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Gérard René Lemaitre

Astronomical Optics
and Elasticity Theory
Active Optics Methods

123
Gérard René Lemaitre
Observatoire Astronomique Marseille Provence (OAMP)
Technopôle Château Gombert
38 rue Frédéric Joliot-Curie
13388 Marseille CX 13
France
[email protected]

Cover image: General view of the giant all-reflective Schmidt Lamost, in Xinglong
Station, which started operations in 2008 (courtesy National Astronomical Observa-
tories, Chinese Academy of Sciences)

ISBN: 978-3-540-68904-1 e-ISBN: 978-3-540-68905-8

DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-68905-8
Astronomy and Astrophysics Library ISSN: 0941-7834

Library of Congress Control Number: 2008936630


c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2009

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Foreword

It is an honor as well as a pleasure to write this Foreword for this major work –
“Astronomical Optics and Elasticity Theory” – by my friend and colleague, Prof.
Gérard Lemaı̂tre. My situation is unusual in that I have not even seen, still less read,
the manuscript. My Foreword must therefore be based on my general knowledge of
Lemaı̂tre’s work and our close contact over many years.
The initiator of “stress polishing” for astronomical purposes was the great opti-
cian Bernhard Schmidt, who proposed the technique for the manufacture of Schmidt
plates for his newly invented Schmidt cameras, as reported in 1932. Surprisingly,
there was no significant advance on the theoretical basis of the method until
Lemaı̂tre started his work, reported in 1972. Since then, he has established himself
as the acknowledged world expert on both the complete theory and its manifest prac-
tical applications. In my “Reflecting Telescope Optics II,” I give a brief account of
his work on pages 23–27. He has not only performed fundamental work for the clas-
sical case of spherical aberration, but also for correction of astigmatism, coma and
other aberration modes. This includes applications to Cassegrain secondary mirrors.
In 1989, I suggested also the application to primary mirrors for which manufactur-
ing tolerances can be relaxed by Active Optics control in the operating phase. In this
application, stress polishing can be seen as the first fundamental manufacturing step
in a complete system of Active Optics.
More recently, Lemaı̂tre has extended his techniques to systems of variable focal
length (optical power), which have found important application in the optical train
of the 4-telescope complex of the ESO VLT. The function of the interferometric
mode VLTI is dependent on this application. The correction applies not only for the
axis but also in the field of the interferometric image and is achieved by a system of
Variable Curvature Mirrors.
Prof. Lemaı̂tre’s book, giving a full account of all these developments, is a most
valuable addition to the literature in this important branch of optical manufacture.
Since its major applications are in astronomical optics, it has also been my plea-
sure to support the publication of this work by Springer Verlag in the same As-
tronomy and Astrophysics Library Series as my own books “Reflecting Telescope
Optics I and II.” I am confident it will become a worthy and widely recognized
standard work.
Rohrbach R. N. Wilson

v
Preface

Astronomical Optics and Elasticity Theory is intended to serve both as a text and as
a basic reference on “active optics methods.” Mainly elaborated for astronomy, and
following a conceptual idea originated by Bernhard Schmidt, the first developments
of active optics began in the 1960s. These methods allow one to transform by a
highly continuous process a spherical surface into the desired aspherical surface, as
well as to correct tilt and decentering errors between telescope mirrors, to control the
focal position by curvature variation, etc, so as to achieve diffraction-limited perfor-
mance. The recent spectacular increase in telescope sizes, active image correction
of telescope errors and atmospheric degradation, and the advent of detectors having
nearly perfect quantum efficiencies has led to remarkable progress in observational
astronomy, whose large telescopes now currently operate with active optics.
The first chapter concerns optical design and elasticity theory; I thought it use-
ful to introduce these two topics by brief historical accounts. Most of the follow-
ing chapters are dedicated to the generation of axisymmetric aspheric mirrors, as
well as non-axisymmetric mirrors. Active optics methods are investigated for cor-
rections of focus, and for aberrations of third and higher orders. Optical aberration
modes that can be superposed by elastic flexure belong to a subfamily that I called
Clebsch-Seidel modes. Such aberration correction modes are generated by multi-
mode deformable mirrors. Depending on the adopted thickness class – constant or
variable – various active mirror configurations are discussed using the so-called
tulip, cycloid, vase, meniscus, and double-vase mirrors. Two chapters are dedicated
to optical designs with the Schmidt concept; the first includes my 1985 high-order
analysis of the axial wavefront reflected by a spherical mirror, the system resolv-
ing power for each option – with either a refractive, a reflective, or a diffractive
corrector – and the optimal corrector shape for each design type; in the second,
active optics aspherization methods of the corrector element are developed for cata-
dioptric or all-reflective telescope types and for aspherized grating spectrographs.
Another chapter on large mirror support systems treats the minimization of flexure
against gravity and in situ active optics control on large telescopes. A short chapter
concerns the flexure of thin lenses when bent by a uniform load; this is useful to pro-
duce stigmatic singlet lenses by active optics. Grazing incidence X-ray telescopes
can also greatly benefit from the ripple-free active aspherization process for vari-
ous two-mirror designs and particularly for a mirror pair strictly satisfying the sine

