EC 8353 - ELECTRON DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

III SEMESTER-B.E (EEE)

 Syllabus

EC 8353 ELECTRON DEVICES AND CIRCUITS LTPC

3104
OBJECTIVES:
The student should be made to:
Be familiar with the structure of basic electronic devices.
Be exposed to the operation and applications of electronic devices.

UNIT I PN JUNCTION DEVICES 9

PN junction diode –structure, operation and V-I characteristics, diffusion and transient capacitance -
Rectifiers – Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier,– Display devices- LED, Laser diodes- Zener diode-
characteristics-Zener Reverse characteristics – Zener as regulator

UNIT II TRANSISTORS 9
BJT, JFET, MOSFET- structure, operation, characteristics and Biasing UJT, Thyristor and IGBT -
Structure and characteristics.

UNIT III AMPLIFIERS 9

BJT small signal model – Analysis of CE, CB, CC amplifiers- Gain and frequency response –
MOSFET small signal model– Analysis of CS and Source follower – Gain and frequency response-
High frequency analysis.

UNIT IV MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS AND DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER 9

BIMOS cascade amplifier, Differential amplifier – Common mode and Difference mode analysis –
FET input stages – Single tuned amplifiers – Gain and frequency response – Neutralization methods,
power amplifiers –Types (Qualitative analysis).

UNIT V FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND OSCILLATORS 9

Advantages of negative feedback – voltage / current, series , Shunt feedback –positive feedback –
Condition for oscillations, phase shift – Wien bridge, Hartley, Colpitts and Crystal oscillators.

TOTAL (L:45+T:15): 60 PERIODS

OUTCOMES:
To explain the structure of the basic electronic devices.
To design applications using the basic electronic devices.

TEXT BOOKS:
1. David A. Bell ,”Electronic Devices and Circuits”, Prentice Hall of India, 2004.
2. Sedra and smith, “Microelectronic Circuits “ Oxford University Press, 2004.

REFERENCES:
1. Rashid, “Micro Electronic Circuits” Thomson publications, 1999.
2. Floyd, “Electron Devices” Pearson Asia 5th Edition, 2001.
3. Donald A Neamen, “Electronic Circuit Analysis and Design” Tata McGraw Hill, 3rd Edition, 2003.
4. Robert L.Boylestad, “Electronic Devices and Circuit theory”, 2002.
5. Robert B. Northrop, “Analysis and Application of Analog Electronic Circuits to
Biomedical Instrumentation”, CRC Press, 2004.
 UNIT I

PN JUNCTION DEVICES
INTRODUCTION

According to modern electron theory, Matter is composed of the three fundamental particles
they are Proton, Electron and Neutron.
 Proton – Positively charged
 Electron – Negatively charged and
 Neutron – Uncharged i.e electrically neutral in nature possessing no charge.

Fundamental Nature of the Mass in Kg

particle charge
Neutron No charge -27
1.675 x 10
Proton + ve Charge -27
1.672 x 10

Electron - ve Charge -31

9.107 x10

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM:
 All protons and neutrons are bound together at the centre of an atom – Nucleus. While all
the electrons are moving round the nucleus which do not move in the same orbit. These
electrons are arranged in the different orbits or shell at a fixed distance from the nucleus.
 Each shell contains fixed number of electrons. The electrons revolving in the last shell i.e
farthest from the nucleus are very loosely bound to the nucleus. Such electrons in the
outermost shell is called valance electrons and outermost shell is known as valance shell.
 Each shell has energy level
associated with it. Closer the shell
to nucleus more tightly bound, so it
possesses lower energy level and
the valance electron revolving in
the outermost shell are said to have
highest energy level.
 In a normal atom the number of
protons is equal to number of
electrons. The number of protons in
an atom is called atomic number.
ENERGY BAND THEORY
The valence electrons possess highest energy level. When such electrons form the covalent
bonds, due to the coupling between the valence electrons, the energy levels associated with the
valence electrons merge into each other. This merging forms an energy band.
Out of all the energy bands, three bands are most important to understand the behavior of
solids. These bands are, 1. Valence band, 2. Conduction band, 3. Forbidden band or gap.

