S E C O N D E D I T I O N

HARD EVIDENCE
CASE STUDIES IN FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY

Edited By

Dawnie Wolfe Steadman

Binghamton University, State University of New York
ROUTLEDGE

Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group

LONDON AND NEW YORK

 To my grandparents, who have
taught me the value of education,
the merit of service, and
the importance of family

And to my husband, Gary,

who helps me teach these
qualities to our sons

First published 2009, 2003 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Published 2016 by Routledge

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ISBN: 9780136050735 (pbk)

Cover Design: Margaret Kenselaar

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Steadman, Dawnie Wolfe.

Hard evidence : case studies in forensic anthropology/Dawnie
Wolfe Steadman.—2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-605073-5 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-13-605073-5 (alk. paper)
1. Forensic anthropology—Case studies. 2. Forensic osteology—
Case studies. I. Title.
GN69.8.S74 2009
614'.17—dc22
2008047568
 CONTENTS

PREFACE vi

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS viii

SECTION I PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS—THE CASE

STUDY APPROACH 1

CHAPTER 1 THE MARTY MILLER CASE: INTRODUCING FORENSIC

ANTHROPOLOGY 8
Dawnie Wolfe Steadman and Steven A. Andersen

CHAPTER 2 MULTIDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO HUMAN IDENTIFICATION

IN HOMICIDE INVESTIGATION: A CASE STUDY FROM
NEW YORK 29
Douglas H. Ubelaker, Mary Jumbelic, Mark Wilson, and E. Mark
Levinsohn

CHAPTER 3 THE HERRING CASE—AN OUTLIER 34

Karen Ramey Burns

CHAPTER 4 AN INCIDENTAL FINDING 47

H. Gill-King

CHAPTER 5 SCIENCE CONTEXTUALIZED: THE IDENTIFICATION OF A U.S. MIA

OF THE VIETNAM WAR FROM TWO PERSPECTIVES 52
Ann Webster Bunch and Colleen Carney Shine

SECTION II LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS OF FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGICAL CASEWORK

IN THE UNITED STATES 63

CHAPTER 6 MULTIPLE POINTS OF SIMILARITY 68

Dawnie Wolfe Steadman and Lyle W. Konigsberg

CHAPTER 7 THE INFLUENCE OF THE DAUBERT GUIDELINES ON

ANTHROPOLOGICAL METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC IDENTIFICATION
IN THE MEDICAL EXAMINER SETTING 80
Jason Wiersema, Jennifer C. Love, and L. Gill Naul
iii
iv CONTENTS

CHAPTER 8 A FORENSIC ANALYSIS OF HUMAN REMAINS FROM A HISTORIC

CONFLICT IN NORTH DAKOTA 91
Stephen Ousley and R. Eric Hollinger

SECTION III APPLICATIONS OF ARCHAEOLOGY 103

CHAPTER 9 LOVE LOST AND GONE FOREVER 113

David M. Glassman

CHAPTER 10 THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL

ANTHROPOLOGY TO THE JOHN MCRAE CASE: A TRIAL
AND A RETRIAL 122
Norman J. Sauer, William A. Lovis, Mark E. Blumer, and Jennifer Fillion

CHAPTER 11 UNUSUAL “CRIME” SCENES: THE ROLE OF FORENSIC

ANTHROPOLOGY IN RECOVERING AND IDENTIFYING
AMERICAN MIAS 133
Robert W. Mann, Bruce E. Anderson, Thomas D. Holland, and Johnie
E. Webb, Jr.

CHAPTER 12 FORENSIC RECOVERIES OF U.S. WAR DEAD AND THE EFFECTS

OF TAPHONOMY AND OTHER SITE-ALTERING PROCESSES 141
James T. Pokines

SECTION IV INTERPRETATION OF TAPHONOMY AND TRAUMA 155

CHAPTER 13 TAPHONOMY AND TIME: ESTIMATING THE POSTMORTEM

INTERVAL 165
Murray K. Marks, Jennifer C. Love, and Ian R. Dadour

CHAPTER 14 THE SKULL ON THE LAWN: TROPHIES, TAPHONOMY,

AND FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY 179
P. Willey and Paulette Leach

CHAPTER 15 LOOK UNTIL YOU SEE: IDENTIFICATION OF TRAUMA IN SKELETAL

MATERIAL 190
O. C. Smith, Elayne J. Pope, and Steven A. Symes

CHAPTER 16 FORENSIC OSTEOLOGY OF CHILD ABUSE 205

Murray K. Marks, Kerriann Marden, and Darinka
Mileusnic-Polchan
CONTENTS v

CHAPTER 17 THE INTERFACE OF FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY AND FORENSIC

PATHOLOGY IN TRAUMA INTERPRETATION 221
Douglas H. Ubelaker and John E. Smialek

SECTION V ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES IN FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY 225

CHAPTER 18 MITOCHONDRIAL DNA: SOLVING THE MYSTERY OF ANNA

ANDERSON 233
Terry Melton

CHAPTER 19 SMALL BONES OF CONTENTION 239

Sam D. Stout

CHAPTER 20 APPROACHES TO FACIAL REPRODUCTION AND PHOTOGRAPHIC

SUPERIMPOSITION 248
Douglas H. Ubelaker

CHAPTER 21 THE PAWN SHOP MUMMIFIED HEAD: DISCRIMINATING AMONG

FORENSIC, HISTORIC, AND ANCIENT CONTEXTS 258
Dawnie Wolfe Steadman

SECTION VI MASS DISASTERS AND HUMAN RIGHTS INVESTIGATIONS 271

CHAPTER 22 CORPI AQUATICUS: THE HARDIN CEMETERY FLOOD

OF 1993 280
Paul S. Sledzik and Allison Webb Willcox

CHAPTER 23 DISASTER VICTIM RECOVERY AND IDENTIFICATION: FORENSIC

ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE AFTERMATH OF SEPTEMBER 11 289
Paul S. Sledzik, Dennis Dirkmaat, Robert W. Mann, Thomas
D. Holland, Amy Zelson Mundorff, Bradley J. Adams, Christian
M. Crowder, and Frank DePaolo

CHAPTER 24 FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY AND HUMAN RIGHTS:

THE ARGENTINE EXPERIENCE 303
Mercedes Doretti and Clyde C. Snow

CHAPTER 25 A MASS GRAVE IN ARGENTINA: THE SAN VICENTE CEMETERY

IN CÓRDOBA 321
Darío Olmo, Anahí Ginarte, Claudia Bisso, Mercedes Salado Puerto,
and Luis Fondebrider

INDEX 332
 PREFACE

T he first edition of Hard Evidence was born from a need for scientific realism in the face of
media popularization of the field whereby the aptitude of forensic anthropologists for
solving forensic cases borders on mythic or even science fiction. The heart of forensic anthro-
pology is the adherence to the principles of skeletal biology and rigorous attention to detail in
lieu of a hologram machine or psychic powers. The goal of the first edition was to provide case
studies that demonstrated the scientific approach and techniques of forensic anthropology in a
manner that was both accessible and interesting. That goal was met thanks to the brilliant
authors that contributed to the volume. The goals of the second edition are not unlike those of
the first—to supplement the burgeoning number of forensic anthropological textbooks with
case studies that demonstrate a number of scientific principles. However, this edition improves
on the first in a number of ways, including more cases on topical areas of inquiry (e.g., child
abuse, forensic archaeology), important scientific techniques (e.g., facial reproduction, DNA),
and legal issues, as well as updates of existing cases. In all, seven new chapters are included,
six chapters are updated, and the utility of the text is increased by an index.

NEW CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE SECOND EDITION

As the first edition was being written, significant events impacted the world and the disci-
pline of forensic anthropology. Over thirty anthropologists participated in the recovery
and identification efforts in the months after September 11, 2001. Amy Zelson Mundorff,
one of the contributors to the first edition, was the forensic anthropologist for the Office of
the Chief Medical Examiner (OCME) in New York City and helped coordinate the identifi-
cation efforts for the World Trade Center disaster. While Amy and I discussed including a
chapter about the response in the first edition, the timing was not right. Not only did the
events seem too “fresh” to write about, but I really wanted to include the anthropological
perspectives from the responses at the other sites. Thus, this edition includes a contextual
overview of the anthropological roles in the responses to the World Trade Center,
Pentagon, and Shanksville, Pennsylvania, disasters. Paul Sledzik took on the unenviable
tasks of coordinating authors and braving multiple bureaucratic agencies to make this
chapter come to fruition and I am in his debt.
Increased legal adherence to Daubert and other rules of evidence has stimulated much
anthropological research in the past five years. In the first edition, Lyle Konigsberg and
I lamented in “Multiple Points of Similarity” that quantifying the strength of a positive iden-
tification is extremely challenging with standard osteological data of age, sex, stature, and
pathology. This chapter became fodder for a larger study of the quantification of osteological
congruency in potential identifications (Steadman, Adams, and Konigsberg 2006) and is now
updated to include these new results. In addition, Wieserma and Love present a new radi-
ographic technique that also permits quantification of the strength of an identification. While
the statistics may initially appear daunting, the principles are not difficult to comprehend and
a quantified approach is crucial to anthropologists who present their reports in court.
Other additions to this edition not only reflect the strengths of the former edition in
presenting accessible case studies but expand the scope to include a broader number of
anthropological contributions to forensic science. The inclusion of a chapter on child abuse
is particularly pertinent and timely. Given the increase in the number of cases of child
abuse/fatalities, it is imperative that forensic anthropologists recognize the skeletal
signature of intentionally inflicted injuries. Douglas Ubelaker provides an in-depth
vi
PREFACE vii

examination of the three primary techniques of forensic facial reproduction as well a

historical perspective of the field.

ORGANIZATION OF THE SECOND EDITION

The organization of the book has changed to reflect new and different emphases than
the first edition and one additional section is provided. The case studies in Section I
focus on different aspects of personal identification, from the particular methods used
to the impact on the families when the truth about the fate of a loved one is finally
known. Section II emphasizes the legal context in which forensic anthropologists must
operate. Recent legislative changes concerning the rules of evidence admissibility
greatly impact how anthropologists present their findings in court, which is further
demonstrated by two new chapters. In addition to the Wiersema and Love chapter that
discusses rules of evidence, Ousley and Hollinger discuss the laws governing historic
cases, particularly those involving Native American remains. Stephen Ousley is one of
the original architects of Fordisc and provides an expanded example of its use within
historic contexts.
Section III focuses on archaeological applications of anthropological casework. In
addition to two domestic cases, including an interesting update on a case presented by
Sauer and colleagues, this section further highlights the efforts of the anthropologists at
the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command-Central Identification Laboratory (formerly
known as CILHI). Mann and colleagues present some new data in their discussion of two
cases from Vietnam while a novel chapter by James Pokines reviews the importance of
taphonomic influences in archaeological recoveries. This discussion of taphonomy leads
into Section IV, Interpretation of Taphonomy and Trauma. Marks and co-authors add to
the casework on trauma by providing a rich perspective on the skeletal markers and inter-
pretation of child abuse, while Marks and Love, together with Ian Dadour provide addi-
tional information on forensic entomology.
Section V, Analytical Techniques in Forensic Anthropology, includes cases that
employ DNA, skeletal histology, bone chemistry, and cut mark interpretations. This
section is bolstered by the new chapter on facial reproduction by Ubelaker. Section VI,
Mass Disasters and Human Rights Investigations, contains the final chapters of the book.
Sledzik provides some updates in the chapter on the first DMORT deployment while
multiple anthropologists, led by Sledzik, discuss the largest mass disaster response in the
United States—that of September 11. The human rights component is strengthened by
another contribution by the Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team (EAAF), which
provides some additional perspectives on the investigations of the Dirty War in
Argentina.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In addition to the all of the people who helped me write the first edition, I’d like to
thank Nicole Jastremski for helping to copy edit the updated section overviews. I am
also thankful to my editor, Nancy Roberts, who kept pushing me to do a second edition
and didn’t take my response of “Over my dead body!” too literally. I again want to
recognize my husband, Gary (a.k.a. “the most patient husband in the world”), whose
support and humor knows no boundaries. Finally, I want to thank my two sons, Ryan
and Collin, who give me perspective, balance, and more love than I ever imagined
existed.
 ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

BRADLEY J. ADAMS, PH.D., D-ABFA

Office of Chief Medical Examiner
520 First Ave.
New York, NY 10016

Dr. Adams received his M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of Tennessee. He is currently
the Director of the Forensic Anthropology Unit for the Office of Chief Medical Examiner
(OCME) in New York City. He is also an Adjunct Lecturer at Hunter College and Pace
University, holds a faculty position at the New York University Medical Center, and an
affiliation with the NYU Anthropology Department. In his present position with the
OCME, Dr. Adams and his team are responsible for all forensic anthropology casework in
the five boroughs of New York City (Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, the Bronx, and Staten
Island). Since 2006, Dr. Adams and his team have been undertaking a large-scale effort to
recover additional human remains associated with the terrorist attacks on the World
Trade Center. This is a complex operation involving archaeological excavations around
Ground Zero, the hand-screening of large quantities of excavated soil, and the analysis of
human remains. Prior to accepting the position in New York City, Dr. Adams was a foren-
sic anthropologist and Laboratory Manager at the Central Identification Laboratory in
Hawaii.

STEVEN A. ANDERSEN
Senior Investigator
New York State Police
Troop “C” Forensic Identification Unit
Sidney, NY 13838

Steven Andersen is currently the Senior Investigator in charge of the New York State Police
Troop C Forensic Identification Unit (FIU) based in Sidney, NY. He has been with the State
Police for twenty-two years and in the Forensics Unit for the last fifteen years. The FIU is
responsible for responding to and documenting scenes of major crimes and incidents. His
specialties include crime scene processing and reconstruction, latent print examination
and comparison, fire cause and origin investigation, and the location and recovery of
skeletal remains. He previously attended the State University of New York at Oswego
before joining the State Police.

BRUCE E. ANDERSON, PH.D., D-ABFA

Office of the Medical Examiner
Forensic Science Center
2825 E. District Street
Tucson, AZ 85714
Department of Anthropology
University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ 85721

viii
ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS ix

Dr. Anderson received his M.A. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Arizona, where
he currently mentors a forensic anthropology internship program and teaches a course in
forensic anthropology. He worked as a physical anthropologist for the U.S. Army Central
Identification Laboratory (CILHI) in Hawaii beginning in 1992 and departing in 1996 as
Senior Anthropologist. Dr. Anderson is currently the anthropologist for the Pima County
Office of the Medical Examiner. His academic interests include forensic anthropology,
human anatomy, and human evolution.