vii
viii Preface

condition; a theory of weakly conical shells is proposed in a special chapter where

the aspherization of the mirrors is obtained by pure extension (or contraction).
The book provides a foundation for finding a mirror thickness geometry and an
associated load configuration which can generate one or several fixed surface opti-
cal modes – this in the most practicable conditions. Computational modeling, the
third branch of science which bridges analytical theory and experimentation, is the
ultimate method for accurately solving the deformations of a solid for any config-
uration of equilibrium-force sets. In the final design stage for an active optics mir-
ror, finite element analysis of the three-dimensional deformations allows optimizing
its thickness geometry to obtain the desired mirror figure. However, geometrical
optimizations with such codes must require sufficient user knowledge in elasticity
theory, and a preliminary analytic solution of the problem by a first approximation
theory. This preliminary approach with the theory – the aim of this book – is all the
more necessary since there are generally several alternatives for generating a given
surface type – as, for instance, with the various solutions presented here for variable
curvature mirrors.
The beautiful theory of axisymmetric shallow shells, elaborated by Erik Reissner
in 1946, is one of the greatest analytic achievements in elasticity theory. In the ax-
isymmetric flexure case, this theory is here used for the aspherization of fast f-ratio
mirrors. In addition, a convergent iteration vector which acts towards the required
flexure is implemented for determining the thickness distribution of meniscus-,
vase-, and closed-form mirror shells. The method has proved sufficiently accurate
that no significant corrections were found necessary from finite element analysis.
Active optics aspherizations of primary and secondary telescope mirrors were car-
ried out by the Laboratoire d’Optique de l’Observatoire de Marseille (L OOM). The
results of stress figuring or in-situ stressing of all the axisymmetric mirrors directly
designed from Reissner’s theory – as for instance with the modified-Rumsey anas-
tigmatic telescope presented here – show that the axial wavefront correction errors
are within conventional diffraction limited criteria.
I am grateful to M. Ferrari for his contributions in the second chapter, to
J. Caplan, S. Mazzanti and K. Dohlen for fruitful discussions on several points of
the book, and also to P. Joulie and P. Lanzoni for their efficient preparation of the
figures.

Marseille, October 2008 G. R. Lemaitre

Contents

Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix

1 Introduction to Optics and Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Optics and Telescopes – Historical Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 The Greek Mathematicians and Conics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 The Persian Mathematicians and Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 End of European Renaissance and Birth of Telescopes . . . . 5
1.1.4 Refractive Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.5 Reflective Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2 Snell’s Law and Glass Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.3 Fermat’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.4 Gaussian Optics and Conjugate Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.4.1 Diopter of Curvature c = 1/R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.4.2 Mirror in Medium n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.4.3 Power of Combined Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.4.4 Lens in Air or in Vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.4.5 Afocal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.4.6 Pupils and Principal Rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.4.7 Aperture Ratio or Focal Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.5 Lagrange Invariant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.6 Étendue Invariant and Lagrange Invariant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.6.1 Lagrange Invariant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.6.2 Étendue Invariant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.6.3 Equivalence of the Étendue and Lagrange Invariants . . . . . . 40
1.7 Analytical Representation of Optical Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.7.1 Conicoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.7.2 Spheroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.7.3 Non-Axisymmetric Surfaces and Zernike Polynomials . . . . 43
1.8 Seidel Representation of Third-Order Aberrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.8.1 The Seidel Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.8.2 Seidel Aberration Modes – Elastic Deformation Modes . . . 49
1.8.3 Zernike rms Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.9 Stigmatism, Aplanatism, and Anastigmatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.9.1 Stigmatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

