MODULE - 3B Components of Special and

and Inclusive Education

INTRODUCTION
In previous chapter, policies and practices on how to make schools inclusive to all learners
have been presented. Such school-wide changes in policy and culture are essential to provide
the support and resources needed by the teacher and process involved in identifying children
through assessment and providing varied means of support.
LEARNING OUTCOMES

After working through this module you should be able to

:

a. Enumerate the processes involved in Child Find through

the pre-referral process
b. Identify the assessment tools, methods, and principles
in working wit children with additional needs
c. Identify the different placement within a continuum
d. Compare accommodations and curriculum
modifications
e. Identify ways how to involve parents as part of the home-schas collaboration

LEARNING APPROACH

I. CHILD FIND THROUGH A PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS

Referral for evaluation and special education services begins by identifying students
who have additional needs and who may be at risk for developmental disabilities. School
guidance counselors, early childhood teachers, primary school teachers, and community-based
daycare workers are often the first to notice such developmental delays in children. In other
instances, the parents themselves notice the delays and seek consultation with pediatricians
and other specialists.
A. Pre-referral Process. Parents and teachers may refer a child with serious developmental
delays for observation and assessment. A pre-referral team comprising special education
teachers, counselors, administrators, and psychologists investigates observed issues (Hallahan
et al. 2014). They work together to help developmental delay youngsters.
Taylor (2009) proposed a pre-referral assessment methodology. Children with developmental
delays and challenges are diagnosed through observations and norm- and criterion-referenced
examinations. Before receiving special education testing, they get academic and behavioral
support to address their issues. Taylor (2009) stated in his evaluation model that the first stage
is to identify teaching areas where a student needs further support in various ways.
Community-based screening can identify at-risk or special-needs young pupils. The Early
Childhood Care and Development (ECCD Checklist) is used by child development and social

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workers to screen for typical development.

B. Pre-referral Strategies Essential in a pre-referral intervention is the use of pre-referral

strategies that are designed to provide immediate instructional and/or behavior management
support to a child. Using such strategies lessens the number of cases referred for special
education and makes efficient use of time and financial resources that could have been spent
for special education assessment (Heward 2013). This will also lessen the tendency of over-
referrals to special education and wasting time as children wait to be tested rather than receive
the instructional and behavioral support they need. Examples of pre-referral strategies are:
observation of the child's behavior, including interactions with parents, teachers, and peers;
interview of parents and teachers to gather more information about the child; review of school
records; and analysis of the child's academic output through error analysis, portfolio
assessment, and criterion-referenced and curriculum-based assessment (Taylor 2009).
Depending on the information gathered, corresponding changes can be made to manage the
child's needs, such as modification of the classroom environment (e.g., seating arrangement,
group change, and teacher's proximity in class), instructional support, and relevant classroom
and behavior management (Mcloughlin & Lewis 2009).

II. ASSESSMENT
Assessment is the process of collecting information[ about a child’s strengths and
needs. It uses a problem-solving process that involves a systematic collection as well as
interpretation of data gathered. Teachers and administrators make instructional decisions
based on the assessment results.

A. Assessment Purposes
There are several uses for
assessment in inclusive and special
education. It starts with initial
identification, which was covered in
Child Find and the pre-referral
procedure in the previous section.
The outcomes of an evaluation are
used to determine a child's
educational placement and to create
lesson plans for children who have been identified as having special needs. Another
is progress monitoring and evaluation of teaching programs and services, with the
aim of assessing how well programs support special education and inclusive
teachers (Giuliani & Pierangelo 2012). Regular and special education teachers can
employ a range of assessment techniques. The following topics are covered in this
section: (1) observations; (2) checklists or rating scales; (3) tests; and (4) interviews.

B. Methods of Assessment Tests.

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 To assure validity and reliability, school psychologists, educational diagnosticians,
and other professionals employ many evaluation instruments.
Formal Assessment. Standardized norm-referenced tests evaluate a child's
performance to a representative sample of pupils their age. A team conducts rigorous exams.
Results are presented as percentile ranks and age and grade equivalent scores to help
professionals assess class and individual performance. Quantitative reporting makes it easier
to compare class exam scores, but it limits instructional preparation. Norm-referenced
assessments include intelligence and achievement tests like the . Criterion-referenced
assessments evaluate a child's performance to standards and competences and can explain
student achievement (Jennings et al. 2006 as cited in Spinelli 2012). Simple numerical scores,
percentage of correct responses, letter grades, or graphic score reports are usually presented.
Assessment data that show which abilities a kid has mastered and which need more teaching
are more informative and relevant (Gargiulo 2012).
Informal Assessment. Professionals also use informal or non-standardized
assessments, which are considered more authentic and thus can be used primarily to describe
performance and inform instruction. Such assessments can be curriculum-based or
performance-based, such as the teacher-made instruments used in classrooms and portfolio
assessments. For example, the use of reading inventories where a teacher listens to a child
read while counting for accuracy and speed is an example of an informal assessment.