Valance Band - The energy band formed due to

merging of energy levels associated with the valence
electrons.
Conduction Band - The energy band formed due to
merging of energy levels associated with the free
electrons.
Forbidden Band or Gap – The energy gap which is
present separating the conduction band and valance
band.
The energy associated in the forbidden band is denoted as EG and measured in the unit electron-volt
(eV)
1eV = 1.6 x 10 -19 J
The classification of materials as insulators, conductors and semiconductors is mainly
depend on the width of the forbidden energy gap.
Conductors – Large number of free electrons exist at room temperature, so EG does not exist. The
valance and conduction band are overlapped.
Insulators – The energy gap EG is large of the order of 7eV. At very high temperature or high
voltage, these materials do not conduct
Semiconductors – The energy gap depends on temperature. At normal room temperature, few free
electrons exist. But at absolute zero these are perfect insulators.
INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR
 Materials that permit flow of electrons are called conductors (e.g., gold, silver, copper,
etc.).
 Materials that block flow of electrons are called insulators (e.g., rubber, glass, Teflon, mica,
etc.).
 A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie in between those of
insulators and good conductors. Examples are: germanium and silicon.
 In terms of energy bands, semiconductors can be defined as those materials which have
almost an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band with a very narrow energy
gap (of the order of 1 eV) separating the two.
Types of Semiconductors:
Semiconductor may be classified as under:

a. Intrinsic Semiconductors:
 An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor material in its
extremely pure form.
 The energy gap is so small that even at ordinary room temperature; the number of valance
electrons absorbs the thermal energy, due to which they break covalent bond and drift to
conduction band.
 The energy required to break a covalent bond for pure germanium and silicon are 0.72 eV
and 1.1 eV respectively.
 A vacancy created in the broken covalent bond, such vacancy is called hole. Whenever an
electron becomes free, the corresponding hole gets generated.
 The concentration of free electrons and holes is always equal in an intrinsic semiconductor.
 An electron is negatively charged particle. Thus a hole getting created due to electron drift is
said to be positively charged.
 Schematic energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor at room temperature is shown
in Fig. below.
 Energy Band Diagram Conventional Current direction

b. Extrinsic Semiconductors:
 In order to change the properties of intrinsic semiconductors a small amount of some other
material is added to it. The process of adding other material to crystal intrinsic
semiconductor to improve its conductivity is called doping.
 Those intrinsic semiconductors to which some suitable impurity or doping agent or doping
has been added in extremely small amounts
(about 1 part in 108) are called extrinsic or
impurity semiconductors.
 Depending on the type of doping material
used, extrinsic semiconductors can be sub-
divided into two classes:
(i) N-type semiconductors and
(ii) P-type semiconductors.

(i) N-type Extrinsic Semiconductor:

 When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to pure semiconductor, it is called n
– type semiconductor. The pentavalent impurity having five valance electrons, their
elements are such as arsenic, bismuth, phosphorous and antimony. Such an impurity is
called donor impurity.
 When the voltage is applied to the n – type material, the free electrons which are readily
available due to added impurity, move in a direction of positive terminal of voltage applied.
This constitutes a current.
 N-type semiconductors, electrons are the majority carriers while holes constitute the
minority carriers.
 N-type material formation Conduction in n-type material

(ii) P-type Extrinsic Semiconductor:

 This type of semiconductor is obtained by adding small amount of trivalent impurity like
boron (B) are added to a pure semiconductor. In this case, the three valence electrons of
boron atom form covalent bonds with four surrounding germanium atoms but one bond is
left incomplete and gives rise to a hole as shown in Fig. below.
 Thus, boron which is called an acceptor impurity causes as many positive holes in a
germanium crystal as there are boron atoms thereby producing a P-type (P for positive)
extrinsic semiconductor.
 If this type of semiconductor is subjected to an electric field by applying voltage then the
holes moves in the valence band and responsible for conduction. Holes are majority carriers
and electrons are minority carriers.

P-type material formation Conduction in p-type material

UNBIASED P-N JUNCTION
The two types of materials p-type and n-type are chemically combined with a special fabrication
technique to form a p-n junction. The interface between the two regions is called as metallurgical
junction.

