful Haque
Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET
Mathematical modeling of control system

• Find the response, c(t) to an input, r(t) = u(t), a unit step,

assuming zero initial conditions.
Laplace transform review
 Example

u(t)
Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Example: Find the transfer function relating
capacitor voltage to input voltage
 Steps
1) Convert RLC network to Laplace transformed
network.
2) Replace the component values with their
impedance values.
3) [ sum of impedances ] I(s) = [ sum of applied
voltages]
Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Electrical Network Transfer Functions

𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑍2 (𝑠)
= −
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑍1 (𝑠)
Electrical Network Transfer Functions
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑍2 (𝑠)
= −
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑍1 (𝑠)
Control Systems
Lec 3
Md. Ishfak Tahmid
Lecturer, Dept. of EEE,SUST

Copyright:
Dr. Mohammad Ariful Haque
Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET
Transfer function of Mechanical Systems
Examples
 Examples

σ 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = σ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡

[sum of impedances] X(s) = [sum of applied forces]

Examples
Examples
Rotational mechanical systems
Example
Transfer Function of systems with Gear
Block diagram
Example
Example
Problem
Problem
 Control Systems
Lec 4

Md. Ishfak Tahmid

Lecturer, Dept. of EEE,SUST

Copyright:
Dr. Mohammad Ariful Haque
Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET
Transfer function of Electromechanical
Systems
 Transfer function of a motor
➢ For DC motor, magnetic field is developed by stationary PM or
electro magnet.
➢ Rotating circuit (Armature) passes through this magnetic field at
right angles, so feel force,
➢ So torque developed proportional to armature current,

➢ Again, current carrying conductor in rotating

magnetic field induces voltage (Faraday’s law),
Proportional to rotating speed,
Transfer function of a motor
Transfer function of a motor
Transfer function of a motor
Examples
Series parallel connection of
mechanical components
Series parallel connection of
mechanical components
Transfer function of nonlinear system
Linearization
Example
Example
Problem
 Control Systems
Lec 5

Modeling in the time domain

(state-space model)
 Advantages of state-space model
• the state-space approach can be used to represent
nonlinear systems that have backlash, saturation, and
dead zone.
• It can handle, conveniently, systems with nonzero
initial conditions
• Time-varying systems, (for example, missiles with
varying fuel levels) can be represented in the state
space.
• Multiple-input, multiple-output systems (such as a
vehicle with input direction and input velocity yielding
an output direction and an output velocity) can be
compactly represented in state space.
state-space model
General form of state-space model
 Notes on selecting the state variables
• Input variable will never be state variable.
• State variable will be a subset of total
variables.
• Only Linearly Independent variables are taken
as State Variables.
X3 = 5x1 + 4x2 ; not linearly independent
X2 = 3dX1/dt ; linearly independent
• Every variable can be represented as a linear
combination of state variables and input.
 Notes on selecting the state variables

• State variable must be chosen in such a way

that modelling become easier.
• Minimum Number of State Variables must be
selected
- Order of the d’equation describing the system
- Number of independent energy storage
element [ mass, spring, L, C].
- Too few or too many state variables
Electrical network
Electrical network
Electrical network (dependent source)
Electrical network (dependent source)
Electrical network
Electrical network (state-equation)
Electrical network (output equation)
 Control Systems
Lec 6

Modeling in the time domain

(state-space model)
Translational mechanical system

For Mechanical
𝑥1 system, displacement
𝑣1 of the motion and its
X= 𝑥 velocity should be
2
𝑣2 taken as state
variables for easy
modeling.
Translational mechanical system
Translational mechanical system
Translational mechanical system
Problem
Pharmaceutical drug absorption
Pharmaceutical drug absorption
Pharmaceutical drug absorption
Pharmaceutical drug absorption
 Transfer function to state space

➢Order of Differential equation = Number of state variables

➢Output and the differential of output should be taken
as state variables.
Transfer function to state space
Transfer function to state space
Transfer function to state space
Transfer function to state space
State space to transfer function
State space to transfer function
State space to transfer function
State space to transfer function
Control Systems
Lec 7

Time Response
Poles, Zeros, and System Response
• The poles of a transfer function are the values of the Laplace
transform variable, s, that cause the transfer function to
become infinite
• The zeros of a transfer function are the values of the Laplace
transform variable, s, that cause the transfer function to
become zero
System response
 System response

❖The further to the left a pole is on the negative real axis.