Authentic Assessment. The use of tests, whether formal or informal, is only one method
of assessment. There are other ways of assessing students considered at-risk for
developmental delays or have additional needs. One that is highly recommended by
professionals is the use of authentic assessment methods and tools. Authentic assessments
provide students the opportunity to apply knowledge and skills in meaningful, real-world
settings (e.g., classroom, playground, etc.) rather than in an artificial and contrived setting
(Dennis et al. 2013). Assessment tasks that are more real-life are considered more authentic.

An example of authentic assessment is observation of young students as they interact

with family members, peers, and objects in naturally occurring activities. across settings (e.g.,
home, school, playground, etc.), and routines. During observations, teachers and specialists can
use running records which focuses on the occurrence of behaviors as they happen sequentially.

Clay (2000 as cited in Dennis et al. 2013) identified essential information to be included
in a running record:

 Date and time of the observation

 Names of children involved

 Location of the incident

 Verbatim recording of what the children said

 Actual events that occurred

Anecdotal records contain shorter descriptions of incidents or anecdotes that teachers

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and specialists can use to analyze a student's behavior and plan strategies for a specific child
or group of children. Other examples of authentic assessment for young children are play-based
assessment and portfolio assessment.

C. Assessment Principles
Assessment Principles Assessment practices should be anchored on principles as provided by
the Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Student (DEC) (2014). Child- and
family-centered practices, a team-based approach, application of individualized and appropriate
process, and use of genuine and meaningful communication that adhere to ethical and legal
practices are the recommendations provided by the DEC. Thus, a variety of assessment
methods and tools, use of authentic measures, as well as involvement of the family are
necessary to make decisions for placement and instructional planning (DEC 2014). III.

III. PLACEMENT

Assessment results are used to decide a child's appropriate education placement within
a continuum from the least to the most restrictive settings. During the evaluation, student
performance is assessed and the team determines if there would be any changes in the
educational placement within the continuum. Teams will base this on their observations,
assessment results, and other factors, with the goal to move toward the least restrictive
learning environment. Sound decisions are made to allow for fluidity in the child's placement
based on the child's strengths, abilities, and needs.

A general education classroom is the least restrictive environment for a child with
additional needs. Access to the same learning experiences and opportunities is provided as to
typically developing students. Thus it is considered as the "most normalized or typical setting"
(Gargiulo, 2012). Additional support in the form of accommodations or changes in
expectations through curriculum modifications may be provided but still within the same
classroom as peers within the year level.
Another option for placement is to be in a general education class but the child receives
supplementary instruction and services such as speech, physical, and occupational therapy or
counseling services during the school day. Options may be provided when such sessions are
conducted, either during school or as an after-school service.
In a resource room, general education students are taught by a specialist. Such a
placement assumes that the child will benefit better from small-group or customized instruction
with a professional instructor who can more intensively target his learning requirements. Some
kids need more intensive support than general education provides. Teams may advocate
placing a kid in a self-contained special education class in a general education school. All
children get customized and group teaching from a special education instructor with
classmates with disabilities and other needs. School community-building activities may allow
kids to interact with typically developing peers, depending on program aims. Some students
need more extensive instruction and supports and are placed in a special education class or
school. Professional teams and the special education teacher work with students with
disabilities and special needs in a specialized setting. The most restrictive or isolated

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environment is a residential facility where students live and get educational support 24/7.
Finally, children with severe multiple disabilities receive home- or hospital-based programs to
manage their medical condition and learn as much as possible. Inclusive education advocates
to give all kids access to general education classrooms and support to overcome hurdles to
achievement. Figure 4.2 shows this educational placement continuum (Spinelli 2012).

IV. ACCOMMODATIONS AND CURRICULAR MODIFICATIONS

Students with disabilities and additional needs who are studying in an inclusive general
education classroom may need accommodations in the form of instructional support and other
supplementary services. Others who need more intensive support are provided with curricular
modifications.