Formation of Depletion Region:

 In a step graded P-N junction, there exists a concentration gradient near the junction. There is
large number of holes on N side, near the junction. Those holes start moving from P side to N
side i.e. from high concentration area to low concentration area. This is nothing but diffusion of
holes from P side to N side.
 Similarly the electrons on N side start diffusing across the junction into the P region.
 As holes enter the N region, they find number of donor atoms. The holes recombine with donor
atoms. As donor atoms accept additional holes, they become positively charged immobile ions.
Such a large number of positively charged immobile ions get formed near the junction on n
side.
 Atoms on P side are acceptor atoms. The electrons diffusing from N side to P side recombine
with the acceptor atoms on P side. As acceptor atoms accept additional electrons, they become
negatively charged immobile ions. Such a large number of negatively charged ions get formed
near the junction on P side.
 As more number of holes diffuses on N
side, large positive charge will be
accumulated on N side near the
junction. Eventually in the same way
large negative charge will be
accumulated on P side near the junction.
Such a region is depleted of free mobile
charge carriers and hence it is called
“depletion region” or “depletion layer”.
 The depletion region is also called “space charge region” if the depletion region can become
widened up to a point where no further electrons are holes can cross the junction. Thus
depletion region can acts as the barrier.
P-N JUNCTION DIODE:
 The P-N junction forms a popular semiconductor device called “P-N Junction Diode”. The P-
N Junction has two terminals called electrodes: one each from P region and N region. As there
are two electrodes, it is called as diode i.e. di + electrode.
 Ohmic contacts – a metal applied to the heavily doped n and p type regions. This contacts are
used to connect n and p type regions to the electrodes.

 The above figure shows the schematic arrangement of P-N junction diode. The P region acts
as anode while the N region acts as cathode. We can connect the diode in circuits in two ways.
This is also called as biasing which means applying an external voltage. The biasing is of two
types
(1) Forward biasing
(2) Reverse biasing
Forward Biasing of P-N Junction Diode:
 If an external voltage is connected in such a
way that the P region terminal is connected to
the positive of DC voltage and the N region is
connected to the negative of the DC voltage,
the biasing condition is called forward biasing.
Operation:
 When we apply an external voltage more than the barrier potential, the negative terminal of
battery pushes the electrons against barrier from N to P region.
 Similarly positive terminal pushes the holes from P to N region. Thus holes get repelled by
positive terminal and cross the junction against barrier potential. This reduces the width of
depletion region.
  As forward voltage increased, at a particular value the depletion region becomes very much
narrow such that large number of charge carriers can cross the junction.
 In this way the flow of charge increases through the diode by increasing the applied voltage.
The motion of charge particles can be observed in above picture.
 The current in p-region is due to movement of holes – hole current.
 The current in n-region is due to movement of free electrons – electron current.

Reverse Biasing of P-N Junction Diode:

 If an external voltage is connected in such a
way that P region of battery is connected to the
negative terminal of the battery and N region is
connected to the positive terminal of the
battery, the biasing condition is called reverse
biasing of a P-N junction.
Operation:
 In reverse bias, the negative terminal attracts the holes in the P region away from the junction.
The positive terminal attracts the free electrons in the N region and no charge carrier is able to
cross the junction.
 As electrons and holes move away from the junction, the depletion region widens which
creates more positive charge in the n-region and more negative charge in the p-region.
  In this way the depletion width increases highly and acts as a resistor, but it does not exist for
more time. In steady state, majority current ceases the holes and electrons stop moving away
from the junction.
 Due to increased barrier potential, the positive side drags the electrons from p-region and the
negative side drags the holes from n-region. In this way there is a reverse current flow due to
minority charge carriers which are small in number.

P-N JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS:

 The response of a diode can be easily indicated using the characteristics which called as V-I
characteristics of diode.
 Forward Characteristics –
o Initially the forward current is small as
along as the bias voltage is less than the
barrier potential. At a certain voltage close
to barrier potential, current increases
suddenly.
o The voltage at which diode starts increasing
rapidly is called as cut in voltage (Vγ). The
cut in voltage for Germanium is 0.2 V and
for silicon is 0.6 V.
o The point which the current increasing
exponentially is called knee of the curve.

 Forward Resistance of Diode:

The resistance offered by the P-N junction diode in forward biased condition is called
forward resistance

(i) Static Forward Resistance - Resistance offered by a PN junction under the D.C connection
is called static resistance (Rf).
Rf = Forward d.c Voltage / Forward d.c. current
= OA / OC at point E (from Graph)
(ii) Dynamic Forward Resistance - Resistance offered by a PN junction under the A.C
condition is called dynamic resistance (rf).
rf = 1 / Slope of forward characteristics
 Reverse Characteristics –
o As reverse voltage increased,
reverse current increases initially
but after a certain voltage, the
current is almost constant though
the reverse voltage is increased
up to certain limit.
o Beyond this point breakdown
occurs and the reverse current
increases rapidly. This is called
reverse breakdown of the diode and its corresponding voltage is reverse breakdown
voltage VBR.
 Reverse Resistance of Diode: The resistance offered by the P-N junction diode in reverse
biased condition is called Reverse resistance.
(i) Static Reverse resistance - This is reverse resistance under D.C condition, denoted as Rr.
Rr = Applied reverse voltage / Reverse saturation current
(ii) Dynamic Reverse resistance - This is reverse resistance under AC condition, denoted as
rr.
rr = Change in reverse voltage / Change in reverse current .