CLAUDIA BISSO, LIC

Equipo Argentino de Antropología Forense (EAAF), Buenos Aires
Rivadavia 2443, 2nd piso
Buenos Aires (1034)
Argentina

Ms. Bisso has an advanced degree in archaeology from Universidad de Buenos Aires and has
been an expert consultant for EAAF (Equipo Argentino de Antropología Forense) for
many years. She has done fieldwork for the team in Argentina, South Africa, Angola,
Cyprus, Kosovo, and Zimbabwe.

MARK E. BLUMER
Office of the Jackson County Prosecuting Attorney
312 S. Jackson St.
Jackson, MI 49201

Mark Blumer was the First Assistant Attorney General in the Criminal Division, Michigan
Department of the Attorney General. He joined the Attorney General’s Criminal Division
in 1978, became the Chief Trial Attorney in 1985, and the First Assistant in 1990. His
primary responsibility was the trial of high visibility, complex felony cases, with special-
ization in cold file homicides. Mr. Blumer retired from state service in 2005 after thirty
years. One week later, he became the Chief Assistant Prosecuting Attorney in Jackson
County, Michigan. Mr. Blumer continues to prosecute cases on occasion; however, his
primary responsibilities now are administrative in the county that includes the largest
civilian prison in the United States.

ANN WEBSTER BUNCH, PH.D., D-ABFA

Department of Criminal Justice
State University of New York at Brockport
Brockport, NY 14420

Dr. Bunch received her Ph.D. from the University of Chicago in 1993. She is currently
an Assistant Professor of Criminal Justice at SUNY Brockport. Dr. Bunch was
previously employed as a forensic anthropologist for the U.S. Army, where she per-
formed fourteen missions for the Central Identification Laboratory, Hawaii. Her
research interests include forensic science in general, human anatomy, osteology, and
archaeology.
x ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

KAREN RAMEY BURNS, PH.D.

Equipo Colombiano por Trabajo Forense y Servicios Psicosocial (EQUITAS)
Calle 126A #7C-45
Bogota, Colombia
Research Professor, Anthropology Department
University of Utah
Salt Lake City, UT 84112-0060

Dr. Burns received her M.A. and Ph.D. in forensic anthropology at the University of
Florida. Her major crime lab experience is from the Georgia Bureau of Investigation,
Division of Forensic Sciences. In addition to modern forensic cases, historic cases, and
disaster work, Dr. Burns has devoted much of her professional career to training and
human identification in international conflict situations, including Guatemala, Iraq,
Haiti, and Colombia. She is a founding member of EQUITAS, an NGO providing forensic
and psychosocial services to families of the disappeared in Colombia, and is a 2007
Fulbright Scholar at the University of the Andes. She teaches part-time at the University
of Utah.

CHRISTIAN M. CROWDER, PH.D.

Office of Chief Medical Examiner
520 First Ave
New York, NY 10016

Dr. Crowder received his B.A. from Texas A&M University, M.A. from the University of
Texas at Arlington, and Ph.D. from the University of Toronto. He is currently a forensic
anthropologist for the Office of Chief Medical Examiner in New York City. He is also an
Adjunct Lecturer at Hunter College, holds a faculty position at the New York University
Medical Center, and an affiliation with the NYU Anthropology Department. In his present
position with the OCME, Dr. Crowder assists with anthropology casework in the five bor-
oughs of New York City (Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, the Bronx, and Staten Island).
He is also the site coordinator for the on-going search and recovery of remains at Ground
Zero. Prior to accepting the position in New York City, Dr. Crowder was a forensic anthro-
pologist at the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command-Central Identification Laboratory
in Hawaii.

IAN R. DADOUR, PH.D.

Associate Professor
Director, Centre for Forensic Science
The University of Western Australia
Nedlands, WA 6009

Dr. Dadour received his Ph.D. from the University of Western Australia. He is Director of
the Centre for Forensic Science and a Registered Forensic Practitioner. He is the State’s
Honorary Forensic Entomologist and, as an expert witness in the science of entomology,
has appeared in courts in Western Australia, Northern Territory, Queensland, and
New South Wales. He has organized a number of forensic entomology workshops around
Australia that include the investigation of decomposition of bodies buried and on the
ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS xi

surface and is now part of the team involved in teaching the Human Remains Recovery
School for the Federal Bureau of Investigation Evidence Response Teams.

FRANK DEPAOLO, PA-C

Director, Special Operations Division
Office of Chief Medical Examiner
520 First Ave.
New York, NY 10016

Following the events of the September 11 World Trade Center attack in New York City,
Frank DePaolo accepted a position with the Office of Chief Medical Examiner as a
medicolegal investigator and was assigned to the Medical Examiner’s Disaster Recovery
Team at the World Trade Center site. Since then, Mr. DePaolo developed the Special
Operations Unit and now serves as the Project Manager overseeing the ongoing World
Trade Center Recovery Operation. Prior to his current position, Mr. DePaolo served as a
physician assistant (PA) in Emergency Medicine. He has twenty years of experience as
both a New York City paramedic and board certified practicing physician assistant.
He continues to serve in the U.S. Navy Reserve as a Lieutenant Commander assigned to
the National Naval Medical Center, Bethesda, MD.

DENNIS DIRKMAAT, PH.D., D-ABFA

Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute
501 E. 38th Street
Erie, PA 16546

Dr. Dirkmaat is the Director of the Applied Forensic Sciences Department at Mercyhurst
College that includes both an undergraduate program in Forensic Sciences and a
Master ’s program in Anthropology (Forensic and Biological Anthropology). He has
been a full professor of Anthropology at the College since 2006. Dr. Dirkmaat is a
Diplomate of the American Board of Forensic Anthropology (no. 50) and a Fellow of the
American Academy of Forensic Sciences. He has conducted over 300 forensic anthropol-
ogy cases, including over 60 field recoveries involving the processing of evidence from a
variety of human death scenes ranging from surface scatters to buried bodies and fatal
fire victims. Dr. Dirkmaat has been a member of the Federal Government’s Disaster
Mortuary Operational Response Team (DMORT) since its inception in the mid-1990s.
Dr. Dirkmaat served as a key scientific advisor for Somerset County Coroner Wallace
Miller during the initial phases of the scene recovery and morgue operations for United
Flight 93. Dr. Dirkmaat also served as consultant to both the Somerset County Coroner’s
office and United Airlines during the subsequent recoveries conducted at the crash site
following FBI release of the scene to the coroner’s office.

MERCEDES DORETTI, LIC.

Equipo Argentino de Antropología Forense (EAAF), New York
140 West 22nd Street, Suite 303
New York, NY 10011
xii ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

Mercedes Doretti received her degree as a Licenciada en Ciencias Antropologicas at the

National University at Buenos Aires, Argentina, in 1987. She is a co-founder and a full-
time member of the Argentina Forensic Anthropology Team (EAAF). As such, she works
as an expert witness for the judiciary, special commissions of inquiry, and international tri-
bunals, applying forensic anthropology and archaeology to the investigation of human
rights cases. She has worked in Argentina and other Latin American countries, the
Balkans, Ethiopia, South Africa, Zimbabwe, the Ivory Coast, Congo (DRC), the
Philippines, East Timor, and Iraq. Since 1992, she has coordinated the New York office of
the EAAF. In 2007 Ms. Doretti won the prestigious MacArthur Foundation “Genius
Award” for her service in human rights investigations.

JENNIFER FILLION, M.A.

Anthropology and Sociology
Social Science Division
Mott Community College
Flint, MI 48503

Jennifer Fillion is a faculty member in Anthropology and Sociology in the Social Science
Division at Mott Community College. She received her B.A. from the University of
Michigan and M.A. from the University of Alabama. Her interests include forensic anthro-
pology, skeletal biology, and facial reconstruction. Her work has been featured in Bone
Detective: The Story of Forensic Anthropologist Diane France and at the Van Andel Public
Museum in Grand Rapids, Michigan.

LUIS FONDEBRIDER
Equipo Argentino de Antropología Forense (EAAF), Buenos Aires
Rivadavia 2443, 2nd piso
Buenos Aires (1034)
Argentina

Luis Fondebrider co-founded EAAF (Equipo Argentino de Antropología Forense) twenty-

three years ago and now acts as president of the organization. He has worked for EAAF
on the application of forensic anthropology and archaeology to the investigation of human
rights cases in Argentina, Peru, Paraguay, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Venezuela, Colombia, El
Salvador, Haiti, Guatemala, Croatia, Bosnia, Romania, Iraq, the Philippines, Indonesia,
Cyprus, Georgia, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, Morocco, Sudan, Kenya, Namibia,
Kosovo, and Congo (DRC), and has acted as an expert witness for the judiciary, special
commissions of inquiry, and international tribunals. He is a faculty member of the School
of Medicine of Universidad de Buenos Aires.

H. GILL-KING, PH.D., D-ABFA

Biological Sciences
University of North Texas
P.O. Box 3055220
Denton, TX 76203-5220
ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS xiii

Dr. Gill-King received a Ph.D. in Anthropology from Southern Methodist University and
completed postdoctoral studies in hard tissue pathology at the University of Texas
Southwestern Institute of Forensic Sciences. He is Director of the Laboratory of Forensic
Anthropology and Human Identification in the Department of Biological Sciences at the
University of North Texas, where he also holds joint appointments in Criminal Justice and
Anthropology, and in the Department of Pathology at the University of North Texas Health
Science Center. His current research interests are in the areas of skeletal endocrinology and
the dietary adaptations of New World colonials. He consults regularly with local, state,
and federal agencies in the United States as well as the Servicio Periciale and the Judicial
Federal Police in Mexico.

ANAHÍ GINARTE
Equipo Argentino de Antropología Forense (EAAF), Buenos Aires
Rivadavia 2443, 2nd piso
Buenos Aires (1034)
Argentina

Ms. Ginarte joined the staff of EAAF (Equipo Argentino de Antropología Forense) seventeen
years ago, and since then has acted as expert witness for the judiciary, special commissions
of inquiry, and international tribunals. She has worked for EAAF in Argentina and other
Latin American countries, the Balkans, Ethiopia, South Africa, Zimbabwe, the Ivory Coast,
Congo (DRC), Sierra Leone, and East Timor on the application of forensic anthropology
and archaeology to the investigation of human rights cases. She has conducted training
seminars, presentations, and lectures on the application of forensic sciences at both acade-
mic and legal venues all over the world.

DAVID M. GLASSMAN, PH.D., D-ABFA

College of Liberal Arts
University of Southern Indiana
8600 University Blvd.
Evansville, IN 47712

Dr. Glassman is Dean of the College of Liberal Arts and Professor of Anthropology at the
University of Southern Indiana. He received his doctorate from the University of
Tennessee. Dr. Glassman is a past Chairman of the Physical Anthropology section of the
American Academy of Forensic Sciences and currently serves as Vice President of the
American Board of Forensic Anthropology, Inc. He has twenty-seven years of experience
in forensic anthropology and skeletal biology, and has an active record of scholarly publi-
cation and presented papers. Dr. Glassman has consulted with various law enforcement
agencies in over 250 cases of skeletal identification.

THOMAS D. HOLLAND, PH.D., D-ABFA

Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command-Central Identification Laboratory
310 Worchester Avenue
Hickam AFB, HI 96853
xiv ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

Dr. Holland received his Ph.D. from the University of Missouri, Columbia, where
he was the Associate Curator for the Museum of Anthropology prior to becoming
the Scientific Director of the U.S. Army Central Identification Laboratory in Hawaii.
He is on the board of directors for the American Board of Forensic Anthropology.
Dr. Holland has published in the American Journal of Physical Anthropology, American
Antiquity, Journal of Forensic Sciences, Current Anthropology, Studies in Archaeological
Method and Theory, Quaternary Research, and Plains Anthropologist, among others. His
research interests include forensic anthropology, bioarchaeology, and evolutionary
theory.

R. ERIC HOLLINGER
Office of Repatriation
Department of Anthropology
National Museum of Natural History
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, D.C. 20560

R. Eric Hollinger is a Supervisory Archaeologist in the Repatriation Office of the

Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History. He has over twenty years of field
experience, primarily in the Great Plains and Midwest of the United States. He was
responsible for repatriation compliance at the University of Illinois-Urbana and
Harvard University’s Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology before joining
the Repatriation Office of the NMNH. He has published or presented on lithic, faunal,
floral, human osteological, and architectural materials as well as remote sensing, taxon-
omy, trade, warfare, migration, repatriation, pesticide contaminated collections, and
traditional care.

MARY JUMBELIC, M.D.

Center for Forensic Sciences
100 Elizabeth Blackwell Street
Syracuse, NY 13210

Dr. Jumbelic is the Chief Medical Examiner for the County of Onondaga in Syracuse,
New York. In addition, she holds the position of Clinical Associate Professor in the
Department of Pathology for Upstate Medical University and is Director of their Autopsy
Service. Dr. Jumbelic is the primary instructor for pathology residents during their autopsy
rotations, and teaches second-year medical students forensic pathology and death certifica-
tion. Her areas of interest include the prevention of injuries in children, mass disasters, and
collaboration with forensic anthropology.

LYLE W. KONIGSBERG, PH.D.

Department of Anthropology
109 Davenport Hall
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Urbana, IL 61801
ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS xv

Dr. Konigsberg is a Professor of Anthropology at the University of Illinois at Urbana-

Champaign. He received his B.A. in Anthropology and Biology from Indiana University,
and his M.A. and Ph.D. in Anthropology from Northwestern University. Following a post-
doctoral position in the Department of Genetics at the Southwest Foundation for
Biomedical Research in San Antonio, Texas, he moved to the University of Tennessee
where he taught for seventeen years. He moved to the University of Illinois during the
summer of 2007 where he is the discipline director for the College of Medicine’s Anatomy
course. His research interests include osteological and statistical analysis, with a particular
emphasis on the bases for estimation and presentation of statistical evidence from the
skeleton.

PAULETTE LEACH, M.A.

Paulette Leach received her bachelor’s degree from Arizona State University and was a
graduate student in anthropology at California State University, Chico.

E. MARK LEVINSOHN, M.D., F.A.C.R.

Crouse Radiology Associates
5008 Brittenfield Pkway, Ste 100
East Syracuse, NY 13057

Dr. Levinsohn is Clinical Professor of Radiology at SUNY Upstate Medical University in

Syracuse, New York. He is head of the Musculoskeletal Radiology Section at Crouse
Hospital, Syracuse. He is also the radiologic consultant to the Onondaga County Medical
Examiner.

