Introduction to Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology is the study of how people perceive, learn,

remember, and think about information. (Sternberg & Sternberg)

A cognitive psychologist might study how people perceive

various shapes and sizes, why they remember some information but
tend to forget others, or how they learn regarding a particular language
and culture.

Definition of Cognition

“Thinking, or cognition (from a Latin word meaning “to know”),

can be defined as mental activity that goes on in the brain when a
person is processing information—organizing it, understanding it,
and communicating it to others.” (Cicarelli and White , 2014)

“Cognition is a general term used to denote thinking and many

other aspects of our higher mental processes.The mental activities
associated with thought,decision making,language and other mental
processes.” (Baron and Misra , 2014)

History of Cognitive Psychology

History of Cognitive Psychology has been divided into 3 parts-

1- Philosophical Roots
2- Historical Antecedents
3- Cognitive Revolution

Philosophical Roots (Rationalism vs Empiricism)

Historians of psychology usually trace the earliest roots of
psychology to two approaches to understanding the
human mind:
Rationalism (denoted by Plato) - A rationalist believes that the path
to knowledge is through thinking and logical analysis and does not
need any experiments to develop new knowledge. He/She is also
interested in cognitive processes and would use reason as a source
of knowledge or justification.

Empiricism (denoted by Aristotle who was a naturalist,biologist and

philosopher) - It is a term in philosophy which rests on the notion
that knowledge comes from an individual’s own experiences.It
assumes that empirical evidence requires knowledge acquisition i.e.
obtaining evidence through experience and observation.In order to
explore how the human mind works , empiricists would design
experiments and conduct studies in which they could observe the
behaviour and processes of interest to them.

Rene Descartes , John Locke and Immanuel Kant were some of the
renowned philosophers who worked upon rationalism and
empiricism.

Associationism
The principle of associationism suggests that mental processes
operate by the association of one mental state with the other that
succeeds it and it is one of the oldest perspectives in psychology.
The major idea of ‘associationism’ is that “complex ideas come from
the association of simpler ideas.”
The British empiricists used associationism in explaining mental
activity and among them - Hermann Ebbinghaus , Ivan Pavlov and
Edward Lee Thorndike have contributed to a large extent.

These are some of the laws that have been associated with
Associationism-
1- Law of Contiguity - Things or events that occur close to each
other in space and time tend to get linked together in the mind.
Ex - If we think about thunder we also think about lightning

2- Law of Similarity - If two things are similar the thought of one will
tend to trigger the thought of other.
Ex - When we think about coffee , we tend to think about tea as
well.

3- Law of Contrast - Seeing or recalling something may also trigger

the recollection of something completely opposite.(i.e. Associating
things which show polarities)
Ex - We tend to think about the word ‘cold’ when we hear ‘hot’.

Nativism
Nativism has a long history in philosophy and remains significant in
understanding human cognition. While nativist theories have
sparked debates, their relevance often depends on the level of
analysis. The idea of "innateness" can be valuable in philosophical
discussions about human nature but becomes difficult to define in
biological contexts like neuroscience. This creates challenges when
we try to bridge philosophical and biological perspectives. William
Kessen noted in 1967 that separating nature and nurture in studies
of infants can be misleading. Therefore, it may be best to avoid
using the term "innate" without clear explanation.

Historical Antecedents

Structuralism

Formally began in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt (father of

Psychology) established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig
, Germany.
He studied nonphysical structure(i.e. thought , experiences ,
emotions etc) of the human mind , used objective introspection to
study processes that were the result of physical sensations and
made the first attempt to bring objectivity and measurement to
psychology.

Amongst Wundt’s many followers , an American student, Edward

Titchener (1867–1927) is sometimes viewed as the first full-fledged
structuralist as he really helped to bring structuralism to the United
States.His experiments relied solely on the use of introspection,
exploring psychology from the vantage point of the experiencing
individual.Other early psychologists criticized both the
method (introspection) and the focus (elementary structures of
sensation) of structuralism.