The faster the exponential transient response will decay
to zero.
❖𝑒 −5𝑡 = 6.7379 × 10−3 ; at t = 1 sec.
❖𝑒 −20𝑡 = 2.06115 × 10−9 ; at t = 1 sec.
❖So, pole near imaginary axis dominate the response.
 System response

Number of poles = Number of terms in response equation

 First-Order Systems
The order of the
denominator of the
transfer function is
the order of the
system

1 1
= −
𝑠 𝑠+𝑎
Response of the First-Order Systems

1
As unit of a is ,
𝑠𝑒𝑐
so it is called
exponential
frequency.

1
Time Constant (TC) =
𝑎
 Response of the 1st order system
• Rise Time, Tr: Rise time is defined as the time
for the waveform to go from 0.1 to 0.9 of its
final value.
• Settling Time, Ts: Settling time is defined as
the time for the response to reach, and stay
within, 2% of its final value.
 First-Order Transfer Functions via
Testing
❑With a step input, we can measure the time constant
and the steady state value, from which the transfer
function can be calculated

First-Order characteristic of the curve:

1) No overshoot
2) Non-zero initial slope
First-Order Transfer Functions via Testing

➢ Final value = 0.72

➢ 63% of it = 0.72 x 0.63 = 0.45
1
➢ = 0.13
𝑎
➢ a = 1/0.13 = 7.7
𝐾
➢ Steady state value, = 0.72
𝑎
➢ K = 5.54
Control Systems
Lec 8

Time Response
 Second-Order Systems

➢ 𝐷 = 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 81 − 36 = +𝑣𝑒
➢ So, real poles

Two distinct real poles at -𝜎1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 -𝜎2

Natural Response,
 Second-Order Systems

➢ 𝐷 = 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 4 − 36 = −𝑣𝑒
➢ So, complex poles

Two complex poles at -𝜎𝑑 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑑

Natural Response,
 Second-Order Systems

Two imaginary poles at ±𝑗𝜔

Natural Response,
 Second-Order Systems

Two real poles at -𝜎1

Natural Response,
 Second-Order Systems

Critically damped response are the fastest without overshoot

Characteristics of 2nd order system
• Natural frequency: The natural frequency of a
second-order system is the frequency of
oscillation of the system without damping.

rad/sec
x𝑗 𝑏

x −𝑗 𝑏
Characteristics of 2nd order system
• Damping ratio: Damping ratio quantitatively
describes the damped oscillation of a system
regardless of the time scale.

𝑠 2 + 𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏 = 0
𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 9 = 0
s = −1 ± 𝑗 8
2nd order system

−𝑏 ± 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
2𝑎
 2nd order system
• Rise time (Tr): The time required for the
waveform to go from 0.1 of the final value to 0.9
of the final value.
• Peak time (Tp): The time required to reach the
first, or maximum, peak.
• Percent overshoot (%OS): The amount that the
waveform overshoots the steady-state, or final,
value at the peak time, expressed as a percentage
of the steady-state value.
• Settling time (Ts): The time required for the
transient’s damped oscillations to reach and stay
within 2% of the steady-state value.
Underdamped 2nd order system
Underdamped 2nd order system
Evaluation of Tp
Evaluation of Tp
Evaluation of %OS
Evaluation of Ts
Evaluation of Tr
Evaluation of Tr
Control Systems
Lec 9

Time Response
 4
=
𝜎𝑑
4
=
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡

𝜋
=
𝜔𝑑
𝜋
=
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡
𝜔𝑛 = Radial distance of the pole from the origin

= cos 𝜃
 System Response with Additional Poles
❖ Under certain conditions, a system with more than
two poles or zeros can be approximated as a second
order system that has just two dominant poles.
 System Response with Additional Poles
❖ If 𝛼𝑟 ≫ 𝜁𝜔𝑛 , it approaches second order
approximation.
❖ As a rule of thumb, if third pole is five times further to
the left than the dominant poles, we will say second
order approximation is valid.
System Response with Additional Poles
System Response with Additional Poles
 System Response with Additional Zeros

❖ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 = Derivative of original response + a

scaled version of the original response.
❖ If a is large, aC(s) dominates, so response will be like
scaled version of original.
❖ As a becomes small, sC(s) start to dominate, so more
overshoot is added by derivative term.
System Response with Additional Zeros
 System Response with Zero at RHP
❖ 𝑠 − 𝑎 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐶 𝑠 − 𝑎𝐶 𝑠
❖ Derivative term is of opposite sign of scaled original.
Thus, when derivative term dominates, the response
will initially follow the opposite direction of original.
❖ Also called nonminimum-phase system.
Problem
Solution
Solution
Solution
Solution
Solution
 Control Systems
Lec 10