 Complete V-I Characteristics of a Diode

Advantages:
 It is very much compact and portable
 It can be used as on-off switch
 It is operated with low voltage and low power consumption
 It is very cheap and readily available
Disadvantages:
 It is temperature sensitive and its characteristics affected due to change in temperature
 While switching on-off, there is time delay hence not suitable for high speed operations
 Due to large reverse current, noise level is high
 Requires finite voltage level to turn on which is undesirable for precise applications.

CURRENT EQUATION OF DIODE:

The relationship between applied voltage V and the diode current I is exponential and is
mathematically given by the equation called diode current equation.
It is expressed as, I = I0 [e^ (V/ η VT )-1] A
where I0 = Reverse saturation current in amperes
V = Applied voltage
η = Ideality factor, 1 for germanium diode and 2 for silicon diode
VT = Voltage equivalent of temperature in volts
The voltage equivalent of temperature VT for a given diode at temperature T is calculated as,
VT = kT volts
where k = Boltzmann's constant = 8.62 x 10-5 eV/oK
T = Temperature in oK
Thus at room temperature of 27 oC i.e. T = 27 + 273 = 300 oK, the value of VT is,
VT = 8.62 x 10-5 x 300 = 0.02586 = 26 mV
The value of VT also can be expressed as,

T = = =
1 1 11600
8.62 × 10

TRANSITION CAPACITANCES
 When P-N junction is reverse biased the width of the depletion region increases as reverse bias
voltage increases. As the charged particles move away from junction there exists a change in
charge with respect to applied reverse voltage. So change in charge dQ with respect to change in
voltage dV is nothing but capacitive effect.
  This junction capacitance is called as space charge capacitance or transition capacitance and is
denoted as CT

 This incremental capacitance CT may be defined as, T =

Where, dQ – Change or increase in charge, dV - Change or increase in voltage.
 If W is the width of the depletion region then the transition capacitance is given by
CT = ε A / W
Where, A - cross sectional area of the region, and ε – Permittivity of the semiconductor.
 As the reverse biased applied to diode increases, the width of the depletion region increases.
Thus the resulting transition capacitance decreases.
 This is used as a voltage variable capacitance in many applications. Some special diodes like
varactor diode, Varicap or tuning diodes are made with CT property.
DIFFUSION CAPACITANCE:
 When the junction is forward biased, a capacitance comes into play that is known as diffusion
capacitance or storage capacitance denoted as CD. It is much greater than the transition
capacitance.
 During forward biased the potential barrier is reduced. The charge carriers move away from the
junction and recombine. The density of the charge carriers is high near the junction and reduces
or decays as the distance increases.
 Thus in this case charge is stored on both side of the junction and varies with the applied
potential. So as per definition the rate of change of charge with respect to applied voltage results
in capacitance called as diffusion capacitance.

D = =
T

Where τ - mean life time of the charge carrier, ID - diode current,

VT - applied forward voltage, and η is generation recombination factor.
 So diffusion capacitance is directly proportional to the diode current. The value of diffusion
capacitance is in the order of nano to micro farads while transition capacitance is of the order
of Pico farads. So CD is much larger than CT.
RECTIFIERS:
 A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is
known as rectification.
 There are many possible ways to construct rectifier circuits using diodes. The three basic
types of rectifier circuits are:
 (1) Half Wave Rectifier
(2) Full Wave Rectifier
(3) Bridge Rectifier
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:
 This rectifier circuit consists of resistive load, rectifying element i.e p-n junction diode and
the source of ac voltage, all are connected in series.
 The rectifier circuit is operated from the main A.C supply. To obtain the desire D.C voltage
across the load, the A.C voltage is applied to rectifier circuit using suitable step-up or step-
down transformer.