JENNIFER C. LOVE, PH.D.

Harris County Medical Examiner’s Office
1885 Old Spanish Trail
Houston, TX 77054

Jennifer C. Love received her M.A. and Ph.D. in Anthropology from the University of
Tennessee, Knoxville. She is currently the Forensic Anthropology Director at the Harris
County Medical Examiner ’s Office, Houston, TX. Her research interests are bone
trauma, bone pathology, and postmortem interval analysis. She is a member of the
American Association of Forensic Sciences and International Association of
Identification.

WILLIAM A. LOVIS, PH.D.

354 Baker Hall
Department of Anthropology
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI 48824
xvi ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

William A. Lovis holds a joint appointment at Michigan State University as Curator of

Anthropology at the MSU Museum and Professor in the Department of Anthropology, and
has held administrative positions in both units. Dr. Lovis has been on the faculty
at Michigan State University since 1973. His primary research interests are in hunter/gath-
erer adaptations, the transition to horticulture, and the relationship between paleoenviron-
mental change and changes in subsistence, settlement, and mobility in the Great Lakes and
northern England. He also has a continuing interest in applied analytic methods and
research design. Dr. Lovis regularly works with forensic anthropologists in the training of
students and law enforcement personnel in human remains recovery, and has been directly
involved in a number of forensic cases in Michigan. His fieldwork in the Great Lakes and
northern England has resulted in numerous research monographs, book chapters, and jour-
nal articles. He has also been active in national and state professional societies, particularly
regarding issues of public policy and repatriation, and has served in several editorial capac-
ities. Professor Lovis has a B.S. from New York University and both an M.A. and Ph.D. from
Michigan State University.

ROBERT W. MANN, PH.D., D-ABFA

Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command-Central Identification Laboratory
310 Worchester Avenue, Bldg. 45
Hickam AFB, HI 96853

Dr. Mann is Deputy Scientific Director, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command’s Central
Identification Laboratory (JPAC-CIL) in Hawaii. He received his B.A. and M.A. degrees in
anthropology from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, and his Ph.D. from the
University of Hawaii. Prior to joining the JPAC-CIL, Dr. Mann worked as an anthropolo-
gist at the Smithsonian Institution for nearly five years. He has worked at the JPAC-CIL
for more than sixteen years and has been on more than forty search and recovery missions
around the world, including Vietnam, Laos, Japan, Russia, Latvia, Belgium, Germany,
Poland, and South Korea. His research interests include paleopathology, trauma, and
human skeletal variation. He is a Diplomate of the American Board of Forensic
Anthropologists and has written three books and more than 100 papers in the scientific
and lay literature.

KERRIANN MARDEN, M.A., D-ABMDI

Tulane University
Department of Anthropology
1326 Audubon Street
New Orleans, LA 70118

Ms. Marden is a doctoral candidate in physical anthropology at Tulane University,

researching taphonomic and pathologic changes in the Chaco Canyon skeletal series. After
serving as a rural health Peace Corps volunteer in Cote d’Ivoire, she earned a Master’s
degree in Medical Sociology, then shifted focus to a doctoral program in Anthropology at
Tulane. She is a board-certified medicolegal death investigator and served as an assistant
forensic anthropologist to Marcella Sorg, anthropology consultant for the Offices of the
Chief Medical Examiner of Maine, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island. Ms. Marden is cur-
rently finishing her doctoral dissertation research with the support of a Smithsonian
Institution Predoctoral Fellowship.
ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS xvii

MURRAY K. MARKS, PH.D., D-ABFA

Associate Professor
Departments of Pathology and Oral Surgery
Graduate School of Medicine
University of Tennessee Medical Center-Knoxville
1924 Alcoa Highway
Knoxville, TN 37920

Dr. Marks received his M.A. from the University of Arkansas and Ph.D. from the
University of Tennessee. Besides forensic anthropology, he is a dental anthropologist and
skeletal biologist with research interests in mineralized tissue histology, dental develop-
ment, fetal growth, computer-graphic facial reconstruction, and bioarchaeology. He is
Director of the Human Remains Recovery School for the Federal Bureau of Investigation
Evidence Response Teams and a consultant to the Tennessee Bureau of Investigation.

TERRY MELTON, PH.D.

Mitotyping Technologies, LLC
1981 Pine Hall Drive
State College, PA 16801

Dr. Melton is President and CEO of Mitotyping Technologies, a company that performs
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analyses for law enforcement, attorneys, and private indi-
viduals. She received a B.S. from Wake Forest University and both M.S. and Ph.D. degrees
in genetics from the Pennsylvania State University. She has a research background in the
study of mtDNA as a forensic typing locus. Research topics include an evaluation of the
diversity and subpopulation heterogeneity present in the mtDNA of approximately forty
populations from Europe, North America, Africa, and Asia, studies of mtDNA and nuclear
DNA variation in indigenous aboriginal populations from Kenya and Taiwan, and
research into the mtDNA variation associated with Southeast Asian and Polynesian pre-
history. She is currently serving on the editorial board of the Journal of Forensic Sciences and
is an affiliate researcher with the Department of Anthropology at Penn State University.

DARINKA MILEUSNIC-POLCHAN, M.D., PH.D.

Department of Pathology
University of Tennessee Medical Center-Knoxville
1924 Alcoa Highway
Knoxville, TN 37920

Dr. Mileusnic-Polchan graduated from the Medical School University of Rijeka,

Croatia, in 1986 and earned her Doctorate degree in Neuroscience from Loyola
University, Chicago, Illinois, in 1999. After completing three years of anatomic
pathology at Loyola University Graduate School of Medicine, she transferred to the
Cook County Office of the Medical Examiner in Chicago, Illinois, to continue her
training in forensic pathology. Following that she stayed in Chicago as an Assistant
Medical Examiner until 2002 when her family relocated to Knoxville, Tennessee.
Dr. Mileusnic-Polchan is board-certified in anatomic and forensic pathology and cur-
rently serves as an Associate Professor of Pathology at the University of Tennessee
Medical Center in Knoxville as well as Acting Chief Medical Examiner for Knox
xviii ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

County, Tennessee. Her areas of interest include deaths in custody and pediatric
forensic pathology with emphasis on child abuse.

AMY ZELSON MUNDORFF, M.A.

Simon Fraser University
Department of Archaeology
Centre for Forensic Research
Burnaby, BC V5a 1s6

From 1999 to 2004, Amy Zelson Mundorff was the forensic anthropologist for the Office of
Chief Medical Examiner, the city of New York, where she analyzed forensic cases involv-
ing unidentified individuals and bone trauma. She also helped direct mortuary operations
for several disasters, including the World Trade Center attacks, the crash of American
Airlines Flight 587, and the Staten Island Ferry crash. Currently she is completing her
Ph.D. at Simon Fraser University in the Department of Archaeology. Amy holds a Master’s
degree from California State University, Chico. She also has experience as a field archaeol-
ogist in California, Hawaii, Jamaica, and New York, excavating prehistoric and historic
sites as well as performing osteological analyses.

L. GILL NAUL, M.D.

Department of Radiology
Scott and White Clinic and Hospital
2401 S. 31st Street
Temple, TX 76508

Dr. Naul is Chairman of the Department of Radiology at Scott and White Clinic and
Hospital in Temple, Texas, and Professor and Head of the Department of Radiology of the
Texas A&M University College of Medicine. Dr. Naul specializes in neuroradiology and
has been the Chief of the Section of Magnetic Resonance at Scott and White for over
twenty years.

DARÍO OLMO
Equipo Argentino de Antropología Forense (EAAF), Buenos Aires
Rivadavia 2443, 2nd piso
Buenos Aires (1034)
Argentina

Darío Olmo co-founded EAAF (Equipo Argentino de Antropología Forense) twenty-three years
ago and acted as president of the organization between 1997 and 2002. He has worked for
EAAF in Argentina, Uruguay, Peru, Paraguay, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Venezuela, Colombia,
Panama, Honduras, Guatemala, Kosovo, and Congo (DRC) on the application of forensic
anthropology and archaeology to the investigation of human rights cases, and has acted as
expert witness for the judiciary, special commissions of inquiry, and international tribunals.
He is a faculty member of the Universidad de Buenos Aires, Universidad Nacional del
Centro, and Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. His articles and books on forensic anthropol-
ogy have been published in Argentina, the United States, the United Kingdom, Colombia,
and France.
ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS xix

STEPHEN OUSLEY, PH.D.

Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute
501 E. 38th Street
Erie, PA 16546

Stephen Ousley is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Applied Forensic Sciences at

Mercyhurst College. For nine years he was the Director of the Repatriation Osteology
Laboratory at the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. He earned his
B.A. in Biological Anthropology at the University of Maryland, College Park, and his M.A. and
Ph.D. at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. His research interests include skeletal biology,
human variation, forensic anthropology, quantitative genetics, and geometric morphometrics.

JAMES T. POKINES, PH.D., D-ABFA

Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command-Central Identification Laboratory
310 Worchester Avenue
Hickam AFB, HI 96853

Dr. Pokines received his B.A. from Cornell University and his M.A. and Ph.D. degrees
from the University of Chicago. He is currently employed as a forensic anthropologist at
the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central Identification Laboratory (JPAC-
CIL), and is a Research Associate in the Division of Mammals, Field Museum, Chicago.
He has ongoing osteological projects in the Bolivian Altiplano, the Masai Mara National
Reserve in Kenya, and northern Jordan. His research interests include forensic anthropol-
ogy, zooarchaeology, vertebrate taphonomy, predator ecology, and archaeology.

ELAYNE J. POPE, PH.D.

University of Arkansas
Anthropology Department
330 Old Main
Fayetteville, AR 72701

Dr. Pope received her M.A. and Ph.D. in anthropology from the University of Arkansas,
Fayetteville. She examines the effects of burning to bone and tissues of the human body
through experimental studies with cadaver models for use by arson and death investiga-
tors. She researches how the human body burns for application to forensic casework and
features of homicide, particularly identification of traumatic injury (ballistic, blunt force,
and sharp force trauma) for differentiating manner of death between accidental or crimi-
nal attempts to destroy evidence of the body with fire. She has taught forensic anthropol-
ogy, forensic taphonomy, developmental and fragmentary osteology, and criminalistics at
the University of Arkansas in the Anthropology Department, Northwest Arkansas
Community College, and consults on forensic cases involving skeletal or burned human
remains for the Arkansas State Medical Examiner’s Office and private casework.

MERCEDES SALADO PUERTO

Equipo Argentino de Antropología Forense (EAAF), Buenos Aires
Rivadavia 2443, 2nd piso
Buenos Aires (1034)
Argentina
xx ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

Dr. Salado has a Ph.D. in Biological Anthropology from the Universidad Autónoma de
Madrid. She has been awarded various research grants from her university as well as from
Unversidad de San Carlos, Guatemala. She has gained broad experience in the application
of forensic anthropology and archaeology to the investigation of human rights violations,
from 1998 as a member of FAFG (Fundación de Antropología Forense de Guatemala) and
then from 2003 as a member of EAAF. Besides Guatemala and Argentina, she has worked in
Peru, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Mexico, Sudan, Togo, and Cyprus, and has acted as an expert
witness for the judiciary, special commissions of inquiry, and international tribunals.

NORMAN J. SAUER, PH.D., D-ABFA

Department of Anthropology
354 Baker Hall
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI 48824

Dr. Sauer is Professor of Anthropology, Adjunct Professor of Criminal Justice, Clinical

Professor of Anatomy, and Director of the Forensic Anthropology Laboratory at Michigan
State University. His research interests include forensic anthropology, bioarchaeology, the
concept of race in anthropology, and the skeletal effects of trauma. A Diplomate of the
American Board of Forensic Anthropology, he has been assisting the medicolegal commu-
nity on human remains cases since the 1970s and has trained medicolegal personnel from
throughout the United States, Europe, and China. He is past Chair and Secretary of the
Physical Anthropology Section of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences and the
2007 recipient of the AAFS T. Dale Stewart Award.

COLLEEN CARNEY SHINE, B.S.

Frauenlobstrasse 28 80337
Munich, Germany

After earning her B.S. in Psychology from Wellesley College in 1986, Colleen Carney Shine
served as Director of Public Relations for the National League of POW/MIA Families, a
Washington, D.C.-based non-profit organization dedicated to the fullest possible account-
ing for Americans who are still prisoners or missing as a result of the Vietnam War.
A staunch advocate for veterans’ issues, Ms. Shine responds to media interest, and fre-
quently addresses student, civic, military, and veteran’s organizations. She has served on
the board of directors of the National League of POW/MIA Families, Sons and Daughters
In Touch, Inc., and The Friends of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial. Ms. Shine is married
and lives in Munich, Germany, where she works as a writer and marketing consultant.

PAUL S. SLEDZIK, M.S.

Manager, Victim Recovery and Identification
National Transportation Safety Board
490 L’Enfant Plaza East, SW
Washington, D.C. 20594

Paul Sledzik received his M.S. in Biological Anthropology from the University of
Connecticut and has been with the NTSB since 2004. From 1990 to 2003, he served as Curator
ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS xxi

of the anatomical collections at the National Museum of Health and Medicine, Armed Forces
Institute of Pathology. In 1998, he was the first forensic scientist to be appointed as a Disaster
Mortuary Operational Response Team (DMORT) regional commander. He has worked in
different capacities in several major disasters, but always seeks to incorporate forensic
anthropological methods to the disaster response. His current position involves coordinat-
ing local, state, and federal resources for transportation disaster victim identification.

JOHN E. SMIALEK, M.D.

Division of Forensic Pathology
Department of Pathology
University of Maryland School of Medicine
111 Penn Street
Baltimore, MD 21201

The late Dr. John Smialek graduated from the University of Toronto School of Medicine.
Dr. Smialek worked in forensic medicine with the Province of Ontario, Thunder Bay,
Canada, and Office of the Medical Examiner of Wayne County in Detroit before becoming
Chief Medical Examiner for the State of New Mexico and subsequently for the State of
Maryland. He also held positions with Medical Schools at the University of Maryland and
Johns Hopkins. He was active in teaching and research initiatives in forensic medicine
with special emphasis on sudden infant death.