Reduction of multiple subsystems

Building blocks of a control system
Cascade form
Cascade form
Cascade form

Due to loading,
these two are
not equal.
 Cascade form

So, using a buffer eliminates

the problem of loading
Parallel form
 Feedback form

𝐶(𝑠)
= 𝑅 𝑠 ∓ 𝐶 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠)
1
𝐶 𝑠 { ±𝐻 𝑠 }=𝑅 𝑠
𝐺 𝑠
Feedback form
Equivalent block
Moving blocks to create familiar forms
Moving a block to the left past a summing junction

𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 ∓ 𝑋 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)

𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠) ∓ 𝑋 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)
Moving blocks to create familiar forms
Moving a block to the right past a summing junction

𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠) ∓ 𝑋 𝑠
Moving blocks to create familiar forms
Moving a block to the left past a pick-off point
Moving blocks to create familiar forms

Moving a block to the right past a pick-off point

Block diagram reduction
Example
Example
 Control Systems
Lec 11

Reduction of multiple subsystems

Problem
Problem
 Signal flow graph

System Signal
Signal flow graph
Mason’s rule

Two forward path gains:

Mason’s rule

Do not have any

nodes in common
Mason’s rule
Example
Example
Example
Example
SFG of state variable model
SFG of state variable model
(Phase Variable form)
SFG of state variable model
(Phase Variable form)
Alternative Representations in state space
(Cascade Form)
Alternative Representations in state space
(Cascade Form)
Alternative Representations in state space
(Cascade Form)
Alternative Representations in state space
(Parallel Form)
Alternative Representations in state space
(Parallel Form)
Alternative Representations in state space
(Controller Canonical Form)
Alternative Representations in state space
(Controller Canonical Form)
 Alternative Representations in state space
(Controller Canonical Form)

Rearranging it we will get Controller

Canonical Form Representation
Alternative Representations in state space
(Controller Canonical Form)
Alternative Representations in state space
(Controller Canonical Form)
Alternative Representations in state space
(Observer Canonical Form)
SFG of transfer function model
Alternative Representations in state space
(Observer Canonical Form)
Control Systems
Lec 12

Stability
 Stability in terms of natural response

• A linear, time-invariant system is stable if the

natural response approaches zero as time
approaches infinity.
• A linear, time-invariant system is unstable if the
natural response grows without bound as time
approaches infinity.
• A linear, time-invariant system is marginally
stable if the natural response neither decays nor
grows but remains constant or oscillates as time
approaches infinity.
 Stable system

stable systems have closed-loop transfer functions

with poles only in the left half-plane.
 Unstable system

• Unstable systems have closed-loop transfer functions with

at least one pole in the right half-plane and/or poles of
multiplicity greater than 1 on the imaginary axis.
 Stability (continued)
• Marginally stable systems have closed-loop
transfer functions with only imaginary axis poles
of multiplicity 1 and poles in the left half-plane.

BIBO stability:
• A system is stable if every bounded input yields a
bounded output.
• A system is unstable if any bounded input yields
an unbounded output.
 Stable?

➢ A sufficient condition for a system to be stable is that all signs of the coefficients
of the denominator of the closed-loop transfer function are the same.
➢ If powers of s are missing, then the system is either unstable or, at best,
marginally stable.
➢ Unfortunately, if all coefficients of the denominator are positive and not missing,
we do not have definitive information about the system’s pole locations.
Routh –Hurwitz Criterion
Routh –Hurwitz Criterion
Routh –Hurwitz Criterion
Routh –Hurwitz Criterion
▪ For convenience,
any row of the
Routh table can be
multiplied by a
positive constant
 Routh –Hurwitz Criterion
❑ The number of roots of the polynomial that are in the
right half-plane is equal to the number of sign changes
in the first column.
❑ If the closed-loop transfer function has all poles in the
left half of the s-plane, the system is stable. Thus, a
system is stable if there are no sign changes in the first
column of the Routh table.