Half wave Rectifier

 The transformer decides the peak value of the secondary voltage. If N1 are the primary
number of turns and N2 are the secondary number of turns and Epm is the peak value of the
primary voltage & Esm is the peak value of the secondary A.C voltage then,

 The nature of Esm is sinusoidal, the instantaneous value will be es = Esm sin ωt
ω = 2πf - angular frequency rad/ sec
Circuit operation:
 During the positive half cycle of the
source, the terminal (A) anode is positive
with respect to the terminal (B) cathode.
The ideal diode is forward biased and
operates as a closed switch. The current
flows in the circuit in the clockwise
direction across the load resistance RL
and it is denoted as IL load current.
  During the negative half cycle, the diode
is reverse biased and acts as an open
switch. Hence no current flow through the
circuit. Thus the current is in the form of
half sinusoidal pulses. The dc output
waveform is expected to be straight line
but half wave rectifier gives a pulsating dc
output.

Average D.C load current (IDC):

The average or d.c value of alternating current is obtained by integration. For finding out the
average value, we have to determine area under the curve over one complete cycle i.e from 0 to 2π
Mathematically, it can described as
Load Current IL = Im sin ωt for 0 < ωt < π
IL = 0 for π < ωt < 2π

Average D.C load Current IDC = ∫ ( )

= ∫ sin( ) ( )
 Since No current flow during negative half cycle, we can change the limit of integration.

Therefore, IDC = ∫ sin( ) ( )

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law we can write the peak value of load current Im as
Im = Esm / (Rf + RL + Rs)
Average D.C load Voltage (EDC):
It is the product of average D.C load current and load resistance RL.
EDC = IDC RL
=( / ) RL

The value of Rf and Rs are small compared to RL. So by neglecting we get

EDC =
R.M.S Value of load Current (IRMS):
The RMS means squaring i.e finding mean and then finding square root. Hence R.M.S value
of load current can be obtained as
D.C Power Output (PDC):
The d.c power output can be obtained as
PDC = EDC IDC = I2DC RL

A.C Power Output (PAC):

The a.c power is given by
PAC = I2RMS [Rf + RL + Rs]
= (I2m / 4) [Rf + RL + Rs]
Rectifier Efficiency (η):
The rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of output d.c power to input a.c power.
η = PDC / PAC

.406
=

η = 0.406 since (Rf + Rs) << RL

% η = 0.406 x 100 = 40.6 %

Thus in half wave rectifier, maximum of 40.6 % a.c power gets converted in to d.c
power in the load. The remaining 60 % of power present interms of ripples in the output as a
Pulsating or fluctuating component.
Ripple factor (γ):
Measuring of ripples in the output with a help of factor called ripple factor. It is
defined as the ratio of RM.S value of the a.c component in the output to the average or d.c
component present in the output.
γ = Iac / IDC
 Iac – R.M.S value of a.c
component present in output
We know that =>

⸫γ=

On substituting for IRMS & IDC, We get

γ = 1.211
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):
The peak inverse voltage is the peak voltage across the diode during reverse biased
condition. During this time the load current is ideally zero and hence the maximum value of
the voltage that exist across the diode is nothing but Esm.
PIV of diode = Esm (Maximum value of secondary voltage)
= π EDC (when IDC = 0)
Transformer Utilization Factor (T.U.F):
It is defined as the ratio of d.c power delivered to the load to the a.c power rating of
the transformer.
A.C power rating of transformer = ERMS x IRMS
= (Esm / √2) x (Im / 2)
= (Esm Im) / 2√2
D.C power delivered to the load = I2DC x RL
= (Im / π)2 x RL
⸫ T.U.F = (Im / π)2 x RL / (Esm Im) / 2√2
On neglecting the resistance drop, we can write Esm = Im RL

Now,

Voltage Regulation:
The voltage regulation is the factor which tells about the change in the d.c output
voltage as load changes from no load to full load condition.
 If, (Vdc) NL – D.C voltage at no load and (Vdc)FL – D.C voltage on full load, then
Voltage regulation = [(Vdc) NL - (Vdc) FL] / (Vdc) FL
Advantages of Half Wave rectifier:
(1) Only one diode is sufficient.
(2) Easy to design.
(3) Centre tap transformer is not required.
Disadvantages of Half wave rectifier:
(1) Ripple factor is high (1.21).
(2) Rectification efficiency is less.
(3) Low transformer utilization factor is less.
(4) High cost.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:

The full wave rectifier conducts during both positive and negative half cycle of input ac
supply. In order to rectify both the half cycles of a.c input, two diodes are used. The diodes feed
a common load RL with help of centre tap transformer.