O. C. SMITH, M.D.
Conscience and Science in Medicine
Memphis, TN 38104-2106

Dr. Smith received his M.D. from the Medical College of Wisconsin in 1978. He received train-
ing in Anatomic, Clinical, and Forensic Pathology at the University of Tennessee, Memphis,
followed by board certification in these three areas in 1983. Dr. Smith received training in
forensic firearms examination in 1985 and was the medical examiner for Shelby County,
Tennessee. His focus in forensic pathology in civilian life and the Naval Reserve involves the
biomechanics of skeletal, ballistic, and blast injury, burns, and aircraft mishap investigation.

CLYDE C. SNOW, PH.D., D-ABFA

Norman, OK

Dr. Snow received his Ph.D. from the University of Arizona. Since 1979, after retiring from the
Federal Aviation Administration, he has served as an independent consultant for over 3,000
cases in forensic anthropology. His cases include the 1979 American Airlines DC-10 crash in
Chicago, the John Wayne Gacy serial murders, and the Green River murders. In 1985, he
headed a team of U.S. forensic scientists who went to Brazil to aid in the identification of the
skeleton of the notorious Nazi war criminal, Dr. Josef Mengele. In 1995, he directed the
anthropological phase of the identification of the 168 victims of Murrah Building bombing in
Oklahoma City. In 1984, Dr. Snow began his human rights work when he traveled to
Argentina to assist in determining the fate of thousands of Argentines who were abducted,
tortured, and murdered by military “Death Squads” between 1976 and 1983. He has served
on similar missions in over twenty countries, including UN-sponsored missions to the former
xxii ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

Yugoslavia to collect forensic evidence to be used in war crimes trials. In 1992, he made
several trips to Iraqi Kurdistan to exhume mass graves of an estimated 200,000 Kurds killed
during the genocidal “Anfal” campaign conducted by Iraqi forces against their own Kurdish
people. In November 2007, he presented his findings as an expert witness for the prosecution
in the trial of Saddam Hussein and his co-defendants in Baghdad.

DAWNIE WOLFE STEADMAN, PH.D., D-ABFA

Department of Anthropology
Binghamton University, SUNY
P.O. Box 6000
Binghamton, NY 13902-6000

Dr. Steadman received her M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of Chicago. She is currently
an Associate Professor at Binghamton University, SUNY. Dr. Steadman is a Diplomate of
the American Board of Forensic Anthropology and serves as a forensic anthropology con-
sultant to the Iowa Office of the State Medical Examiner, Suffolk County Medical
Examiner, and several other New York agencies. Her research interests are in bioarchaeol-
ogy, forensic anthropology, and human rights investigations. She has conducted excava-
tions and skeletal analyses of several historic and prehistoric archaeological sites in
Illinois, Iowa, and New York. Dr. Steadman has participated in human rights investiga-
tions in Argentina and Cyprus and currently works with Spanish archaeologists and
anthropologists to investigate atrocities committed during and after the Spanish Civil War.

SAM D. STOUT, PH.D.

Department of Anthropology
124 W. 17th Avenue
244 Lord Hall
Ohio State University
Columbus, OH 43210-1364

Dr. Stout received his Ph.D. in Biological Anthropology from Washington University in
St. Louis, Missouri, in 1976. He is currently Professor Emeritus at the University of Missouri
and Professor at Ohio State University. His general research interests are in skeletal biology.
Specifically, his research involves the microstructural analysis of bone (histomorphometry)
and its applications in forensic anthropology, bioarchaeology, and paleontology.

STEVEN A. SYMES, PH.D., D-ABFA

Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute
501 E. 38th Street
Erie, PA 16546

Steven A. Symes is an Assistant Professor in the Anthropology and Applied Forensic

Sciences Departments of the Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute at Mercyhurst College in
Erie, Pennsylvania. Upon his arrival, Mercyhurst College initiated a new landmark
Master’s program in Forensic and Biological Anthropology. Before coming to Mercyhurst,
Dr. Symes was faculty at the Center for Health Sciences-Department of Pathology,
University of Tennessee, where he spent sixteen years as a forensic anthropologist for the
ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

Medical Examiner’s Office at the Regional Forensic Center for Shelby County, Tennessee.
Both his masters and doctoral degrees in physical anthropology were earned at the
University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Dr. Symes’ research interests involve human skeletal
biology with an emphasis on forensic tool mark and fracture pattern interpretation in
bone. His expertise is in sharp force trauma (i.e., saw and knife marks on bone and carti-
lage in instances of violent death involving dismemberment and mutilation). Other areas
of expertise include burned, blunt force, ballistic, and healing trauma in bone.

DOUGLAS H. UBELAKER, PH.D., D-ABFA

Department of Anthropology
National Museum of Natural History, MRC 112
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, D.C. 20560

Dr. Ubelaker is Curator of Physical Anthropology at the Smithsonian Institution’s

National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C., and Professorial Lecturer in the
Departments of Anthropology and Anatomy at the George Washington University in
Washington, D.C. His research interests focus on human skeletal biology and its forensic
applications. Since 1977 he has served as the primary consulting forensic anthropologist
for FBI Headquarters in Washington, D.C., and has reported on over 700 cases for the FBI
and other law enforcement agencies.

JOHNIE E. WEBB, JR., B.A.

Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command
310 Worchester Avenue
Hickam AFB, HI 96853

Johnie Webb assumed the duties as the Deputy to the Commander, U.S. Army Central
Identification Laboratory and Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command in 1994 and 2006,
respectively. He received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Business Administration from
Benedictine College, in Atchison, Kansas. Prior to entering Federal Government Civil
Service, he completed twenty-six years of service as an Army officer in the Quartermaster
Corps, retiring in 1994 with the rank of Lieutenant Colonel. He is a Vietnam veteran and
has multiple personal awards and decorations. As an Army officer, Mr. Webb had extensive
duty with the Central Identification Laboratory. He was fortunate enough to lead the first
joint recovery operation into Vietnam in 1985 to recover the remains of missing Americans.

ALLISON WEBB WILLCOX, M.A.

University of Pennsylvania
Department of Anthropology
University Museum Rm. 325
3260 South Street
Philadelphia, PA 19104-6398

Allison Webb Willcox is a doctoral candidate in human skeletal biology at the University of
Pennsylvania. She has been on the faculty of the annual Armed Forces Institute of Pathology,
Forensic Anthropology Course for over ten years, and has been a member of the Disaster
xxiv ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

Mortuary Operational Response Team (DMORT) since its inception in 1993. In addition to
forensic anthropology, her research interests include health and nutritional status in ancient
Egypt and the application of modern laboratory methods to skeletal remains.

JASON WIERSEMA, PH.D.

Harris County Medical Examiner’s Office
1885 Old Spanish Trail
Houston, TX 77054

Dr. Wiersema is Chair of the Harris County Medical Examiner’s Office (HCME) Mass
Fatality Committee, and a member of both the ID Unit and the HCME Grants Committee.
He holds an adjunct position at Texas A&M University and is a current member of the
American Academy of Forensic Sciences. Dr. Wiersema received his Ph.D. in Physical
Anthropology from Texas A&M University in 2006 with a research focus in radiographic
skeletal identification. His professional interests focus on mass fatality response and pre-
paredness. Dr. Wiersema has considerable experience working with different agencies in
recent mass disaster situations to provide a variety of services.

P. WILLEY, PH.D., D-ABFA

Department of Anthropology
California State University, Chico
Chico, CA 95929-0400

Dr. Willey is Professor of Anthropology at Chico State, where he has taught since 1989.
He served on the board of directors for the American Board of Forensic Anthropology,
supervised a morgue examining remains from mass graves in Iraq in 2004, and is a
consultant to the JPAC-Central Identification Laboratory, Hawaii. His research interests
include historic skeletal series and he has examined bones of Seventh Cavalry troopers
from the Battle of the Little Bighorn.

MARK WILSON, M.A.

Director, Forensic Science Program
Department of Chemistry and Physics
Natural Science Building, Room 325
Western Carolina University
Cullowhee, NC 28723

Mark Wilson is currently the Director of Forensic Science at Western Carolina University
in Cullowhee, NC. He previously served as the Biology Program Manager in the Chemical
Biological Sciences Unit and the mitochondrial DNA Program Manager in DNA Analysis
Unit II, FBI Laboratory, Quantico, VA. He retired from the FBI in 2007. He earned a Ph.D.
degree in Biosciences from George Mason University in Fairfax, VA, and a M.A. degree in
Biology from California State University, Fullerton. Dr. Wilson was instrumental in
developing mtDNA analysis for forensic use.
 SECTION I

Personal Identification:
Theory and Applications
The Case Study Approach

I n the summer of 1990, four male friends entered an abandoned farmhouse in Iowa, but
only three emerged alive. While one stood watch outside, two of the men shot their
friend multiple times and threw his body into a well behind the farmhouse. It remained
there until it was recovered nearly a decade later. Could the last moments of his life be
interpreted from his mangled bones? In another part of the Midwest, an incomplete, disar-
ticulated female skeleton was found scattered along a riverbank. Two women of the same
age, height, and ancestry were missing from the area. How could experts determine
whether the handful of bones belonged to one woman or the other? Could this also be a
case of foul play?
No matter in what morose scenario unknown human remains are recovered, every
jurisdiction in the United States has statutes requiring a medicolegal investigation of the
identity of the individual and the circumstances of his or her death. By virtue of their
expertise in skeletal biology, forensic anthropologists may be called upon by law enforce-
ment agencies, coroners, medical examiners, and forensic pathologists to assist in the
recovery of human remains, conduct skeletal analyses for the purposes of identification,
describe the nature and extent of skeletal trauma, and potentially provide expert testi-
mony in a court of law. Forensic anthropological services are typically requested when
human remains are decomposed, burnt, fragmentary, cremated, dismembered, fully skele-
tonized, or otherwise unidentifiable by visual means. Scenarios in which a forensic anthro-
pologist may consult include burials, structural fires, explosions such as the Oklahoma
City bombing, mass graves, commercial and clandestine cremations, and mass fatality
incidents. The most recent examples of large-scale forensic anthropological involvement
are the recovery of victims of Hurricane Katrina and the identification of victims killed in
the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 (see Chapter 23). Increasingly, forensic anthro-
pologists are also expanding their purview beyond the local landscape and working
around the globe to identify soldiers missing in action and the victims of wars, human
rights atrocities, and mass disasters, such as the Asian tsunami of 2004.
Forensic anthropology is best defined as the application of anthropological and skeletal
biological principles to medicolegal issues. The term medicolegal refers to the capability of
medical science to shed light on legal matters, such as the identity of the deceased and the
circumstances of death (Fisher 2000). Skeletal biology is the study of the human skeleton
2 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

and encompasses several subdisciplines, including forensic anthropology and bioarchaeol-

ogy, the study of past population behavior, health, and disease. Bioarchaeology adopts a
population-oriented approach and typically involves the examination of human remains
and artifacts from an entire historic or prehistoric cemetery. While forensic anthropologists
typically analyze only one or a few individuals at a time, they must also be knowledgeable
about the entire range of human variation. In fact, by virtue of their casework, forensic
anthropologists directly contribute to our understanding of skeletal diversity among
contemporary populations (Ousley and Jantz 2005; Ubelaker 2000).
Forensic anthropological involvement in the medicolegal community begins with, and
is based upon, an exhaustive case report including, as appropriate, documentation of the
methods of identification, an accurate reconstruction of trauma that occurs at or around
the time of death (perimortem trauma) as well as after death (postmortem trauma), and an
estimate of the postmortem interval, or time since death. If a case goes to trial, this report
becomes the core of the forensic anthropologist’s testimony. Once there is legal resolution,
forensic anthropologists can publish a case study in order to share important new infor-
mation or techniques with students and colleagues. With this in mind, the purpose of this
volume is to utilize case studies to demonstrate the appropriate techniques, ethical respon-
sibilities, and training involved in the practice of forensic anthropology in the United
States today. The contributing authors provide comprehensive coverage of one or more
cases, demonstrate the forensic methods utilized to resolve the case, and, when appropri-
ate, offer personal insight about mistakes, pitfalls, and ethical issues related to their expe-
riences. Ultimately, the case studies in this volume illustrate three principal themes—the
roles and methods of modern forensic anthropology in local and international casework,
the well-developed scientific methodology upon which forensic anthropological tech-
niques are founded, and the multidisciplinary nature of forensic science.

PROFESSIONALISM AND TRAINING IN FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY

Although prominent anthropologists have practiced forensic anthropology since the 1920s
and 1930s (see Kerley 1978; Komar and Buikstra 2008; Stewart 1979; Ubelaker 1990, 1999,
2000 for historical reviews), the profession was formalized in the United States in 1972 with
the formation of the Physical Anthropology section of the American Academy of Forensic
Sciences (AAFS). The AAFS is the primary professional organization of forensic science in
the United States and currently consists of ten professional sections, listed below. As of this
writing, there are over 300 members of the Physical Anthropology section.

Criminalistics
Odontology
Questioned Documents
Toxicology
Jurisprudence
Engineering
Pathology/Biology
Physical Anthropology
Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
General

Over the past few decades, many anthropologists have received specialized training
in forensic methods in addition to their general anthropological education. This trend con-
tinues today as more and more institutions are developing formal graduate programs or
PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS 3

programmatic emphases in forensic anthropology. However, since relatively few

anthropologists find full-time employment practicing forensic anthropology exclusively, it
is imperative that students maintain broad anthropological training. That is, specializa-
tions that are unique to forensic anthropology, such as gunshot trauma analysis or facial
reproduction, should enhance, not replace, an extensive education in the four fields of
anthropology—linguistics, cultural anthropology, biological anthropology, and archaeol-
ogy (Komar and Buikstra 2008; Ubelaker 2000). Archaeological methods are especially
important in forensic anthropology, as is cultural anthropological theory, particularly in
international work. A robust education in the social and biological sciences is also valu-
able, and should include genetics, biochemistry, anatomy, evolutionary biology, criminal
justice, and statistics.
A well-grounded foundation in biological anthropology underlies the success of any
professional forensic anthropology position, whether it is within or apart from academia.
While most professional forensic anthropologists work in a university setting, non-academic
positions also offer many opportunities for those who are broadly educated. For instance,
anthropologists at the Smithsonian Institution accomplish a considerable amount of forensic
work (Grisbaum and Ubelaker 2001) and also conduct research in paleopathology, bioar-
chaeology, and population genetics (e.g., Owsley and Jantz 1994; Verano and Ubelaker 1992).
Similarly, anthropologists from the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command-Central
Identification Laboratory (JPAC-CIL) in Hawaii apply their forensic anthropological and
archaeological expertise to recover and identify U.S. soldiers and civilians lost in past
conflicts as well as investigate local cases. A growing number of anthropologists are also
involved in international human rights investigations (Steadman and Haglund 2005).
Finally, some forensic anthropologists holding either masters or doctoral degrees now main-
tain full-time anthropological positions in medical examiners’ offices or crime labs. Clearly,
broad-based experiences and education gained in both the natural and social sciences are
important as the discipline continues to expand in new directions.

MULTIDISCIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN FORENSIC SCIENCE

Forensic anthropology forms an integral component of an investigative team in the field,

laboratory, and courtroom. For example, during the identification process, forensic
anthropologists may work with police investigators, crime scene technicians, forensic
pathologists, odontologists (dentists), molecular geneticists, radiologists, and fingerprint
experts. New members are added to the team if a case goes to trial, including the attor-
neys and a variable number of additional forensic specialists, such as ballistics experts,
trace evidence examiners, and document examiners, each of whom testifies as to his or
her scientific or technical findings. But how does forensic anthropological evidence
become integrated with other physical, trace, and circumstantial evidence to make a
legally compelling case?
In most criminal cases, the initial responsibility falls upon the lead law enforcement
investigator(s) to decide which consultants will have access to certain evidence, how much
information to share with each specialist, and when. If a suspect is apprehended and
charged, the attorneys join the investigation to weave all available evidence and expert
opinions into a complex web of facts that may ultimately be presented in court. Thus, each
forensic discipline represents but one thread in the web, and each thread must function
together or the entire superstructure will fail. The bones are the hard evidence with which a
forensic anthropologist works, but not the only evidence. Communication between experts,
strict adherence to the scientific method, and high ethical standards are at the forefront of
forensic science, and forensic anthropologists are partners in this process.
4 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

SOME ETHICAL ISSUES IN FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY

Forensic anthropologists must remember that their reports, testimony, and conduct can
have immediate and long-term ramifications for defendants, families, and the judicial
process as a whole. Thus, in addition to strict adherence to scientific principles and profes-
sional protocols, it is imperative that forensic anthropologists also demonstrate a strong
ethical commitment to their work.
Ethical issues underlie all professional actions, many of which go well beyond normal
scientific issues. For instance, forensic anthropologists are obligated to report all of their
findings, even if they seem contradictory to other lines of evidence or muddy a good time-
line or investigative theory (though see Gill-King’s poignant story in Chapter 4). Forensic
anthropologists are required to keep their cases confidential and not present cases in public
or even private settings until they have been legally resolved. They also have a responsibil-
ity to protect the identity of the victims and their families when their cases are presented for
educational purposes. That said, it should be stated that all of the cases presented in this
book have been legally resolved. Further, most authors in this volume have changed or
omitted the names of the victims. However, real names are used in a few chapters because
the cases have been presented elsewhere, including nationally televised programs, or per-
mission has been granted by appropriate parties.
It may be useful here to distinguish between evidence and the individual, as these
terms are used throughout the text of this book. Evidence can be defined as any object
or statement by a witness that has bearing in a court of law. According to Fisher (2000),
evidence can take two forms: testimonial and physical (real) evidence. “Testimonial
evidence is evidence given in the form of statements made under oath, usually in
response to questioning. Physical evidence is any type of evidence having an objective
existence, that is, anything with size, shape, and dimension” (Fisher 2000:1). Further,
physical evidence is used to “reconstruct the crime, identify participants, or confirm or
discredit an alibi” (Geberth 1996:169). Thus, just like blood spatter or a discarded weapon
at a crime scene, a lesion on a humerus that was used to determine the identity of an
individual or a cut mark on a rib suggestive of the circumstances of death constitute
“evidence.” However, forensic anthropologists never lose sight of the fact that an indi-
vidual skeleton with which they work is just that, an individual. The evidence gleaned
from the bones of an individual can be presented as such in court, but this application
does not detract from the fact that the person was once a living human being who had a
history, family, and unique identity. The very fact that forensic anthropologists interpret
the life history of a person from their bones argues that they are extraordinarily cognizant
of the relationship between “bones” and “individuals.”

INTRODUCTION TO THE CASES IN THIS BOOK

This text is divided into six thematic sections representing the most common areas of case-
work and research in forensic anthropology. Section overviews introduce the chapters
and provide contextual information about the applications of forensic anthropology and
specific forensic techniques and approaches.
Section I provides a series of cases that exemplify the basic methods of personal identifi-
cation in forensic anthropology and are discussed below. An essential difference between
forensic anthropology and other subdisciplines of biological anthropology is that forensic
anthropologists must prepare scientifically valid legal records in the form of case reports, and
competently present their results in judicial proceedings. Thus, their methods and reports
undergo critical review by their peers as well as non-scientific parties in a court of law.
PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS 5

The chapters in Section II further examine the roles and responsibilities of the forensic anthro-
pologist in the courtroom.
Section III explores the methods utilized to detect and recover human remains. Since
humans have devised a number of peculiar methods to dispose of a body, it is difficult to
predict just when and where human remains might be found. Forensic anthropologists
must have archaeological training to assist law enforcement with the recovery of human
remains from a number of different contexts. Basic outdoor search strategies are discussed
in the section overview, while the chapters provide specific examples of recovery tech-
niques for a variety of locales. Included in this section are two chapters that cover the efforts
of the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command-Central Identification Laboratory (JPAC-
CIL) to recover and identify missing service and civilian men and women in past conflicts
around the world.
The chapters in Section IV collectively provide an overview of how forensic anthro-
pologists interpret perimortem trauma and major taphonomic processes from skeletal
remains. Two chapters provide an excellent overview of the three types of trauma
forensic anthropologists most often encounter—gunshot wounds, sharp force trauma,
and blunt trauma. These chapters also illustrate how anthropologists and pathologists
work together to interpret trauma in both soft tissue and bone when human remains
are decomposed. Blunt trauma is also discussed in a heart-wrenching case of child
abuse. One hallmark of child abuse is the presence of multiple trauma of differing ages
so the authors incorporate histological techniques to establish the timing of particular
injuries. Other cases illustrate how taphonomic principles can be utilized to estimate
the postmortem interval (PMI) and establish the context of human bones found in
unusual locations.
Section V on analytical methods demonstrates how forensic anthropologists use sophis-
ticated equipment and techniques to address special problems. For instance, when only
small fragments of bone are available, certain parameters of the biological profile can be
determined from the microstructure of bone (histomorphology), or identity may be estab-
lished through genetic and anthropological analysis. Experiments can be conducted to repli-
cate tool mark characteristics in bone in order to reconstruct prior postmortem trauma or
answer questions about the antiquity of an individual. Techniques presented in these case
studies include histomorphology, various facial reproduction procedures, mitochondrial
DNA analysis, cut mark analysis, and mass spectrometry.
Finally, Section VI provides some insight into the broad applications and current direc-
tions of forensic anthropology. Two applications are presented—mass fatality events and
international human rights investigations. The Disaster and Mortuary Operational
Response Team (DMORT) is under the Department of Health and Human Services and
serves to activate forensic anthropologists in mass casualty situations, such as transporta-
tion disasters, bombings, and floods. Finally, two chapters from the Equipo Argentino de
Antropología Forense (EAAF), or Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team, demonstrate the
ongoing work to identify the disappeared in Argentina, as well as their global efforts to
investigate human rights atrocities.

SECTION I CHAPTERS

The cases presented by the multidisciplinary authors in this section demonstrate a variety
of difficult challenges, particularly related to the identification process. In Chapter 1,
Steadman joins New York State Police Investigator Steve Andersen to present an overview
of the basic principles of forensic anthropology and the methods employed in developing
a biological profile within the context of a real forensic case.
6 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION:THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

In Chapter 2, Douglas Ubelaker and colleagues present a case concerning the identifi-
cation of the dismembered remains of a young woman that were found in several different
locations. Scientific investigators were confronted with the task of constructing an accurate
biological profile and determining how she died when only incomplete and fragmentary
remains were available. The case also demonstrates the importance of multidisciplinary
cooperation. The authors, including a forensic anthropologist, a pathologist, a radiologist,
and a molecular geneticist, each report on the important contributions they made to the
identification process. If any of these specialists had not been involved in the investigation,
the case might not have been resolved in such a timely manner.
Karen Burns presents a case in Chapter 3 in which communication among forensic
experts broke down, turning a relatively straightforward identification into a lengthy and
nearly disastrous predicament. The process of identification is also detailed in this chapter,
including the description of antemortem pathologies and anomalies within the skeleton
that rendered an accurate description of a biological profile nearly impossible. Burns
provides some perspectives as to why interdisciplinary cooperation in this case failed and
some suggestions for how to avoid such situations in the future.
This section also examines the impact of missing loved ones on surviving family
members. In Chapter 4, Gill-King discusses the evolving technique of computer super-
imposition in a heartbreaking case from Texas. While he deftly demonstrates the
comparative points useful for identification, the impact of the story lies in the ethical
dilemma presented by the “incidental” information the anthropologist can garner
from skeletal remains. Sometimes the bones tell secrets that are not meant to be shared.
Gill-King takes a poignant look at biological paternity and ethical issues concerning if,
when, and how potentially harmful incidental information should be released to family
members. Finally, the daughter of an Air Force captain who was classified as Missing in
Action in Vietnam joins forensic anthropologist Ann Bunch in Chapter 5 to portray the
oscillation between heartache, when a loved one is missing, and hope during the identi-
fication process.

REFERENCES
Fisher, Barry A. J. 2000. Techniques of Crime Scene Steadman, Dawnie W., and William D. Haglund. 2005.
Investigation. 6th ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. The scope of anthropological contributions to human
Geberth, Vernon J. 1996. Practical Homicide Investigation: rights investigations. Journal of Forensic Sciences
Tactics, Procedures and Forensic Techniques. 3rd ed. Boca 50(1):1–8.
Raton, FL: CRC Press. Stewart, T. Dale. 1979. Essentials of Forensic Anthropology.
Grisbaum, Gretchen A., and Douglas H. Ubelaker. 2001. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
An Analysis of Forensic Anthropology Cases Submitted to Ubelaker, Douglas H. 1990. J. Lawrence Angel and the
the Smithsonian Institution by the Federal Bureau of development of forensic anthropology in the United
Investigation from 1962 to 1994. Washington, DC: States. Pp. 191–200 in A Life in Science: Papers in
Smithsonian Institution Press. Honor of J. Lawrence Angel, ed. Jane E. Buikstra.
Kerley, Ellis R. 1978. Recent developments in forensic Center for American Archaeology, Scientific
anthropology. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology Papers 6.
21:160–173. Ubelaker, Douglas H. 1999. Ales Hrdlicka’s role in the
Komar, Debra, and Jane E. Buikstra. 2008. Forensic history of forensic anthropology. Journal of Forensic
Anthropology: Contemporary Theory and Practice. New Sciences 44:724–730.
York: Oxford University Press. Ubelaker, Douglas H. 2000. Methodological considerations
Ousley, Stephen D., and Richard L. Jantz. 2005. Fordisc 3.0: in the forensic applications of human skeletal biology.
Personal Computer Forensic Discriminant Functions. Pp. 41–67 in Biological Anthropology of the Human
Knoxville: University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Skeleton, ed. M. Anne Katzenberg and Shelley R.
Owsley, Douglas W., and Richard L. Jantz, eds. 1994. Saunders. New York: Wiley-Liss.
Skeletal Biology in the Great Plains: Migration, Warfare, Verano, John W., and Douglas H. Ubelaker, eds. 1992.
Health, and Subsistence. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Disease and Demography in the Americas. Washington,
Institution Press. DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS 7

FURTHER READING
Bass, Bill, and Jon Jefferson. 2003. Death’s Acre: Inside the Rhine, Stanley. 1998. Bone Voyage: A Journey in Forensic
Legendary Forensic Lab The Body Farm Where the Dead Anthropology. Albuquerque, NM: University of New
Do Tell Tales. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons. Mexico Press.
Fairgrieve, Scott I., ed. 1999. Forensic Osteological Analysis: Scheuer, Louise, and Sue Black. 2004. The Juvenile
A Book of Case Studies. Springfield, IL: Charles Skeleton. London: Elsevier Academic Press.
C. Thomas. Schwartz, Jeffrey H. 1993. What the Bones Tell Us. Tucson,
Joyce, Christopher, and Eric Stover. 1991. Witnesses from AZ: University of Arizona Press.
the Grave: The Stories Bones Tell. Boston, MA: Little, Siegel, Jay, Pekka J. Saukko, and Geoffrey C. Knupfer,
Brown & Company. eds. 2000. Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences. Orlando,
Kieser, Jules A., Wayne Laing, and Peter Herbison. 2006. FL: Academic Press.
Lessons learned from large-scale comparative dental Spencer, Frank, ed. 1997. History of Physical Anthropology.
analysis following the south Asian tsunami of 2004. 2nd ed. New York and London: Garland Publishing,
Journal of Forensic Sciences 51:109–112. Inc.
Mann, Robert, and Miryam Williamson. 2006. Forensic Ubelaker, Douglas H., and Henry Scammell. 1992. Bones:
Detective: How I Cracked the World’s Toughest Cases. A Forensic Detective’s Casebook. New York: Edward
New York: Ballentine. Burlingame Books.
Maples, William R., and Michael Browning. 1994. Dead Warren, Michael W., Heather A. Walsh-Haney, and
Men Do Tell Tales: The Strange and Fascinating Cases of a Laurel Freas, eds. 2008. The Forensic Anthropology
Forensic Anthropologist. New York: Doubleday. Laboratory. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Rathbun, Ted A., and Jane E. Buikstra. 1984. Human
Identification: Case Studies in Forensic Anthropology.
Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
CHAPTER 1

The Marty Miller Case:

Introducing Forensic
Anthropology
Dawnie Wolfe Steadman and Steven A. Andersen

In early April, 1997 shots rang out from a quiet rural December 8, 2001, when a hunter phoned the local
area of upstate New York. A man attacked his sheriff and stated he had found a human skeleton.
daughter in their house and shot at her with a shot- Hunters often find missing people given that they
gun. The woman was able to get to her car and visit remote areas that are relatively untouched
attempted to drive away but the man caught up to much of the year, except for hunters and people who
her and shot her once through the car door, fatally wish to hide human remains. The New York State
wounding her. In the mean time, the woman’s Police were called to investigate the scene and they
brother ran to a neighbor’s house and called police. asked Steadman to help with the recovery and iden-
The man ran into the woods behind his house and, tification of the skeleton.
despite a massive manhunt, was not seen again. The remains were on the ground under a great
This case became something of a legend in the deal of leaf litter. Once the leaves had been cleared,
region given the notoriety of the missing suspect, the remains and associated evidence could be seen
Marty Miller (not his real name). A tall man known (Figure 1.1). The skeleton was fully clothed in a black
for his quick temper and flair for bar fights, the jacket, jeans, leather belt, and boots. A shotgun laid
community was also aware of his family situation. along the left side of the body and shotgun shells
Marty’s daughter was also his common-law wife were between the legs. Personal effects located
and Marty had three more children with her. The around the body included eye glasses with broken
death of his daughter was mourned in the commu- lenses, a wrist watch, a partial pack of cigarettes, and
nity but there was also a feeling of apprehension. a wooden pipe. The skeleton was lying supine next
Marty was an avid outdoorsman and knew how to to a tree, though the upper half of the body was
survive in the forest. As a fugitive, Marty could be twisted to the left such that both arms were on the
quite dangerous and people feared where and left side of the body. The hands were disarticulated
when he might reappear. As time went on, Marty and the lower arm bones were bleached white by the
even became a bit of a boogeyman since parents sun where they extended from the coat sleeves. The
told their children not to go too deep into the forest skull was highly fragmented and small pieces were
because “Marty will get you!” found all around the body (Figure 1.2). Some of the
Four years passed without any word or sign from bones were transported away from the body by ani-
Marty and the case had gone cold. This changed on mals. The sacrum was found approximately 50 feet

8
THE MARTY MILLER CASE: INTRODUCING FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY 9

Although a wallet was found in the pants pocket

and contained multiple forms of identification
with the same name, Martin Miller, wallets are trans-
ferrable and thus not an adequate means of positive
identification. Instead, a biological identification of
the skeletal remains was necessary. The remains
were transported to the Forensic Anthropology
Laboratory at Binghamton University that night and
the analysis began the following morning. The meth-
ods utilized in a forensic anthropological analysis
require an understanding of the basic principles of
skeletal biology that are at the very foundation of the
discipline.

A Foundation in Skeletal Biology

Despite the far-reaching applications of modern
forensic anthropology, all of the underlying meth-
ods and theories in the field are well-grounded in
the principles of skeletal biology—the study of the
development, anatomy, physiology, histology, and
biomechanics of bone tissue. The human skeleton
is typically divided into the axial skeleton, com-
prising the head, thorax, and pelvis; and the
appendicular skeleton, which includes the limb
bones. Joints articulate (connect) two or more
FIGURE 1.1 SCENE PHOTO OF THE SKELETON FOLLOWING bones. Forensic anthropologists study the anatomy
REMOVAL OF LEAF LITTER
of the 200-plus bones of the adult and subadult
Note the shotgun beside the left leg (arrow) and red skeletons in order to glean as much information as
cartridges between the legs. possible from extremely small fragments. In addi-
tion, they must be familiar with the morphological
away while the right os coxa was recovered approx- variation of the skeleton among individuals and
imately 42 feet from the skeleton in the opposite populations. Figure 1.3 is a labeled diagram of the
direction. The left os coxa and right femur were not bones of a normal adult skeleton.
recovered. Bone is a viscoelastic material, meaning it has
both rigid and flexible properties. Approximately
75 percent of bone is inorganic, consisting primarily
of minerals, such as calcium and phosphorous, that
give bone its rigid strength. However, bone cannot
be too rigid or it will become brittle and break upon
impact, much like glass. Thus, nearly 90 percent of
the organic component of bone is composed of colla-
gen, which provides some flexibility. Further, bone
consists of two structural components, compact
bone and spongy bone. Compact bone is very hard,
dense bone that withstands stress and provides
strength, resistance, and protection. The outer cortex
of a bone is composed of compact bone. Spongy
bone is porous and consists of bony spicules, or tra-
FIGURE 1.2 FRAGMENTS OF MANDIBLE AND SKULL beculae, that form a latticework to absorb and dis-
(ARROWS) NEAR THE RIGHT HAND tribute stress and is found in the interior of the bone.
10 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

cortex of the diaphysis, while the medullary cavity is

Parietal
Frontal lined by the endosteum. Long bones function to pro-
Temporal duce blood cells inside the medullary cavity, provide
Zygomatic
Maxilla
structure to the body, and act as levers for move-
Clavicle Mandible ment. Accordingly, the outer cortex of the long bone
consists of very thick cortical bone to protect the
medullary cavity and support the body, while
Scapula Sternum
spongy bone is concentrated in the metaphyses and
Costal
Cartilage epiphyses, as most stress occurs at the joints. In con-
Humerus
Ribs trast, short bones, such as those of the wrist (carpals)
and ankle (tarsals), function to distribute stress and
hence have a relatively thin cortex and a consider-
Vertebral
Radius Column able amount of spongy bone. The flat bones of the
Os Coxa skull consist of outer and inner tables of compact
Sacrum bone (consider the protective function this provides
Ulna
for the brain), and a layer of spongy bone in between,
Carpals
called diploe.
Meta-
carpals By applying the principles of skeletal biology,
forensic anthropologists have the skills to interpret
Femur the story bones tell for the purposes of identification.
Phalanges

Patella

Tibia

Fibula

Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
Periosteum
Diaphysis
FIGURE 1.3 SOME BONES OF THE ADULT
SKELETON
Medullary Cavity
A basic rule of anatomy is that form follows func-
tion. Indeed, the structure and morphology of bones Endosteum
are well-adapted for their functions, including sup-
port and movement of the body, protection of vital
organs, hemopoiesis (blood cell production), and Spongy Bone
mineral storage. A closer examination of bone archi-
Compact Bone
tecture will help demonstrate the relationship
between the form and function of cortical and
Metaphysis
spongy bone (Figure 1.4). A long bone is divided into
three sections—the diaphysis, or shaft, two or more
Epiphysis
epiphyses located at the ends of the long bone, and
the metaphysis, a section of bone between the epiph-
ysis and diaphysis. A layer of tough connective tis-
sue, known as the periosteum, envelops the outer FIGURE 1.4 ANATOMY OF A LONG BONE
THE MARTY MILLER CASE: INTRODUCING FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY 11

The identification process begins with an inventory

of the available skeletal elements and other evidence
present. The next step is to construct a biological pro-
file of the individual that can be compared to that of
missing persons. Finally, a description of any peri-
mortem and postmortem traumatic injuries is
required.

Forensic Anthropological Procedures

Inventory
The forensic anthropologist must know how to prop-
erly process and sort bones and bone fragments
received in a forensic context. The first phase in an
osteological analysis is to determine if the bones are
human. Typically, the forensic analysis will be termi-
nated if the bones are those of animals. Next, individ-
ual bones are identified. If a bone or bone fragment
cannot be readily identified, one can attempt to spec-
ify the part of the skeleton to which it belongs by
assessing the bone type—a long bone (e.g., femur or
humerus), flat bone (e.g., bones of the vault), short
bone (e.g., bones of the wrist or ankle), or irregular
bone (e.g., the vertebrae). Once the bone is identified,
the forensic anthropologist determines whether it is
from the left or right side of the body in the case of
bilateral bones. This procedure is known as “siding.”
When all of the available bones or bone fragments
are sorted and sided properly, they should be laid
out on a table in anatomical position (Figure 1.5).
Standardized forms are used to record the num-
ber and identity of the bones present, document
their condition, and describe the presence of soft
tissue and any associated evidence (Moore-Jansen
et al. 1994).

Skeletal Biology and the Biological Profile

The underlying principle of skeletal biology is that
certain aspects of an individual’s life history are FIGURE 1.5 ANATOMICAL DISPLAY OF A SKELETON FOR
recorded in his or her skeleton. Bone is a dynamic INVENTORY AND ANALYSIS
tissue that adapts to changes in height, weight, age,
and activity levels, as well as to certain diseases and
traumatic events. Further, aspects of an individual’s female? Have you ever broken a bone? What other
population history, or ancestry, are also recorded in characteristics might make your skeleton unique?
the skeleton, as is his or her sex. What story might How might your skeleton change over the next
your skeleton tell about your life history? What is twenty, thirty, or fifty years? When a person’s death
your current height? Are you fairly muscular? Are is set within a forensic context, it is the forensic
you right-handed or a southpaw? Are you male or anthropologist’s responsibility to interpret the
12 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

CASE STUDY:
Inventory
In the case from New York, several bones were missing due to animal activity. The recovered elements
were laid out in anatomical position (Figure 1.6) after cleaning with a toothbrush and water. No soft tissue
was present. Note that the sacrum and os coxa, which were exposed to the sun, are whiter in color than the
bones that were largely covered by leaf litter where the skeleton was found. The highly fragmented and

FIGURE 1.6 CASE SKELETON LAID OUT IN ANATOMICAL POSITION (RECOVERED SKULL FRAGMENTS IN INSET)

incomplete elements of the skull and mandible are shown in the inset. None of the skeletal elements were
redundant and the remains are consistent with a single individual. Following a complete inventory, a
biological profile of the individual can be constructed.

“evidence” recorded in the bones to determine iden- Sex The pelvis is considered the most sexually
tity and the circumstances of his or her demise. To dimorphic skeletal element in humans because the
accomplish this, forensic anthropologists begin by female pelvis must accommodate the relatively
establishing a biological profile of the skeleton— large head of an infant during childbirth—a func-
the sex, age, ancestry, and stature, as well as any tion obviously not shared by males. Thus, the
skeletal anomalies or pathologies that make an indi- female pelvis is typically wider in every dimension
vidual unique. than the male pelvis (Figures 1.7 and 1.8).
THE MARTY MILLER CASE: INTRODUCING FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY 13

Female Male

Broad Pelvic Inlet

FIGURE 1.7 SEX-RELATED DIFFERENCES IN THE PELVIS (SUPERIOR VIEW)

Male
Female

Wide Subpubic Angle

Narrow Subpubic Angle

FIGURE 1.8 SEX-RELATED DIFFERENCES IN THE PELVIS (ANTERIOR VIEW)

Particular features to examine include the presence the function of the skull does not vary between
of a ventral arc, ischiopubic ridge, and preauricular males and females, only general differences are
sulcus, as well as the breadth of the sciatic notch observed in the size of the muscle attachments and
and subpubic concavity (Bennett 1993; Phenice the shape of certain features. Males tend to have
1969; Sutherland and Suchey 1991). Table 1.1 lists larger neck muscles than females, which means that
some of the more useful sex discriminating skeletal the bony areas where those muscles attach must be
traits of the pelvis. correspondingly robust. For example, one of the
Though the pelvis is considered to be the most muscles on the side of the neck, the sternocleido-
reliable skeletal indicator of sex, the cranium is also mastoid muscle, originates on the clavicle and
sexually dimorphic in many populations. Because sternum and inserts on the mastoid process of the

TABLE 1.1 COMMONLY USED MORPHOLOGICAL INDICATORS OF SEX IN THE PELVIS

SKELETAL INDICATOR MALE FEMALE

Subpubic Angle Narrow, V-shaped Wider, U-shaped

Ventral Arc Absent or not well defined Present, well defined
Greater Sciatic Notch Narrow, less than 68° Wider, greater than 68°
Preauricular Sulcus Absent or thin and shallow Present, deep and wide
Obturator Foramen Oval, larger Triangular, smaller
Pubic Bone Short, triangular Longer, rectangular
Ischiopubic Ramus Broad and flat Thin and sharp
14 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

temporal bone, just behind the ear. When both the more square and pronounced, while the gonial
left and right muscles contract, they pull the mas- angle of females is more obtuse and their chins
toid process (and hence the head) forward and are generally more pointed than square. Skeletal
down towards the chest. Unilateral contraction biologists cannot offer good explanations as to
moves the head to one side. Adhering to the rule why such variation exists but they are nonethe-
that form follows function, an individual with a less useful for discriminating between the sexes
large sternocleidomastoid muscle will have a larger in skeletal material.
mastoid process than an individual with relatively Note that most of the differences between the
smaller muscle mass. Thus, the mastoid processes traits listed in Tables 1.1 and 1.2 are relative. For
of males tend to be wider and longer than those of instance, the greater sciatic notch is “wider” in
females (Figure 1.9). The same general rule applies females than in males, while the glabella is “more
to the muscles on the back of the neck (nuchal mus- pronounced” in males than in females. There is a
cles) that attach to the nuchal crest of the occipital great deal of overlap between the sexes in all of these
(Figure 1.10). traits, including those of the pelvis, and some popu-
There are other important sex-related differ- lations are more sexually dimorphic than others.
ences of the cranium (Table 1.2). For instance, the Thus, it is crucial to understand the sex-related vari-
superior margins of the orbit, called the supraor- ability within and among populations in order to
bital margins, tend to be thin and sharp in accurately estimate this parameter of the biological
females and thick and blunt in males. The jaw profile. Estimation of the sex of children based on the
line (gonial angle) and chin of males are often same morphological traits of the pelvis or cranium as

Male
Female
Small Pronounced
Supraorbital Supraorbital
Ridge Ridge

Thick, Long
Small Mastoid Mastoid Process
Process
Straight Gonial Angle
Obtuse Gonial
Angle

FIGURE 1.9 SEX-RELATED DIFFERENCES IN THE CRANIUM (LATERAL VIEW)

Male

Female

Gracile
Nuchal Robust
Crests Nuchal
Crests

FIGURE 1.10 SEX-RELATED DIFFERENCES IN THE CRANIUM (POSTERIOR VIEW)

THE MARTY MILLER CASE: INTRODUCING FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY 15