In Conclusion, Structuralism seeks to understand the structure

(configuration of elements) of the mind and thus , its perceptions by
analyzing those perceptions into their constituent components
(affection, attention, memory and sensation.)

Functionalism

Functionalism, founded by William James and influenced by

Darwin’s ideas of natural selection, focuses on how the mind allows
people to adapt and function in the real world. It emphasizes
studying the processes of the mind—such as consciousness—over
its structure. Functionalists believe that understanding the mind
involves exploring how behavioral traits aid in survival. William
James's work, particularly Principles of Psychology (1890/1970),
remains influential, especially in discussions about consciousness.
John Dewey further developed these ideas, linking functionalism
with a pragmatic approach to education and cognitive psychology.

Behaviourism
The “father” of methodological behaviorism is John Watson
(1878–1958). Behaviorism focuses only on the relation between
observable behavior and environmental events or stimuli.
Some researchers, such as Thorndike and other associationists,
studied responses that were voluntary (although perhaps lacking
any conscious thought, as in Thorndike’s work).
Other researchers like Piaget studied responses that were
involuntarily triggered in response to what appear to be unrelated
external events. In classical conditioning, Watson found that
successful learning requires a predictive relationship between
stimuli, meaning the conditioned stimulus must signal the arrival of
another, like food. Skinner argued that operant conditioning, where
behaviors increase or decrease based on rewards or punishments,
is a more comprehensive explanation of how behavior is acquired
and modified.

Behaviorism is criticized for placing too much emphasis on

environmental influences over genetic factors.Edward
Tolman(1932) believed that all behaviour is directed towards a goal
and thought that understanding behaviour required viewing the
purpose of and plan for behaviour. Bandura (1977) proposed that
learning is not solely the result of direct rewards or consequences
for one's own actions, but can also occur socially, through observing
the rewards or punishments that others receive.

Gestalt Psychology

The Gestalt school of psychology, founded in 1911 in Frankfurt

by Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler,
emphasized studying psychological phenomena as whole
experiences rather than breaking them into simple elements.
Rejecting structuralism, functionalism, and behaviorism, Gestalt
psychologists focused on how the mind organizes and
structures perceptions, believing that individuals perceive
experiences as integrated wholes.

Cognitive Revolution
Following World War II, multiple historical developments
spurred a shift in psychology known as the cognitive
revolution. This movement opposed behaviorist views that
disregarded the study of mental states and representations.
Proponents argued that any thorough understanding of
human behavior must include an analysis of how individuals
mentally interpret their surroundings.

The factors that led to the revolution are as follows-

1-Development in the field of human factors in engineering - One

key historical trend was the creation of the field of human factors
engineering. During this time, the concept of humans as
limited-capacity processors also gained traction. Psychologists
working during World War II adopted terms from communications
engineering, describing humans as "communication channels" due
to their ability to receive, process, and transmit information, similar
to how telephones and telegraphs manage information flow.

2-Development in the field of linguistics: At that time, progress in

linguistics underscored the ability of humans to handle complex
information effortlessly. Noam Chomsky's groundbreaking
contributions revolutionized the field, motivating both linguists and
psychologists to investigate the processes of language production,
acquisition, and understanding. His early studies indicated that
behaviorism fell short in adequately addressing language
phenomena.
3- Development in the field of Neuroscience: In 1929, Karl Lashley
published a paper arguing that key functions like language and
memory are not confined to specific areas of the brain. This view
was challenged by Donald Hebb, who proposed that functions such
as visual perception develop through connections between brain
cells. Subsequently, in the 1950s and 60s, Nobel laureates David
Hubel and Torsten Wiesel discovered specialized cells in the visual
cortex that respond to particular types of stimuli.

4- Developments in the field of Artificial Intelligence : During and

prior to World War II, psychologists and computer scientists began
to draw parallels between human cognitive abilities and computer
operations, leading to the emergence of the "computer metaphor."
Influenced by Alan Turing's 1936 paper, this concept highlighted
similarities in how both humans and computers store, record, and
transform information, prompting AI specialists to program
computers to replicate human functions.