Operation of full wave rectifier:

 During the positive half cycle of a.c
input, the diode D1 is forward biased
and the current starts flowing to the
load through it, while diode D2 will
be reverse biases and will act as
open circuit and not conduct.
  During the negative half of the
input diode D2 forward biased
and conducts while D1 becomes
reverse biased. So Load current
start flowing through D2 during
this negative peak.
 Note that the current flow
through load has not changed
even when the voltage polarity changed. Hence we get the rectified output across the
load.
 Thus the full wave rectifier circuit is essentially consists of two half wave rectifier
circuits working independently of each other with a common load.

Voltage waveforms for full wave rectifier

Average D.C load current (IDC):
Consider one cycle of load current from 0 to π to obtain the average value of load current.
 IL = Im sin ωt for 0 < ωt < π

Average value of dc current Iav = IDC = ∫ ( )

= ∫ sin( ) ( )

Average D.C Load Voltage (IDC):

The average d.c load voltage is given by,

If we neglect the resistance value i.e Rf and Rs << RL, then

EDC = 2 Esm / π
R.M.S Value of Load Current (IRMS):
The RMS value of load current can be obtained as follows

Since two half wave rectifier are similar in

operation we can write,
R.M.S Value of Load Voltage (ERMS):
The RMS value of load voltage is given by
ERMS = IRMS x RL
= (Im / √2) x R L
D.C Power Output (PDC):
D.C Power output PDC = EDC x IDC
= I2DC x RL
= (2 Im / π)2 RL
= (4 / π2) I2m RL
On substituting the value of Im we get,

A.C Power Input (PAC):

On substituting the value of Im we get,

PAC = E2sm / 2(Rf + Rs + RL)
Rectifier Efficiency (η):
η = PDC output / PAC input

On neglecting the value of resistance, we get

% of η = 8 / π2 x 100
= 81.2 %
Ripple Factor (γ):
It is defined as the ratio of RM.S value of the a.c component in the output to the
average or d.c component present in the output.
γ = Iac / IDC

On substituting the values of IRMS and IDC, we get

Ripple factor γ = 0.48

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):
When the diode is reverse biased then full transformer secondary voltage gets impressed
across it. Thus the peak value of the inverse voltage to which the diode gets subjected is voltage
across the parts of transformer secondary.
So the total peak inverse voltage of diode PIV = 2Esm = π EDC (when IDC = 0)
Transformer Utilization Factor (T.U.F):
It is defined as the ratio of d.c power delivered to the load to the a.c power rating of the
transformer. For full wave rectifier the TUF is calculated for primary and secondary separately
and then average is determined.
On Secondary Side, T.U.F is calculated as

The primary of the transformer is feeding two half wave rectifier separately. Therefore
the T.U.F of primary winding is given as
 = 2 x T.U.F of Half wave Rectifier
= 2 X 0.287
= 0.574
The average T.U.F for full wave rectifier is
= (0.574 + 0.812) / 2
= 0.693
Voltage Regulation:
The voltage regulation is the factor which tells about the change in the d.c output
voltage as load changes from no load to full load condition.
Voltage regulation = [(Vdc) NL - (Vdc) FL] / (Vdc) FL
(V dc) NL = 2Esm / π and (V dc) FL = IDC RL
Advantages of full wave rectifier:
(1) The D.C load voltage and current are more than half wave.
(2) No possibility of saturation.
(3) TUF is better and transformer loss is less.
(4) Efficiency is higher.
(5) Large D.C output.
(6) Ripple factor is less.
Disadvantages of full wave rectifier:
(1) PIV rating of diode is higher.
(2) Higher PIV diodes are larger in size and costlier.
(3) High cost due to centre tap transformer.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):

 The LED is an optical diode, which emits
light when forward biased. The symbol of
LED is similar to p-n junction diode apart
from two arrows indicating that device emits
light.
 The visible lights that an LED emits are usually orange, red, yellow, or green. The
invisible light includes the infrared light. The biggest advantage of this device is its high
power to light conversion efficiency. That is, the efficiency is almost 50 times greater
than a simple tungsten lamp.
  The response time of the LED is also known to be very fast in the range of 0.1
microseconds when compared with 100 milliseconds for a tungsten lamp. Due to these
advantages, the device wide applications as visual indicators and as dancing light
displays.