TABLE 1.2 COMMONLY USED MORPHOLOGICAL INDICATORS OF SEX IN THE CRANIUM

SKELETAL INDICATOR MALE FEMALE

Nuchal Crest Well developed, robust Less developed, gracile

External Occipital Protuberance Well developed Weak, smooth
Mastoid Process Large, wide and robust Thinner, narrow and gracile
Glabella and Supraorbital Ridges More pronounced Less pronounced
Supraorbital Margins Thick, blunt Thin, sharp
Forehead Sloping, less rounded Vertical, more rounded
Gonial Angle Vertical (approaches 90°) Angled (greater than 90°)
Chin Square, U-shaped Pointed, V-shaped

are used for adults is unreliable because the female Age SUBADULT Your skeleton appears different
pelvis does not widen, or deviate from the male now than when you were born, and it will certainly
form, until after puberty. look different in fifty years. The estimation of age at
Measurements of the skull and postcranial death from skeletal materials is based on morpho-
skeleton are also useful for assessing sex. Bennett logical changes in the skeleton over time. The devel-
(1993) and France (1998) present a synthesis of opment of the skeleton and teeth is useful for
measurements and statistical sectioning points use- estimating the age of subadults (infants, children,
ful for sex estimation. Summary data can also be and teenagers). Longitudinal growth occurs at the
found in Krogman and Iscan (1986) and Stewart epiphyseal growth plate, a section of hyaline carti-
(1979). Notably, Giles and Elliot (1963) developed lage between the epiphysis and metaphysis of long
discriminant functions for cranial data from the bones (Figure 1.11). Cartilage cells, called chondro-
nineteenth-century Terry collection, though cytes, proliferate and eventually die, thereby form-
changes in the size and shape of crania over time ing a cartilaginous matrix upon which osteoblasts
(secular changes) have limited their utility. Walker (bone forming cells) lay down bone. The bone
(2008) has published discriminant function analy- lengthens at both ends as this process continues.
sis for a series of cranial observations (including Longitudinal growth cannot continue indefinitely,
the mental eminence and supraorbital ridge), however, or we would all be giants. A hormone
though warns that the equations are likely popula- secreted from the pituitary gland, called the growth
tion specific. Measurements of the humerus, femur, hormone, determines the rate and duration of bone
and tibia can outperform those of the cranium in growth. When the growth hormone is “turned off,”
discriminating between the sexes of some popula- the growth plate ossifies, the epiphysis fuses to the
tions (e.g., Bennett 1993; Dittrick and Suchey 1986; metaphysis, and longitudinal growth ceases.
Thieme and Schull 1957). Fortunately for anthropologists, the growth plates of

CASE STUDY:
Sex Assessment
As mentioned above, the pelvis is the most reliable skeletal region for sex estimation but only the right
ilium was present for analysis. The greater sciatic notch was quite narrow and there was no preauricular
sulcus, suggesting male sex. The nuchal crests, mastoid processes, and glabella were robust and the supra-
orbital margins were thick. In addition, the maximum diameters of the femoral and humeral heads were
50 mm and 49 mm, respectively, which are well within the male range of variation (Stewart 1979). All of
these characteristics are consistent with a male individual.
16 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

FIGURE 1.11 LONG BONES OF INDIVIDUALS AT DIFFERENT AGES (INFANT, SUBADULT, AND ADULT)

each bone turn off at different times, yet the timing at all (agenesis). Thus, skeletal biologists can accu-
of epiphyseal fusion for any one growth plate is rel- rately estimate subadult age from the dentition
atively constant across populations. Therefore, between infancy and approximately fifteen years,
anthropologists can compare the observed pattern when the second molars erupt and their roots are
of epiphyseal fusion of an unknown skeleton to completely developed. Schour and Massler (1941,
modern growth standards. A general chart is pre- 1944) and Ubelaker (1999) have developed charts
sented in Figure 1.12, though more specific informa- of dental eruption patterns at different ages that
tion can be found in Scheuer and Black (2000). are commonly used by forensic anthropologists.
Female skeletons will typically mature faster than Dental formation is considered more accurate
those of males (Saunders 2000). There may be some than eruption patterns for chronological age esti-
population differences as well, and childhood mal- mation (Ubelaker 1989). Here, observations of
nutrition may negatively impact skeletal growth crown and root development are used to estimate
and development (Cardoso 2008). chronological age from prenatal to late teens
The formation and eruption of teeth are also (Moorrees et al. 1963a, b). Dental histological aging
useful for estimating the age of subadult skele- techniques are also available, and Fitzgerald and
tons. Humans are diphodont, meaning they have Rose (2000) provide an excellent review of these
two sets of teeth. The deciduous, or “baby,” teeth techniques. Because there is relatively little vari-
begin to erupt in infancy while eruption of adult, ability in dental development and epiphyseal
“permanent,” teeth commences during middle fusion among populations, age ranges of two to
childhood, typically around the age of seven five years may be estimated for subadult remains.
years. Dental development terminates in the late Recent studies (Cardoso 2008; Heuzé and Cardoso
teens or early twenties with the eruption (and/or 2008) have shown that socioeconomic factors play
extraction) of the third molars, or “wisdom teeth.” a role in population variation in that children with
The timing of third molar eruption is highly vari- lower socioeconomic status may developmentally
able, and some individuals do not develop them lag behind their more affluent cohort. No matter
THE MARTY MILLER CASE: INTRODUCING FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY 17

age-associated changes and are not generally

affected by other stresses, such as locomotion,
weight, or muscularity. The most commonly used
adult age indicator is the pubic symphysis.
Medial Clavicle
(17–30y) The pubic symphysis is the joint at which the
two pubic bones meet at the front of the pelvis. In
Proximal life, the faces of the pubic bones are separated by
Humerus
(17–23y) fibrocartilage. The pubic symphysis is not directly
weight bearing and, in the absence of trauma,
experiences relatively standard change over time.
Medial
Epicondyle There are differences between the sexes, however,
(10–16y) and it is imperative to estimate the sex of the indi-
Proximal
Radius Iliac vidual prior to assessing age based on the pubic
(14–19y) Crest symphysis. There are also some differences
(17–24y)
among populations in the United States (Katz and
Distal Proximal
Radius Femur Suchey 1989).
(16–22y) (14–19y) In general, the symphyseal face of a youthful
individual has a number of ridges and furrows
Distal
Ulna with no distinct rim (Figure 1.13). Over time, the
(16–20y)
ridges and furrows level out, a ventral rampart
develops, and a complete rim forms around the
Distal face. Later, both the face and the rim begin to
Femur break down. Since it is difficult to create discrete
(15–21y)
age ranges from a continual process of change,
Proximal
Fibula Proximal anthropologists must settle for broad, statistically
(15–19y) Tibia
(15–19y) derived age ranges. Three techniques of pubic
symphyseal aging are frequently used today:
Suchey-Brooks (Katz and Suchey 1986; Suchey
and Katz 1998), McKern and Stewart (1957), and
Distal Fibula Distal Tibia Todd (1921a, b). The latter techniques were devel-
(14–19y)
(14–18y) oped from the study of war dead (a sample domi-
nated by males, though see Gilbert and McKern
1973 for female standards) and late nineteenth-
century medical school cadavers, respectively. In
FIGURE 1.12 TIMING OF EPIPHYSEAL FUSION OF contrast, the six-phase Suchey-Brooks technique
LONG BONES is based upon the study of over 1,200 modern
Source: Adapted from White (2000); Ubelaker (1999); and individuals of both sexes, all ages, and multiple
Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994)
ancestral affiliations from the Los Angeles County
Department of the Coroner. For purposes of stan-
the developmental rate, however, age-related vari- dardization, it is recommended that case reports
ability increases among adults and the estimated include the Suchey-Brooks observations, when
age range must increase accordingly. available.
ADULT A skeleton is considered to be an adult Another aspect of the pelvis, the auricular sur-
once all of the epiphyses have fused. The last epi- face of the ilium, is also useful for estimating adult
physis to fuse is the medial clavicle, which occurs age (Buckberry and Chamberlain 2002; Lovejoy
approximately between seventeen and thirty years et al. 1985). Important features of the aging process
of age—earlier in females, later in males (Webb of the face include a decrease in the number of
and Suchey 1985). At this point, the bones are no striations, an increase in porosity and degree of
longer developing and growing but instead slowly apical lipping, and changes in bone texture. In
begin to break down. Anthropologists have identi- addition, changes also occur on the ilium immedi-
fied features of the skeleton that undergo regular ately posterior to (behind) the auricular surface.
18 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

Ventral Dorsal

Young Adult Middle Adult Old Adult

FIGURE 1.13 COMPARISON OF PUBIC SYMPHYSIS OF A YOUNG, MIDDLE AGED, AND OLDER ADULT

Again, a broad age range is the best we can expect police investigators, it is the responsibility of the
from this technique given the variability of age- anthropologist to explain that excessively narrow
related changes in adults. age ranges may result in the inappropriate exclusion
Other aging techniques employed by forensic of missing persons from consideration.
anthropologists include the examination of the Forensic anthropologists must also be able to
sternal end of the right fourth rib (Iscan and Loth communicate to the court a sense of the accuracy of
1986a, b) and cranial suture closure (Meindl and skeletal age and sex estimations. Most authors
Lovejoy 1985). The sternal rib ends can yield quite include an estimate of accuracy and reliability in the
reliable age estimations (Saunders et al. 1992), and seminal articles that describe their techniques. For
adjacent ribs can be used without losing informa- instance, Phenice (1969) reports an accuracy of
tion (Yoder et al. 2001). However, debate continues 96 percent when the ventral arc, ischiopubic ramus,
concerning the utility of cranial suture closure as and subpubic concavity are analyzed together to
an accurate age indicator (Meindl and Lovejoy estimate sex. However, it is important to be familiar
1985; Nawrocki 1998; Singer 1953), and most agree with “blind” studies designed to test the accuracy
that the best it can render is a fifteen-year age and reliability of the methods (e.g., Hoppa 2000;
range. Nonetheless, a forensic anthropologist has Mulhern and Jones 2005; Murray and Murray 1991;
little choice but to use cranial sutures when only Saunders et al. 1992). Lovell (1989) and others
the skull is present. Histological aging methods for (e.g., Ubelaker and Volk 2002) applied the Phenice
bones and teeth are also available and are very use- technique to skeletal samples of known age and sex
ful for aging burnt and extremely fragmentary but obtained an accuracy below 90 percent.
materials (Ericksen 1991; Kerley and Ubelaker Ubelaker and Volk (2002) further found that the
1978; Prince and Ubelaker 2002; Robling and Stout accuracy of sex estimation increased substantially
2000; Stout 1992; Ubelaker 1986; see Chapter 19). (from 88.4 percent to 96.5 percent) when additional
In casework, forensic anthropologists use as pelvic morphological indicators (e.g., sciatic notch
many aging techniques as are available and then and preauricular sulcus) were incorporated with
reconcile the results of each method into an appro- Phenice’s traits. Further, they argue that observer
priate age range, which may be quite broad (e.g., ten experience is also a key factor in accurate sex estima-
years or more). While a wide range may frustrate tion. Thus, forensic anthropologists should test and
THE MARTY MILLER CASE: INTRODUCING FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY 19

quantify their own proficiency for various methods forensic anthropologists must reflect the everyday
using unfamiliar skeletons of known age and sex. usage of the society with which they interact” (Sauer
1992:109). In practice, however, ancestry estimation
Ancestry Biological anthropology is histori- may make little statistical contribution to a discrimi-
cally rooted in raciology, a typological approach to natory biological profile unless the individual is
human variation in which individuals are segre- truly a minority within the relevant population at
gated into discrete groups based on the relative large (e.g., a particular geographic area) (Konigsberg
frequency of particular physical traits. However, et al. 2008).
the approach today is no longer typological in For cases in which ancestry might be discrimi-
nature and biological anthropologists are now natory and therefore assist with personal identifi-
interested in understanding the range of variation cation, forensic anthropologists first look to the
within and between groups without necessarily cranium. Forensic anthropologists examine mor-
creating artificial boundaries between them. In phological features of the skull and collect cranial
general, anthropologists argue that race (white, measurements, which are then statistically com-
black, Hispanic, Chinese, etc.) is a social construct pared to skulls of known ancestry. Morphological
that has no biological basis (Brace 1995; Lewontin features typically examined include the overall
1972; Marks 1995; Montagu 1964). The term shape of the skull vault, orbits, palate, and nasal
ancestry, on the other hand, takes into account aperture, as well as the presence or absence of cer-
population origins and history, which do have bio- tain characteristics, including Wormian bones (or
logical foundations. According to Ousley and ossicles, bones within the sutures) and a nasal sill.
Jantz (1996), biological differences “reflect the dif- Many other morphological features are listed in
ferent origins and separate histories of each [popu- various anthropology papers and books (e.g., Gill
lation], which can be highly correlated with many 1998; Gill and Rhine 1990; Stewart 1979).
social, geographic, temporal, historical, or linguis- Although a variety of discriminant function
tic groupings of populations. These correlations analyses have been developed for cranial measure-
form the basis of the study of human variation and ments (e.g., Giles and Elliot 1962), forensic anthro-
of forensic anthropology.” pologists rely on metric data from the Forensic
Forensic anthropologists have been criticized by Data Bank (FDB) for a comparative sample of mod-
other anthropologists for upholding the race ern individuals of known sex, ancestry, and stature.
concept whenever they estimate the ancestry of a Since 1983, forensic anthropologists from around
skeleton (e.g., Albanese and Saunders 2006; Belcher the country have contributed metric information
and Armelagos 2002). Sauer (1992) counters this from their cases when positive identifications
point by arguing that race must be discussed in are made. The Data Bank is maintained at
forensic reports since the goal of the analysis is iden- the University of Tennessee (Ousley and Jantz
tification. “To be of value the race categories used by 1998) and currently contains data on over 2,100