A. Accommodations. Accommodations are supports provided to students to

help gain full access to class content and instruction, without altering the curriculum standards
and competencies expected and to demonstrate accurately what they know. When
accommodations are provided in a general education classroom for children with disabilities,
barriers are removed from accessing education. As a result, children can work around the effect
of their disabilities. Examples of accommodations are altering instruments, toys or materials,
changing the room during specific activities, providing time extensions or allowances for tests

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and tasks, and changing response formats in worksheets. Accommodations may be provided
both during assessment and instruction, depending on the learning profile and needs of a child
and may vary in terms of presentation, response, setting, and scheduling (Beech 2010).
1. Presentation Accommodations
Children with disabilities may need specialized presentation formats especially those with
sensory impairments so they can learn the same content alongside typically developing
peers. Table 4.1 presents examples of accommodations in presentation.

Learning Needs Examples of Accommodations

Visual Support Minimize visual distraction
Visual cues (e.g., use color-coded text, highlighting)
Use of larger print materials (font size, illustrations)
Use of sign language
Videos with closed captioning

Auditory and Read aloud by a peer

comprehension support Audio books
Digital text that reads aloud or gives definition of words
Text-to-speech software
Advance organizer or story guide
Highlighting or color coding

Listening and Focusing Advance organizer

Explicit verbal or visual cues; physical prompts
Repeat/Clarify directions and important information
Note-taking support
Copy of directions

2. Response Accommodations
Response accommodations allow students with disabilities and additional needs a variety of
ways to complete assignments, written tests, performance tasks, and other activities. Providing
such instructional and assessment supports allows them to access the same learning
experiences as other students in a general education classroom. Table 4.2 summarizes
examples of response accommodations for students with disabilities and additional needs.

Learning Needs Examples of Accommodations

Writing Difficulty Different size/diameter of pencil, marker, or crayon
Pencil or pen grip (triangular, pear-shaped)
Scribe to record dictated responses
Finger spacer Handwriting template/guide on the student's
desk
Visual cues on paper

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 Different types and sizes of paper

Written expression Electronic dictionary with spell check

Online dictionary
Word processor with spelling and grammar check
Writing cue cards
List of sight words
Writing templates, outlines, and graphic organizers

Math Difficulty Calculator

Concrete models and manipulatives
Visual representation
Problem-solving guides
Graphic organizers
Special paper - graphing paper for computation

3. Setting Accommodations
Changes in the location or conditions of the educational setting or environment may be
necessary for students who need support in terms of behavior, attention, and organization of
space and materials. Accommodation in a setting may allow a child who gets easily distracted
to work in a quiet corner of the classroom in his own study carrel so that he will not be
sidetracked by environmental stimuli. Or a child who is still unable to read fluently may be
allowed to take a silent reading comprehension test in another room with a supervising adult
just so she could hear herself read aloud which helps her better understand the story.
4. Scheduling Accommodations
Changing time allotment, schedule of tasks and assessments, and management of time
are some types of scheduling accomodations. Students with slower ability in processing
information and directions well as with focusing issues may need these types of
accommodation. Some examples of accommodation that can modify scheduling are: 1.
Extending time for assignments and assessments; 2. Providing breaks in between tasks; 3.
Providing an visual calendar or a checklist of individual responsibilities; and 5. Providing an
e;ectronic device with alarms and cues.

B. Modifications
Curriculum modifications are provided for students with significant or severe disabilities
where content expectations are altered, and the performance outcomes are changed in relation
to what are expected of typically developing students of the same age (DEC 2007). When
instruction and assessment are modified, a student with disability is still given the right to
access the same learning opportunities as other students in the general education class, but the
tasks are more respectful and appropriate to the student's abilities and needs.
Curricular modifications include changes in instructional level, content and performance
criteria, as well as the breadth and depth of content being learned by students. Students with
disabilities or additional needs may be given more, less, or different content and resource

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materials altogether. They may also be assessed using different standards that are more
appropriate to the student's needs and abilities, such as being provided with fewer objectives,
shorter lessons, or a smaller number of vocabulary words to learn.
Educational teams responsible for instructional planning may indicate curricular
modifications in the student's Individual Educational Plan (IEP). Such modifications are needed
so that students also have access to the general education curriculum.

V. PARENT INVOLVEMENT

Another component of an inclusive and

special education is parent involvement. It has
long been established that parent involvement in
education, planning, and management of
children with disabilities and additional needs is
essential as they are the primary caregivers and
have direct influence on their children. This is
anchored on Bronfenbrenner's Human
Ecological Theory, which states that there are five environmental systems that comprise a
child's social context. For the purposes of this book, focus is given on the microsystem, where
the child and his/her family belong, along with peers school, and the immediate community (i.e.,
neighborhood). Within these microsystems, a child has direct interactions with parents,
teachers, peers, others; while the mesosystem refers to the linkages or relationships betwee
microsystems such as the connections between family experiences and schoc experiences and
between family and peers (Santrock 2011).
A. Home-School Communication
Having established the critical role of parents in a student's developmental and academic
progress and achievement, it is essential that there is a close home and school
collaboration and communication. To establish partnerships, problem-solving, two-way
communication, and shared decision making are some of the practices needed.
Communicating with parents may be done in several ways.