Approaches to Cognitive Psychology

1- Information processing approach

Dominating cognitive psychology in the 1960s and 1970s, the
information-processing approach remains significant today. It
compares human cognition to the processing of information in
computers, positing that cognitive processes involve
information—like sensory input and thoughts—flowing through our
minds. Researchers in this area often believe that information is
processed in stages and stored in designated locations, with the
goal of uncovering these stages and their interactions to explain
memory storage.

Ex - Information processing theory can/has been used to describe

organisational behaviour , various models are used to understand
how business utilize market information , how they decide which
information is relevant and how it affects their long-term strategies.

2- Connectionist Approach
The connectionist approach utilizes large networks of simple
computational units that exchange straightforward quantitative
signals. Higher-level information processing results from the parallel
interactions of these units, with the network capable of adapting its
behavior through local adjustments in connection strength.
Connectionist models, akin to neural networks, offer a different
perspective compared to cognitive models influenced by digital
computers. This framework permits diverse models, characterized
by varying unit numbers, connection patterns, and environmental
links. Learning is achieved when new cognitive patterns emerge,
modifying the connection weights among the units.

Example - When we encounter a new face, our brain processes

features like the eyes, nose, and mouth, activating specific nodes
that strengthen with repeated exposure. Over time, these
connections improve our ability to recognize similar faces, allowing
us to identify someone resembling a familiar person, like a friend
named Mari, more quickly.

3-Evolutionary Approach

This approach seeks to explain key mental and psychological

traits—such as memory, perception, and language—as adaptations
resulting from natural selection, as outlined in Darwin's theory of
evolution, which posits that individuals best suited to their
environment are more likely to survive. The brain and mind function
to help individuals process information and respond behaviorally to
factors that enhance survival and reproduction throughout
evolutionary history. Therefore, evolutionary psychology aims to
apply a functional understanding of biological mechanisms, like the
immune system, to psychological processes, highlighting how
evolution has influenced the mind and behavior.

Example - Individuals often prefer partners who exhibit traits

associated with health and genetic fitness, such as physical
attractiveness and intelligence, which can be linked to evolutionary
advantages in reproduction during mate selection.

4-Ecological Approach
Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with one another
and with their physical environment.
According to this approach we should focus on the culture , context
and environment in order to understand anything.

The ecological psychologists do not depend upon lab experiments

and rather suggest the methods of naturalistic observations and
field experiments. These methods have been discussed in
functionalism and gestalt psychology.

Example - In everyday life there are multiple correct answers and

the best one must be chosen , whereas in school there is usually
only one correct option. The solver constructs the everyday problem
, whereas in school we are given the problem with the intent of
solving it.

METHODS IN COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

1- Experimental Method

A true experiment is one in which the experimenter manipulates

one or more independent variables (the experimental conditions)
and observes how the recorded measures (dependent variables)
change as a result. The vast majority of research conducted by
cognitive psychologists is of this type.

This is also widely regarded as the most accurate type of

experimental research.This is because a true experiment uses
statistical analysis to support or refute a hypothesis.True
experiments are also thought to be the only experimental designs
capable of establishing cause and effect relationship.

Ex- Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Experiment by Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov trained dogs to associate the sound of a bell (a neutral

stimulus) with food (an unconditioned stimulus). Initially, the bell did
not cause the dogs to salivate, but after repeatedly hearing the bell
before being fed, the dogs began to salivate at the sound alone.
This learned response demonstrated classical conditioning, where a
previously neutral stimulus triggers a conditioned response through
association.

The Bobo Doll Experiment, conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961,

studied whether children would imitate aggressive behavior.
Children were randomly assigned to watch an adult either behaving
aggressively or non-aggressively toward an inflatable Bobo doll.
Those who observed the aggressive behavior were more likely to
mimic it when given a chance to play with the doll. This experiment
demonstrated that children learn behaviors through observation and
imitation, supporting the concept of social learning.