LED Construction:
 The method used for LED construction is to
deposite three semiconductor layers on the
substrate as shown. In between p type and n
type, there exist an active region. This active
region emits light, when electron and hole
recombine.
 The P-region becomes the device surface. In order to allow more surface area for the light
to be emitted the metal anode connections are made at the outer edges of the P-layer.
 Thus for the light be reflected as much as possible towards the surface of the device, a
gold film applied to the surface bottom. This setting also enables to provide a cathode
connection.
 The light emitted by the device depends on the type of semiconductor material used.
Infrared light is produced by using Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) as semiconductor. Red or
yellow light is produced by using Gallium-Arsenide-Phosphorus (GaAsP) as
semiconductor. Red or green light is produced by using Gallium-Phosphorus (GaP) as
semiconductor.

LED Operation:
 Whenever a p-n junction id forward
biased, the electrons cross the
junction from n-type semiconductor
material and recombine with holes in
the p-type semiconductor material.
 When free electron recombines, it
falls from conduction band to a
valance band. Thus energy level
associated with it changes from
higher value to lower value.
  In normal diodes, this energy is released in the form of heat. But LED is made up of some
special materials which release energy in the form of photons which emit the light
energy. This phenomenon is generally called electroluminescence.
 The various impurities added during the doping process control the wavelength. This
wavelength of the emitted light determines the color of the light and also determines
whether the light is visible or invisible.
LED Characteristics:
 The resistor Rs is the current limiting resistor, due
to this the current through the circuit is limited and
prevented from exceeding the maximum current
rating of the diode.
 When forward biased, as forward current increases,
the light output also increases. This output
characteristics curve is shown in the below figure.

Advantages:
(1) Very low voltage and current are enough to drive the LED.
(2) Voltage range – 1 to 2 volts.
(3) Current – 5 to 20 milliamperes.
(4) Total power output will be less than 150 milliwatts.
(5) The response time is very less – only about 10 nanoseconds.
(6) The device does not need any heating and warm up time.
(7) Miniature in size and hence light weight.
(8) Have a rugged construction and hence can withstand shock and vibrations.
(9) An LED has a life span of more than 20 years.
Disadvantages:
(1) A slight excess in voltage or current can damage the device.
(2) The device is known to have a much wider bandwidth compared to the laser.
 (3) The Characteristics are affected by temperature.
(4) Luminous efficiency is low.
Applications:
(1) Used in all kinds of visual displays (7 segment display and alpha numeric displays).
(2) Used in opto couplers.
(3) Used in remote controls and burglar alarm.

SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY:

 A display consisting of seven LEDs (hence its name – seven segment display) arranged in
a rectangular fashion and are labelled A through G. Each of the seven LEDs is called a
segment because when illuminated the segment forms part of a numerical digit (both
Decimal and Hex) to be displayed.
 An additional 8th LED is sometimes used within the same package thus allowing the
indication of a decimal point, (DP).
 By forward biasing the appropriate pins of the LED segments in a particular order, some
segments will be light and others will be dark allowing the desired character pattern of
the number to be generated on the display. This then allows us to display each of the ten
decimal digits 0 through 9 on the same 7-segment display.
 There are two types of seven segment display called: Common Cathode (CC)
and Common Anode (CA).
 The Common Cathode (CC) – In the common cathode display, all the cathode
connections of the LED segments are joined together to logic “0” or ground. The
individual segments are illuminated by application of a “HIGH”, or logic “1” signal via a
current limiting resistor to forward bias the individual Anode terminals (a-g).

Common Cathode 7-segment Display

 The Common Anode (CA) – In the common anode display, all the anode connections of
the LED segments are joined together to logic “1”. The individual segments are
illuminated by applying a ground, logic “0” or “LOW” signal via a suitable current
limiting resistor to the Cathode of the particular segment (a-g).

Common Anode 7-segment Display

 In general, common anode displays are more popular as many logic circuits can sink
more current than they can source. Also note that a common cathode display is not a
direct replacement in a circuit for a common anode display and vice versa, as it is the
same as connecting the LEDs in reverse, and hence light emission will not take place.
 Depending upon the decimal digit to be displayed, the particular set of LEDs is forward
biased. For instance, to display the numerical digit 0, we will need to light up six of the
LED segments corresponding to a, b, c, d, e and f. Then the various digits
from 0 through 9 can be displayed using a 7-segment display as shown.

7-Segment Display Segments for all Numbers.

LASER DIODE:
 The term LASER stands for Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission
of Radiation.
 Laser light is referred to as coherent light which means that a light with a single wave
length, Where the LED is incoherent light, which has wide band of wavelength.
Construction and Symbol:
 It consists of PN junction formed by two doped gallium arsenide layers. The two ends of
structure are flat and parallel with one end mirrored and one partially reflective.
 The length L of the junction is preciously related to the wave length of the light to be
emitted.