The system of the example is

unstable since two poles exist
in the right half-plane.
Routh –Hurwitz Criterion – Special cases
Routh –Hurwitz Criterion – Special cases
 Routh –Hurwitz Criterion – Special cases

❖ A polynomial that has the reciprocal roots of the

original polynomial has its roots distributed the same.
❖ because taking the reciprocal of the root value does
not move it to another region.
❖ the polynomial with reciprocal roots is a polynomial
with the coefficients written in reverse order
❑ polynomial that has the reciprocal roots of the
denominator
Routh –Hurwitz Criterion – Special cases

Since there are two sign changes, the system is unstable and
has two right-half-plane poles.
Routh –Hurwitz Criterion – Special cases
 Even polynomial
❑ An entire row of zeros will appear in the Routh table
when a purely even or purely odd polynomial is a
factor of the original polynomial.
❑ Even polynomials only have roots that are symmetrical
about the origin
❑ This symmetry can occur under three conditions of
root position:
(1) The roots are symmetrical and real,
(2) the roots are symmetrical and imaginary, or
(3) the roots are quadrantal.
Even polynomial
 Even polynomial
❖ since jω roots are symmetric about the
origin, if we do not have a row of zeros, we
cannot possibly have jω roots.
❖ The row previous to the row of zeros
contains the even polynomial
that is a factor of the original polynomial.
❖ Finally, everything from the
row containing the even polynomial down
to the end of the Routh table
is a test of only the even polynomial.
Stability analysis for row of zeros
Stability analysis for row of zeros
Stability analysis for row of zeros
Stability Design Via Routh-Hurwitz
criterion
Stability Design Via Routh-Hurwitz
criterion
 Stability Design Via Routh-Hurwitz criterion

❑ K is assumed positive
❑ If K < 1386, all terms in the first column will be positive, and
since there are no sign changes, the system will have three poles
in the left half-plane and be stable.
❑ If K > 1386, the s1 term in the first column is negative. There are
two sign changes, indicating that the system has two right-half-
plane poles and one left-half-plane pole, which makes the
system unstable.
❑ If K = 1386, we have an entire row of zeros, which could signify
jω poles. Returning to the s2 row and replacing K with 1386, we
form the even polynomial
 Stability Design Via Routh-Hurwitz criterion

▪ the even polynomial has its two roots on the jω-axis of unit
multiplicity.
▪ the remaining root is in the left half-plane.
▪ Therefore the system is marginally stable.
Control Systems
Lec 13

Steady-state error
 Introduction
• control systems analysis and design focus on
three specifications: (1) transient response, (2)
stability, and (3) steady-state errors.
• Steady-state error is the difference between
the input and the output for a prescribed test
input as t -> ∞
• In order to explain steady-state error, let us
assume a position control system, where the
output position follows the input commanded
position.
Test inputs
 Test inputs
❑ Step inputs represent constant
position and thus are useful in
determining the ability of the
control system to position itself
with respect to a stationary target,
such as a satellite in geostationary
orbit
❑ position control system that tracks
a satellite that moves across the
sky at a constant angular velocity,
would be tested with a ramp input.
❑ parabolas, whose second
derivatives are constant, represent
constant acceleration inputs to
position control systems and can
be used to represent accelerating
targets, such as the missile
 Test inputs
Output 1 has zero steady-
state error, and Output 2
has a finite steady-state
error

For the ramp input

another possibility exists.
If the output’s slope is
different from that of the
input, then the steady-
state error is infinite
 Steady-state error for unity feedback
system

Final Value Theorem

Closed-loop control system error:

a. general representation; b.
representation for unity feedback
systems
Steady-state error for different inputs
Steady-state error for different inputs
Steady-state error for different inputs
 Steady-state error for different inputs

❖The value of the steady-state error decreases as the static

error constant increases.
Steady-state error for different inputs
Steady-state error for different inputs
Steady-state error for different inputs
Steady-state error for different inputs
Steady-state error for different inputs
System type
System type
Steady-State Error Specifications
Gain design to meet SS error spec
SS error for non-unity feedback system
SS error for disturbance
SS error for disturbance
 Sensitivity
The degree to which changes in system parameters affect system
transfer functions, and hence performance, is called sensitivity.
Sensitivity
Control Systems
Lec 14

Root locus
 What is a root locus
A graphical representation of the paths of the closed-loop
poles as a system parameter is varied.
 Root locus example

K < 25 , overdamped
K = 25 , Critically damped
K > 25 , underdamped
Conditions for being a point on the
Root locus
Conditions for being a point on the
Root locus
Sketching the root locus
Sketching the root locus
Sketching the root locus
Sketching the root locus
 Sketching the root locus

❖There are three finite poles, at s = 0 ; -1; and -2, and no

finite zeros.
❖Every function of s has an equal number of poles and
zeros
❖So there must be three infinite zeros.
Sketching the root locus
Sketching the root locus
Sketching the root locus
 Refining the root locus

❑ At the
breakaway or
break-in point,
the branches of
the root locus
form an angle
of 180°/n with
the real axis
 Refining the root locus

The breakaway point is found at the maximum gain between -1

and -2, and the break-in point is found at the minimum gain
between 3 and 5
 Refining the root locus
The first method is to maximize and minimize the gain, K, using
differential calculus.
 Refining the root locus