1. Parent-Teacher Conferences are in-person sessions between parents and teachers. Such
meetings are necessary so parents of students with disabilities and additional needs can
discuss their child's background, strengths and
abilities, history of difficulties, home practices, and
specialist interventions. They can work with teachers
to support their child at home and school.
Different schools have different parent-teacher ratios.
A meeting with parents at the start of the school year
to define goals for a disabled student is best. Thus,
parents and teachers can create year-long
expectations and child goals. Teachers can also build rapport with parents. After each quarter,

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trimester, and semester, parents are invited to conferences to discuss progress, improvements,
and results and agree on action plans.

2. Written Communication Home-school communication may also be conducted through

written messages, such as the use of a home-school communication notebook, where teachers
and parents write homework-assignments, the student's behavior in the classroom, as well as
progress on program goals. A written communication may be time consuming, but some
parents prefer this form of collaboration as the messages are documented and they can provide
a copy to a developmental specialist when needed.
3. Digital communication With the influx of mobile devices, many parents and families
are more able to communicate through electronic and digital means such as email, text
messages, and social network messaging systems. A study found that parents and teachers
perceive technology as an effective tool to promote parent involvement and thus value its use
for communication (Olmstead 2013). Because it is instant and real-time, parents and teachers
are immediately able to receive messages and updates about the student. However, drawbacks
can also occur such as when both parties are not mindful of parameters in communication;
hence, it is necessary that parties agree on certain boundaries in order to be respectful of
everyone's time and personal space.
4. Home-School Contracts A home-school contract contains an agreement between
teachers and parents regarding behavioral and/or academic goals for a student with disability.
Just like any formal contract, this is a written agreement between teachers, parents, and
students.

B. Other Ways to Involve Parents

Parents also have strengths, abilities, intuitive knowledge, and the commitment to help
their own child. They become advocates of their own children. To maximize their involvement,
schools provide other opportunities such as parent education training, workshops, and parent
support groups.
a. Parent education may take the form of providing seminars and workshops to parents
to equip them with a better understanding of their child's disability and accompanying strengths,
uniqueness, as well as specific techniques and strategies that they can practice at home. Such
training sessions can be for a few hours done on a quarterly basis or for a regular period, such
as every Saturday, depending on the needs of the parents and the training capacity of the school.
In this way, parents become educated in evidence-based approaches so that there will be
continuity in the practices implemented between the home and school.
b. Parent support groups are also helpful as parents are able to ask other parents about
tips and techniques to work with their children. Parents should be empowered so that they can
participate in planning and organizing parent support groups. Through such groups, parents can
draw support from one another during meetings as they share techniques and strategies, even
frustrations and successes about their children.

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SUMMARY
In summary, this chapter has presented the different components of inclusive and
special education, which include the following: pre-referral, assessment, placement,
accommodations
curricular modifications, and parent involvement. Across these components, a team approach is
highly recommended where each member-the child, parents, general education teacher, special
education teacher, therapists, and other specialists-coordinate and collaborate in planning and
making decisions for the child with disabilities.

REFERENCES
K.Eileen Allen and Ilene S. Schawrtz, The Exceptional Child. Inclusion in Early Childhood
Education.

Booth, T. and Ainscow, M.(2013). Inclusion: developing learning and participation in schools.

Inciong, T., Quijano, Y., Capulong, Y. & Gregorio, J. (2007). Introduction to Special Education.
Quezon City: Rex Printing Press Company, Inc.
Excerpted from: Tomlinson, C. A. (August, 2000). Differentiation of Instruction in the Elementary
Grades. ERIC Digest. ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education.
Handbook on Inclusive Education,SPED Division
Handbook in Special Education SPED Division
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8HPh4RoV63s- Inclusive Education - Education Equity Now
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/475903885594757807/
https://www.understood.org/articles/en/universal-design-for-learning-what-it-is-and-how-it-
works

https://www.understood.org/articles/en/understanding-universal-design-for-learning

Excerpted from: Tomlinson, C. A. (August, 2000). Differentiation of Instruction in the Elementary

Grades. ERIC Digest. ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education.

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