Between Subject Design - Different participants are assigned to

different experimental conditions and the researcher looks for
differences in performance between the two groups.

Within Subject Design - The same experiment participants are

exposed to more than one condition.
Strengths -
● The statistical nature of the experimental design makes it
highly accurate and credible.
● The presence of control group in true experimental research
allows researchers to compare and contrast.

Drawbacks -
● The process of setting up and conducting a true experiment is
highly time-consuming.
● True experiments are also difficult and very expensive set up.

Between Subject Design - Different participants are assigned to

different experimental conditions and the researcher looks for
differences in performance between the two groups.

Within Subject Design - The same experiment participants are

exposed to more than one condition.

Quasi Experimental Method

Some independent variables preclude random assignment

(meaning having the experimenter assign a research participant to
a particular condition in an experiment). For example,
experimenters cannot reassign participants to a different gender,
ethnicity, age, or educational background. Studies that appear in
other ways to be experiments but that have one or more of these
factors as independent variables (or fail to become true
experiments in other ways) are called quasi-experiments
(Campbell & Stanley, 1963).

So when the researcher is interested in independent variables that

cannot be assigned at random , he or she will use
quasi-experiments.
Ex- Study of “Impact of the Head Start Program on Child
Development” conducted by David Weikart et al.(1963)

The Head Start Impact Study assessed the effectiveness of the

Head Start program, which offers early childhood education, health,
nutrition, and parental involvement services to low-income families.
Because random assignment was not feasible due to ethical and
practical issues, researchers used a quasi-experimental design,
comparing Head Start participants with a matched group of
non-participating children while controlling for socioeconomic and
demographic factors.

Strengths-
● Provides a high level of evidence without randomization.
● The performance of the two groups can then be compared ,
after data is collected to determine if there was a difference in
performance of the groups after treatment.

Drawbacks -
● There is less internal validity when one is aware about being
studied.
● When there are confounding environmental variables , the
results are less reliable.

2- Case Study

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth study

of a specific case or group of cases in a real-world context.It
examines nearly every aspect of the subject’s life and history to
look for patterns and causes of behaviour.

Example - ‘The Case of Genie’ was conducted by Curtiss et al

(1970s)

Genie was a girl who suffered extreme abuse and isolation during
her early childhood, leading to significant developmental delays.
Researchers conducted an in-depth case study to understand the
effects of social isolation on language acquisition and cognitive
development. Genie’s case provided valuable insights into critical
periods for language development and the profound impact of
deprivation on human growth.

Strengths -
● Case studies can provide detailed qualitative data and
in-depth analysis compared to other research designs.
● The data collected is typically much richer and more detailed
than data obtained through other experimental designs.
● Case studies can help experimenters adapt ideas and
produce novel hypothesis which can be used for later testing.

Drawbacks -

● The researcher's involvement and influence of the study

can bias the findings which can influence results.
● It is also very time consuming.

2-Naturalistic Observation

Naturalistic observation is a qualitative research method where we

record the behaviors of our research subjects in real world familiar
settings without interfering in their behaviour.

Example - Study of Chimpanzee Behaviour by Jane Goodall

(1960)

Jane Goodall conducted pioneering naturalistic observations of

wild chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania, by
living among them and studying their behaviors in their natural
habitat without interference.

Strengths -

● Since naturalistic observation is non-experimental, the

researcher is not bound or limited by strict protocols that
need to be followed. If they feel that a different approach
would yield better and more reliable results, they can change
their approach midway.
● As the observed behaviour happens in natural settings, this
gives the data collected a higher degree of ecological validity
than might be achieved with other research methods. This
method taps directly into the behaviour of interest without
relying on interpreting proxies of behaviour.

Drawbacks -

● The researcher needs proper training to recongnize objects

that are significant and worth the attention.
● Establishing the cause-effect relationship is not possible
because the researcher cannot manipulate the variables.