Symbol Construction of laser diode

Operation:

 When PN junction forward biased by an external voltage source, the electron move
through junction and recombines with holes, photons are released. These photons strikes
atoms, causing more photons to be released.
 When forward biased current is increased, more electron enter the depletion region and
cause more photons to be emitted. This photons strikes the reflected surface and reflected
back along their original path.
 This movement of photons from one end to another end continues for 1000 of times.
During this movement, photons strikes more atoms and released and additional photons
due to avalanche effect.
  This activity of reflection and generation of photons results in a very intense, focused and
pure beam of laser light is formed by the photons that pass through the partially reflective
end of PN junction.
 Each photons produced in such emission process gives an intense beam of laser light with
a single wavelength.
 To produce this beam of light, it is necessary to have a current through the laser diode
above certain threshold level.
Applications of Laser:
(1) CD layers and optical discs
(2) Laser printers
(3) Aerospace, medical and defense industries
(4) Fiber and broadband communications.

ZENER DIODE:
 Zener diode is a silicon p-n junction
semiconductor device, which is generally
operated in reverse breakdown region.
 These diodes are fabricated with precise breakdown voltages, by controlling the doping
level during manufacturing. The zener diodes have breakdown voltage range from 3 V to
200 V.
 The d.c voltage can be applied to the zener diode so as to make it forward biased or
reverse biased as shown below.

Forward Biasing Reverse Biasing

Characteristics of Zener Diode:

 In the forward biased condition,the normal rectifier diode and the zener diode operate in
similar fashion. But the zener diode is designed to be operated in the reverse biased
condition.
 In reverse biased condition,the diode
carries reverse saturation current till the
reverse voltage applied is less than the
reverse breakdown voltage.When the
reverse voltage exceeds reverse
breakdown voltage ,the current through it
changes drastically but the voltage across
it remains almost constant.Such a break
down region is a normal operating region
for zener diode.
 The change from a low value to large value of current is vey sharp and well defined.Such
a sharp change in the reverse characteristics is called knee or zener knee of the curve. At
this knee, a break down is said to occur in the device. The reverse bias voltage at which
the breakdown occurs is called zener breakdown voltage denoted as VZ.
 The current corresponding to a knee point is called zener knee current and it is a
minimum current zener must carry to operate in reverse breakdown region.It is denoted
as IZK or IZmin .
 The current at which the nominal zener breakdown voltage is specified is called zener
test current,denoted as IZK.
 The maximum current a zener diode can carry safely is called zener maximum current
and is denoted as IZM or IZmax.
Equivalent circuit of Zener diode:
 When the breakdown occurs then IZ may increase from IZmin to
IZmax but voltage across zener diode remains constant.
 Hence actually the internal impedance decreases as current increases
in the zener region. But this impedance is very small.
 Hence ideally the zener diode is indicated by a battery of voltage V Z,
which remains fairly constant in the zener region.
 Practically though very small, zener has internal resistance. In the zener region,this
resistance is called dynamic resistance of the zener denoted as ZZ.
The dynamic resistance is defined as
∆
= = (1/slope of the reverse characteristics in zener region).
∆
BREAKDOWN MECHANISMS IN ZENER DIODE:
There are two distinct mechanism due to which breakdown may occur in the
zener diode. They are zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown.
Zener Breakdown:
o Zener breakdown takes when both sides of the junction are very heavily doped and the
depletion layer is thin.
o When a small reverse voltage is applied a very strong electric field is set up across the
thin depletion layer.
o This electric field is enough to break the covalent bonds. Now extremely large number of
free charge carriers are produced which constitute the zener current. This process is
known as zener breakdown.
o In this process the junction is not damaged. The junction regains its original position
when the reverse voltage is removed.
Avalanche Breakdown:
o The avalanche breakdown takes place when both sides of the junction are lightly doped
and the depletion layer is large.
o When the reverse bias voltage is increased, the accelerated free electron collides with the
semiconductor atoms in the depletion region. Due to the collision with valence electrons,
covalent bonds are broken and electron-hole pairs are generated.
o These new charge carriers so produced acquire energy from applied potential and in turn
produced additional carriers.
o This forms avalanche multiplication. This avalanche multiplication causes the reverse
current to increase rapidly. This leads to avalanche breakdown.
o Once this breakdown occurs the junction cannot regain its original position.