CASE STUDY:
Age Assessment
The skeleton recovered from upstate New York exhibited complete fusion of all of the epiphyses so adult aging
methods were employed. The available auricular surface was too damaged for analysis and the pubic sym-
physes were missing so only the cranial sutures and the right fourth sternal rib end could be utilized. The
Meindl and Lovejoy (1985) method was used to evaluate the vault sutures. Most of the vault sutures were
obliterated, though the left midlambdoid and midcoronal sutures were scored as “significant closure.” These
data suggested an age older than forty years. The sternal end of the right fourth rib was evaluated following
the methods of Iscan and Loth (1986a) and determined to be in Phase 6, which has an age range of forty-three
to fifty-five years. Thus, the skeletal data indicate an age over forty years but a more precise range could not be
reliably estimated.
20 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

individuals, most of known sex and ancestry. The Stature An individual’s standing height is
FDB is often consulted to estimate the ancestry of also part of his or her biological profile. Since
an unknown individual using a program called average height differs between the sexes and
Fordisc, the most recent version of which is Fordisc among populations, forensic anthropologists esti-
3.0, written by Ousley and Jantz (2005). Fordisc mate living stature by measuring the long bones
works by treating the documented forensic cases in and applying sex- and population-specific regres-
the FDB as a comparative sample that can be used sion equations. Formulae are available for a num-
to classify unknown individuals from forensic ber of different populations, including World War
cases. The unknown is then classified by finding II and Korean War dead (Trotter 1970; Trotter and
the group to which the individual in question is Gleser 1952), as well as modern forensic samples
most similar. In discriminant function analysis, the (Ousley 1995). In addition, the appropriate meas-
statistical method used in Fordisc, posterior proba- urement techniques are found in several sources
bilities of group membership can be calculated for (e.g., Bass 1995; Moore-Jansen et al. 1994).
each group. These are called posterior probabilities Typically, measurements of the leg bones tend to
because they are calculated after (posterior to) be more reliable than those of the arms (Trotter
analysis of the bone measurements. Before evaluat- and Gleser 1958), but the forensic anthropologist
ing the measurements, there are prior probabilities must pay particular attention to the measurement
of group membership, which Fordisc assumes are protocol for the tibia. Jantz and colleagues (1994,
equal. In other words, if four groups are under 1995) describe how Trotter ’s measurements of
consideration, then the prior probability that the maximum tibial length do not correspond to the
case belongs to each group is 0.25. Following the measurement descriptions she provided and
analysis, the metric information from the case pre- results in the underestimation of living stature.
sumably modifies these priors so that (ideally) all All stature estimates should be reported as a
but one of the probabilities will become very small. range by including appropriate confidence inter-
These modified probabilities are the posterior vals (Giles and Klepinger 1988; Konigsberg et al.
probabilities of group membership; the higher the 1998; Ousley 1995). New statistical approaches to
posterior probability, the more likely the unknown stature estimation provide likelihood ratios that
case belongs to that group. can be useful to quantify identity, as further
Even when the posterior probabilities seem to discussed in Section II (see Konigsberg et al.
clearly and unambiguously assign an individual to a 1998, 2006).
single group, it is possible that the individual is not To establish a personal identification, stature
“typical” of that group. For example, if an unknown estimates derived from long bone measurements
cranium from a group not represented in the FDB are compared to statures recorded in medical
was analyzed using Fordisc (e.g., a Biaka Pygmy), records and/or driver’s licenses of potential
the program would still assign the cranium to a par- matches. However, self-reported height may not
ticular group, but the skull would probably not be always be accurate. For instance, Willey and
typical of that group. The probability of getting a Falsetti (1991) have found that many people, espe-
cranium that is similar to others in that group is cially men, tend to overstate their true stature on
called a “typicality probability” or “typicality their driver’s licenses. Further, Galloway (1988)
index” (McLachlan 1992; VanVark and Schaafsma reports that significant stature loss in elderly indi-
1992). Chapter 8 discusses Fordisc in greater detail viduals is often not recorded in medical records or
and provides examples. on driver’s licenses. In other words, older adults

CASE STUDY:
Ancestry Assessment
In the current case ancestry could not be assessed because the majority of the skull and facial skeleton were
too fragmentary and incomplete to observe traits or perform measurements.
THE MARTY MILLER CASE: INTRODUCING FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY 21

tend to report their more youthful stature. The extent of osteoarthritis and infections, particular
errors of self-reporting emphasize the need for trabecular patterns within a bone, and frontal
forensic anthropologists to report appropriate sta- sinus morphology. Comparisons of antemortem
tistical ranges so that a missing individual is not and postmortem radiographs may require the
falsely excluded from consideration. assistance of a radiologist, especially if the anthro-
pologist does not have extensive experience in
Antemortem Pathology For any particular case, a radiograph interpretation. The time elapsed
biological profile consisting of age, sex, ancestry, and between when a radiograph was taken and the
stature may not significantly reduce the number of death of the individual is also an important con-
missing individuals, especially in urban areas where sideration since significant bone remodeling may
the missing persons’ list is often quite lengthy modify or obscure lesions. Medical prosthetics
(Cunha 2006). Thus, the forensic anthropologist and surgical devices with serial numbers are also
must examine the bones carefully and note any useful for identification (Ubelaker and Jacobs
unique characteristics that will help exclude one or 1995). Similarly, dental pathologies and restora-
more individuals from the missing persons’ pool. tions, particularly fillings and crowns, can be used
Pathological conditions that occur before death are to identify human remains (e.g., Adams 2003;
called antemortem pathologies. However, for a Stimson and Mertz 1997).
pathology or anomaly to be forensically important, Certain habitual tasks will alter the biome-
an antemortem record must exist in the form of radi- chanical stresses placed on bone and provide the
ographs (X-rays), dental records, or medical records. anthropologist with clues as to the types of activ-
Individuals close to the missing person may also ities the individual might have performed in life
convey information about his or her medical history, (Kennedy 1989; Saul and Saul 1999; Wilczak and
even if records are not available. Ideally, information Kennedy 1998). For instance, in certain cultures
gathered from non-medical sources should be con- females spend a great deal of time kneeling or
sistent across multiple family members or friends. squatting while processing food. This habitual
The most common skeletal pathology encoun- activity alters the way the tibia and femur and
tered in forensic anthropology cases is bone the tibia and talus articulate, leaving distinct
fractures. These are especially useful since most accessory or modified facets on these bones—so
people seek medical care when a bone is broken called “squatting facets” (Kennedy 1989; Kostick
and radiographs are routinely ordered to diagnose 1963). Kennedy et al. (1986) determined that an
and treat the fractures. Anthropologists can com- Egyptian mummy, whose burial case inscriptions
pare the location and morphology of the fracture, suggested he or she was a scribe in life, indeed
including the amount of healing present, to the exhibited bony changes on one of the fingers of
specific site and date of fracture as recorded in the the right hand that was consistent with routinely
medical records (e.g., Klepinger 1999; Maples holding a stylus. When a forensic anthropolo-
1984). Chapter 16 discusses fracture repair and gist observes accessory facets, unilateral muscle
healing rates in more detail. development, or other unique markers of stress
Other more subtle bone disorders or unique on bone, he or she may be able to include a
characteristics observed on radiographs are also description of general activities that may have
forensically important, such as the location and contributed to these traits, such as pitching,

CASE STUDY:
Stature Assessment
Ousley’s (1995) regression formulae for white males (the default Steadman uses when ancestry is
unknown) were applied to the maximum femoral and tibial lengths measured using an osteometric board.
The stature was estimated to be 77 ⫾ 3 inches (6’2”–6’8”), indicating that this person was likely taller than
average.
22 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

carrying heavy loads on the shoulder, or even subtle bony details may be helpful if several
writing. Though an occupational marker may missing individuals share otherwise similar
not lead directly to an identification, attention to biological profiles.

CASE STUDY:
Antemortem Pathologies
Antemortem pathologies shed a great deal of light on the life history of the individual recovered in upstate
New York. The skeleton exhibited a number of healed fractures of the right wrist and hand and left ribs, and
moderate osteoarthritic changes were observed in the shoulders, right hand, legs, and spine. The rib fractures
observed on left ribs 5–11 were vertically aligned on the lateral ribcage when placed in anatomical position
(Figure 1.14). The location and similar age of the calluses suggested that the fractures occurred at the same
time. The right ulnar styloid process exhibited a medial deviation due to a well-healed fracture (Figure 1.15)
and the scaphoid may also have been fractured. A well-healed fracture of the right fifth metacarpal exhibited

FIGURE 1.14 ANTEMORTEM FRACTURES OF RIGHT FIGURE 1.15 ANTEMORTEM FRACTURE OF THE RIGHT
RIBS 5–11 DISTAL ULNA
Note healed calluses (arrows) Note deviation of the styloid process (arrow)

bowing deformation that was consistent with a “Boxer’s fracture” in which the fist is closed during impact
(Galloway 1999; Jupiter and Belsky 1992). Only left portions of the mandible and maxilla were recovered and
both were edentulous (antemortem loss of all teeth).
THE MARTY MILLER CASE: INTRODUCING FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY 23

The Process of Identification near the time of death (perimortem wounds).

Wounds from knives, saws, blunt objects, or
As mentioned above, forensic anthropologists com-
firearms leave diagnostic markers in bones.
pare the postmortem biological profile to that of
However, taphonomic processes may blur the dis-
missing persons. Some missing individuals may be
tinction between perimortem and postmortem
excluded by their sex, age, ancestry, height, and/or
wounds. Taphonomic processes are those that affect
the presence or absence of a particular skeletal
the body after death, including rodent and scav-
pathology. Antemortem dental and medical records
enger damage, weathering, or burning. There are
of potential matches still remaining from the list are
clues to help distinguish peri- and postmortem
then obtained and compared to the remains.
trauma. For instance, perimortem wounds will
Presumptive anthropological and dental identifi-
undergo the same decomposition processes as the
cations may be confirmed by genetic analyses.
rest of the skeleton, including color changes.
Alternatively, DNA may be the only mode of identi-
Therefore, the wound margins will exhibit the same
fication if the remains are too fragmentary or
color as the surrounding, undamaged bone.
incomplete for a conclusive identification. Two
Conversely, trauma to bones that have already
types of DNA analyses are possible. While nuclear
decomposed and changed color (due to sun expo-
(or genomic) DNA can be obtained from bone tissue
sure, contact with soil, etc.) will demonstrate mar-
or the marrow (if present), the amount of nuclear
gins that are lighter than the surrounding bone.
DNA is often too small to obtain reliable results.
Fresh bone will also respond differently to blunt
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), on the other hand, is
and sharp trauma than dry bone (Galloway 1999;
present in greater quantities within cells and can be
Maples 1986; Sauer 1984, 1998). For example, fresh
recovered from bone in forensic, historic, and pre-
bone will bend before breaking and bone spurs may
historic skeletons, and even fossils (Krings et al.
result. However, dry bone is more brittle and
1997). Forensic anthropologists often work closely
will snap without leaving any deformed spurs
with DNA laboratories to select and procure appro-
of bone.
priate bone samples for genetic analysis.
The forensic anthropological report must include
clear descriptions of which wounds are perimortem
and postmortem, and which are inconclusive.
Perimortem Trauma and Postmortem Alterations
Because of their skills in interpreting skeletal
In addition to identification of skeletal remains, a trauma and identifying potentially confounding
forensic anthropologist may be called upon to taphonomic processes, forensic anthropologists are
describe wounds on the skeleton that occurred at or often consulted by forensic pathologists to examine

CASE STUDY:
Identification of Marty Miller
The biological profile indicated the remains were those of an older male, over forty years of age at death,
with a suite of antemortem fractures. This biological profile was consistent with that of Marty Miller, a white
male, approximately 6’4” tall, who was fifty-seven years old at the time of his disappearance. Miller’s med-
ical records and radiographs were gathered from a local hospital. All of the antemortem conditions
observed in the skeleton were accounted for in the X-rays and the dates of injuries were consistent with the
amount of healing observed in the skeleton. Steadman took postmortem X-rays of the skeletal injuries and
compared them to the antemorem radiographs, some of which were taken less than two months before
Miller disappeared. The location and degree of healing of the fifth metacarpal fracture and rib fractures
matched that of the antemortem radiographs. In addition, arthritic changes of the spine were observed on
an antemortem chest film. There were no inconsistencies between the antemortem and postmortem data. As
supporting evidence, clothing on the skeleton was identified as that worn by Miller on the day he killed his
daughter and disappeared. The forensic pathologist accepted the anthropological identification and a DNA
analysis was not ordered. The next step was to determine how and when Martin Miller died.
24 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

bone trauma even when the remains are fleshed anthropologist can study the postmortem changes
or the identity of the individual is not an issue, and associated evidence (e.g., insects) to help esti-
such as pedestrian-vehicle collisions. Further, the mate the postmortem interval, or time since death.

CASE STUDY:
Resolution
The context of the recovery scene suggested that Miller took his own life but this had yet to be confirmed scien-
tifically. The State Police Investigators examined the pump action shotgun that was found by his side. The safety
was off, the action was closed and one expended shotgun slug casing was still present. Three more rounds were
in the magazine. This indicates a single shot was discharged and the weapon was not cycled further. One
expended slug casing had already been found at the car where the murder was committed so the firearms find-
ings indicated that the last slug was fired where the skeleton was found. The posterior vault of the cranium could
be reconstructed and demonstrated two defects in the superior right parietal (Figure 1.16). Both were semi-
circular defects with external beveling and are approximately 10 cm apart. The morphology of the defects are
consistent with exit wounds, likely of two or more fragments from the slug. The angles of the defects suggest the

FIGURE 1.16 SUPERIOR VIEW OF THE RIGHT PARIETAL (AT THE TOP OF THE HEAD)
Note defects (white arrows) with external beveling (black arrows)
slug entered the skull from the oral cavity or perhaps under the chin (DiMaio and DiMaio 2001). This
information, combined with the scene context and clothing, suggests that Miller killed himself on the same day
that he killed his daughter. Given the location of the body in the forest near the house and that no one heard the
gunshot suggests he committed the act immediately prior to the arrival of the police officers. The forensic pathol-
ogist concurred with the anthropological assessment and ruled the cause of death as gunshot trauma and the
manner of death as suicide. As a result, the death inquiries of both Marty Miller and his daughter were closed.
THE MARTY MILLER CASE: INTRODUCING FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY 25

Conclusions Dittrick, Jean, and Judy M. Suchey. 1986. Sex determina-

tion of prehistoric central California skeletal remains
The procedures and methods described in this using discriminant analysis of the femur and
chapter are at the heart of forensic anthropological humerus. American Journal of Physical Anthropology
casework, though often additional means of identi- 70:3–9.
Ericksen, M. F. 1991. Histological estimation of age at
fication are needed, such as DNA. The case of death using the anterior cortex of the femur. American
Marty Miller was resolved in a matter of two days Journal of Physical Anthropology 84:171–179.
given that law enforcement had a strong suspicion Fitzgerald, Charles M., and Jerome C. Rose. 2000.
of the identity of the skeleton. Not all cases can be Reading between the lines: Dental development and
resolved so efficiently due to the lack of ante- subadult age assessment using the microstructural
growth markers of teeth. Pp. 163–186 in Biological
mortem data, investigative errors, extensive peri- Anthropology of the Human Skeleton, ed. M. Anne
mortem trauma, or other extreme damage to the Katzenberg and Shelley R. Saunders. New York:
skeleton, as will be seen in other chapters of this Wiley-Liss.
volume. France, Diane L. 1998. Observational and metric analysis
of sex in the skeleton. Pp. 163–186 in Forensic
Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human
Remains, ed. Kathleen J. Reichs. 2nd ed. Springfield,
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