Controlled Observation

Laboratory observation, as opposed to naturalistic observation,

refers to observing the behavior of subjects that are in a controlled
environment. Because of the controlled environment variable
factors can be controlled which therefore leads to a limited number
of possible responses. The experimental settings are more
controlled. Measuring devices can often be used more easily and
more efficiently.

Example - Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Experiments(1963)

Stanley Milgram did a series of controlled observations to study

obedience to authority figures. Participants were instructed to
administer increasingly severe electric shocks to a “learner” (an
actor) whenever an incorrect answer was provided. The study
aimed to understand how far individuals would go in obeying
authority, even when it conflicted with their personal morals. The
results demonstrated a high level of compliance, raising important
ethical questions about authority and responsibility.

Strengths -

● High control over extraneous variables means that they

cannot confound the results, so a ‘cause and effect’
relationship between the independent variable and dependent
variable is often assumed.
● Results of laboratory experiments tend to be reliable, as the
conditions created (and thus results produced) can be
replicated.
Drawbacks -

● Data collected may lack ecological validity, as the artificial

nature of laboratory experiments can cast doubt over whether
the results reflect the nature of real life scenarios.
● There is a high risk of demand characteristics, i.e. participants
may alter their behaviour based on their interpretation of the
purpose of the experiment.

Neurophysiological Methods

1- CT Scan

In the early 1970s, computed tomography (CT) revolutionized brain

imaging by using computer-assisted x-ray technology. During a CT
scan, the patient lies with their head in a cylinder while an x-ray
tube and detector rotate around them, capturing multiple images. A
computer combines these images into detailed, three-dimensional
views of the brain.

2- PET Scan

Increases in oxygen consumption in active brain regions during

specific types of information processing are measured by positron
emission tomography (PET) scan. PET scans can help with the
diagnosis of cognitive diseases like by looking at brain
abnormalities , one can detect Alzheimer’s.
3-EEG (Electroencephalogram)

Using a number of non-invasive electrodes positioned on the scalp ,

EEG captures electrical signals resulting from neuronal activity in
the brain.The electrodes record electrical signals , which are
transmitted to equipment that show the signals. A cross-sectional
image of the brain or other bodily organ is created by the
scan.Computer enhancement comes first,followed by colour coding
and computer display of the finalised impression. It is common to
take pictures of displays or make hard copies of them.

4-MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI, is a noninvasive medical imaging test

that produces detailed images of almost every internal structure in the human
body, including the organs, bones, muscles and blood vessels. MRI scanners
create images of the body using a large magnet and radio waves. No ionizing
radiation is produced during an MRI exam, unlike X-rays. These images give
the physician important information in diagnosing one’s medical condition and
planning a course of treatment.

5-Functional MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

It produces images representing the increase in oxygen flow in the

blood to active areas of the brain. Functional MRI is possible because
of two attributes of oxygenated blood. First, active areas of the brain
take up more oxygenated blood than they need for their energy
requirements, and thus oxygenated blood accumulates in active areas
of the brain. Second, oxygenated blood has magnetic properties that
influence the radio-frequency waves emitted by hydrogen atoms in an
MRI. The signal recorded by fMRI is called the BOLD signal (the
blood-oxygen-level dependent signal).

Strengths-

● Non-invasive Techniques: Many neurophysiological methods,

such as EEG and fMRI (functional magnetic resonance
imaging), are non-invasive, allowing researchers to study brain
activity without requiring surgical procedures.
● Understanding Complex Processes: These methods can help
elucidate complex cognitive processes, such as memory,
attention, and emotion, by linking specific brain activity patterns
to psychological phenomena.

Drawbacks-

Cost and Accessibility: Some neurophysiological methods, like fMRI

and PET (positron emission tomography), can be expensive and may
not be readily available in all research or clinical settings.