The second method

Refining the root locus
Refining the root locus
Refining the root locus
 Plotting and Calibrating the Root Locus
For example, we might want to know the exact coordinates of the
root locus as it crosses the radial line representing 20% overshoot.
Further, we also may want the value of gain at that point.
 Plotting and Calibrating the Root Locus

we see that the point at radius 0.747 is on the root locus, since the angles add up to
180°
the gain, K, at this point is
Refining the root locus
 Example: root locus sketch

➢ Breakaway points on the real axis can occur between 0 and -1 and
between -1.5 and -10
➢ breakaway points are found at -0.62 with a gain of 2.511 and at -4.4
with a gain of 28.89
➢ A break-in point on the real axis can occur between -1.5 and -10
➢ A break-in point is found at -2.8 with a gain of 27.91
Example: root locus sketch
 Example: root locus sketch

➢ Next assume that the system can be approximated by a second

order, under-damped system without any zeros. A 1.52%
overshoot corresponds to a damping ratio of 0.8. Sketch this
damping ratio line on the root locus, as shown in Figure 8.22
➢ search along the 0.8 damping ratio line for the point where the
angles from the open-loop poles and zeros add up to an odd
multiple of 180°.
➢ This is the point where the root locus crosses the 0.8 damping
ratio or 1.52% OS line. Three points satisfy this criterion:

with respective gains of 7.36, 12.79, and 39.64.

Example: root locus sketch
 Example: root locus sketch

❖ Cases 1 and 2 yield third closed-loop poles that are relatively far
from the closed-loop zero. For these two cases there is no pole-zero
cancellation, and a second-order system approximation is not valid.
❖ In Case 3, the third closed-loop pole and the closed-loop zero are
relatively close to each other, and a second-order system
approximation can be considered valid.
Generalized root locus
Root locus for positive feedback system
Root locus for positive feedback system

The equivalent positive-feedback system found by

pushing -1, associated with K, to the right past the
pickoff point is shown in Figure 8.27(a).
Root locus for positive feedback system
Pole sensitivity
Pole sensitivity
Control Systems
Lec 15

Design via Root locus

Reshaping the root locus
Cascade and Feedback compensation
Improving the steady-state error
Improving the steady-state error
PI controller
 PI controller

In this implementation, the error and the

integral of the error are fed forward to
the plant
Lag compensator
Lag compensator design
Lag compensator design
Lag compensator design
Lag compensator design
Improving the transient response
Improving the transient response
Improving the transient response
Improving the transient response
Improving the transient response
Improving the transient response
PD controller
Lead compensator
uncompensated
settling time as 𝑇𝑆 =
4
= 3.972 seconds.
1.007
➢ Arbitrarily assume a compensator zero at -5 on the real axis as a
possible solution.
➢ The resulting angle is -172.69°.
➢ The difference between this angle and 180° is the angular
contribution required from the compensator pole in order to place
the design point on the root locus.
➢ Hence, an angular contribution of -7.31° is required from the
compensator pole.
Improving both transient response and
steady-state error

proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative (PID)
controller
 Improving both transient response and
steady-state error
The design technique
Improving both transient response and
steady-state error
the uncompensated system has a
peak time of 0.297 second at 20%
overshoot.
Step 2 To compensate the system to
reduce the peak time to two-thirds
of that of the uncompensated
system, we must first find the
compensated system’s dominant
pole location.
Lag-lead compensator design
Notch filter
Notch filter
Feedback compensation
 Compensator design: approach 1
Compensating Zero via Rate Feedback
 Compensator design: approach 1
Compensating Zero via Rate Feedback
 Compensator design: approach 1

The settling time is 2.21 seconds and must

be reduced by a factor of 4 to 0.55
second.
Thus, the compensated pole has a real
part of
Compensator design: approach 1
Compensator design: approach 1
Compensator design: approach 1
 Compensator design: approach 2
Minor-Loop Feedback Compensation
 Compensator design: approach 2

Since the zero at the origin comes from

the feedback transfer function of the
minor loop, this zero is not a zero of the
closed-loop transfer function of the
minor loop.
Hence, the pole at the origin appears to
remain stationary, and there is no pole-
zero cancellation at the origin. Equation
(9.43) also shows this phenomenon.
We see a stationary pole at the origin
and two complex poles that change with
gain.
 Compensator design: approach 2

The poles just found, as well as the pole at

the origin, act as open-loop poles that
generate a root locus for variations of the
gain, K.
Compensator design: approach 2
Physical realization of compensation