Participant Variability: Individual differences in brain structure and

function can affect results, making it challenging to generalize findings
across different populations.
In a 2007 study using fMRI, John-Dylan Haynes and colleagues
explored how brain activity patterns can predict decisions before they
become conscious. Participants made choices while inside an fMRI
scanner, and the researchers could predict their decisions up to
several seconds before the participants themselves were aware of
them. This study provided insight into how some decisions may form
unconsciously in the brain and demonstrated that brain activity
patterns in specific regions, such as the prefrontal cortex, can reveal a
person’s intentions before they become consciously aware of them.

Applications of Cognitive Psychology

Marketing - Understanding cognitive functions in marketing is like

having a key to consumer behavior, enabling marketers to craft
messages that capture attention and drive action. Effective
perception management influences ad memorability by shaping
how sensory information is interpreted. Engaging multiple senses
enhances impact, and insights into memory processes allow for the
creation of lasting campaigns. By aligning messages with how
consumers evaluate and decide, marketers can improve their
chances of success.

Education and Learning - Cognitive psychology has significantly

influenced educational practices by offering insights into how
people learn and think. This field examines mental processes such
as comprehension, memory, and problem-solving, using its findings
to refine teaching strategies. Techniques like self-explanation,
elaborative discussions, and spaced practice have been shown to
improve learning outcomes, while research in cognitive
neuroscience informs our understanding of the connection between
brain function and cognitive skills, impacting students' attention,
memory, and abilities in subjects like reading and math.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)- Cognitive psychology plays

a crucial role in the development and effectiveness of cognitive
behavioral therapy (CBT), a widely used treatment for mental health
issues. By exploring the connections between thoughts, emotions,
and behaviors, CBT enables individuals to identify and challenge
negative thought patterns. This structured approach helps clients
modify their thinking, improve emotional regulation, and alleviate
symptoms of anxiety and depression. Additionally, CBT techniques
like cognitive restructuring and behavioral activation are applied in
various contexts, such as stress management and personal
development, enhancing resilience and goal-setting for individuals.

Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) - Cognitive psychology

significantly impacts human-computer interaction (HCI) by offering
insights into how users think and behave when interacting with
technology. Understanding cognitive processes like perception,
attention, and memory allows designers to develop more intuitive
interfaces that align with users’ mental models. This leads to an
improved user experience by reducing cognitive overload and
promoting easier navigation. Approaches such as usability testing
and user-centered design principles, rooted in cognitive psychology,
guide the development of software and applications, making
technology more accessible and user-friendly.

Ethics in Research (Ciccarelli and White)

1. Weighing Participants' Rights Against Scientific

Value- It involves a cautious balance between the ethical
obligations to protect participants and the scientific goals of
the research. Researchers must assess whether the
potential benefits derived from the study, such as new
psychological insights and understanding, outweigh any
risks participants mightface.

2.Informed Decision-Making- It is a fundamental ethical

principle that mandates providing participants with sufficient
information to make educated choices regarding their
involvement in a study. This includes details about the
study's purpose, methods, potential risks, and benefits.
3.Justification for Deception- It is an area in research
that requires careful ethical consideration. While deception
may sometimes be necessary to achieve unbiased results
or genuine responses, it must be thoroughly justified.
Following the study, participants must be debriefed to
explain the reasons for the deception and to provide them
with the option to withdraw their data if desired.

4. Right to Withdraw- It is a crucial aspect of ethical

research, affirming that participants can cease their
involvement at any point without facing any penalties or
repercussions. Researchers must clearly communicate this
right from the outset of the study and reiterate it during
participation, ensuring participants feel empowered to make
choices about their involvement.

5.Protection from Risks- It is an ethical obligation for

researchers to ensure the safety and well-being of
participants. This includes conducting thorough risk
assessments before initiating a study and implementing
strategies to minimize any identified risks. Researchers
should provide support for participants who may experience
distress, both during and after their involvement in the
study, ensuring continuous care and immediate action if any
concerns arise.

6.Debriefing After Participation- After participants have

completed their involvement in a study, researchers should
provide a detailed explanation of the study's purpose,
procedures, and any deception used. This debriefing allows
participants to ask questions and address any concerns,
while also ensuring they understand how their data will be
used and reaffirming the confidentiality of their information.

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