ix
x Contents

1.9.2 Aplanatism and Abbe’s Sine Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

1.9.3 Anastigmatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.10 Petzval Curvature and Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.10.1 Petvzal Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.10.2 Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.11 Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.11.1 The Diffraction Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.11.2 Diffraction from a Circular Aperture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.11.3 Diffraction from an Annular Aperture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1.11.4 Point Spread Function (PSF) and Diffracted Aberrations . . 71
1.11.5 Diffraction-Limited Criteria and Wavefront Tolerances . . . 72
1.12 Some Image Processor Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.12.1 Human Eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1.12.2 Eyepiece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
1.12.3 Interferometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
1.12.4 Coronograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
1.12.5 Polarimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
1.12.6 Slit Spectrograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
1.12.7 Slitless Spectrograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
1.12.8 Multi-Object Spectroscopy with Slits or Fiber Optics . . . . . 80
1.12.9 Integral Field Spectrographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
1.12.10 Back-Surface Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1.12.11 Field Derotator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
1.12.12 Pupil Derotator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
1.12.13 Telescope Field Corrector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
1.12.14 Atmospheric Dispersion Compensator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
1.12.15 Adaptive Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
1.13 Elasticity Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
1.13.1 Historical Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
1.13.2 Elasticity Constants of Isotropic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
1.13.3 Displacement Vector and Strain Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
1.13.4 The Stress-Strain Linear Relations and Strain Energy . . . . . 105
1.13.5 Uniform Torsion of a Rod and Strain Components . . . . . . . 107
1.13.6 Love-Kirchhoff Hypotheses and Thin Plate Theory . . . . . . . 110
1.13.7 Bending of Thin Plates and Developable Surfaces . . . . . . . . 111
1.13.8 Bending of Thin Plates and Non-developable Surfaces . . . . 116
1.13.9 Bending of Rectangular Plates of Constant Thickness . . . . 121
1.13.10 Axisymmetric Bending of Circular Plates
of Constant Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
1.13.11 Circular Plates and Axisymmetric Loading Manifolds . . . . 124
1.13.12 Deformation of a Plate in a Gravity Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
1.13.13 Saint-Venant’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
1.13.14 Computational Modeling and Finite Element Analysis . . . . 127
1.14 Active Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
1.14.1 Spherical Polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
1.14.2 Optical Surfaces Free from Ripple Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Contents xi

1.14.3 Active Optics and Time-Dependence Control . . . . . . . . . . . 129

1.14.4 Various Aspect of Active Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

2 Dioptrics and Elasticity – Variable Curvature Mirrors (VCMs) . . . . . . 137

2.1 Thin Circular Plates and Small Deformation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.1.1 Plates of Constant Thickness Distribution – CTD . . . . . . . . 137
2.1.2 Plates of Variable Thickness Distribution – VTD –
Cycloid-Like form – Tulip-Like Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
2.1.3 Optical Focal-Ratio Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
2.1.4 Buckling Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
2.2 Thin Plates and Large Deformation Theory – VTD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
2.3 The Mersenne Afocal Two-Mirror Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
2.4 Beam Compressors, Expanders and Cat’s Eyes – Active Optics
Pupil Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2.5 VCMs as Field Compensators of Interferometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
2.5.1 Fourier Transform Spectrometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
2.5.2 Stellar Interferometers and Telescope Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
2.6 Construction of VCMs with VTDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
2.6.1 Elastic Deformability and Choice of Material Substrate . . . 158
2.6.2 Zoom Range and Choice of a Thickness Distribution . . . . . 160
2.6.3 Achievement of Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
2.6.4 Design and Results with VTD Type 1 – Cycloid-Like Form 161
2.6.5 Design and Results with a VTD Type 2 – Tulip-Like Form 162
2.7 Plasticity and Hysteresis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
2.7.1 Stress-Strain Linearization and Plasticity Compensation . . 163
2.7.2 Hysteresis Compensation and Curvature Control . . . . . . . . . 166
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

3 Active Optics and Correction of Third-Order Aberrations . . . . . . . . . . 171

3.1 Elasticity Theory with Constant Thickness Distributions – CTD
Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.2 Elasticity Theory with Variable Thickness Distributions – VTD
Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.3 Active Optics and Third-Order Spherical Aberration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.3.1 Configurations in the CTD Class (A1 = A2 = 0) . . . . . . . . . 178
3.3.2 Configurations in the VTD Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.3.3 Hybrid Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.3.4 Balance with a Curvature Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.3.5 Examples of Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.4 Active Optics and Third-Order Coma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.4.1 Configuration in the CTD Class (A1 = 0) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3.4.2 Configuration in the VTD Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.4.3 Hybrid Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
3.4.4 Balance with a Tilt Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
xii Contents

3.4.5 Coma from a Pupil and Concave Mirror System . . . . . . . . . 194

3.4.6 Examples of Active Optics Coma Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
3.5 Active Optics and Third-Order Astigmatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
3.5.1 Configuration in the CTD Class (A2 = 0) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
3.5.2 Configuration in the VTD Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
3.5.3 Hybrid Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
3.5.4 Balance with a Curvature Mode and Cylindric
Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
3.5.5 Sagittal and Tangential Ray Fans in Mirror Imaging . . . . . . 202
3.5.6 Aspherization of Concave Mirrors – Examples . . . . . . . . . . 206
3.5.7 Concave Diffraction Gratings and Saddle Correction . . . . . 209
3.5.8 Aspherization of Single Surface Spectrographs – Example 212
3.5.9 Higher-Order Aspherizations of Single Surface
Spectrographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

4 Optical Design with the Schmidt Concept – Telescopes and

Spectrographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.1 The Schmidt Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.1.1 The Class of Two-Mirror Anastigmatic Telescopes . . . . . . . 217
4.1.2 Wavefront Analysis at the Center of Curvature
of a Spherical Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
4.1.3 Wavefront Equation Including the Magnification Ratio M . 225
4.1.4 Optical Design of Correctors – Preliminary Remarks . . . . . 225
4.1.5 Object at Infinity – Null Power Zone Positioning . . . . . . . . 226
4.1.6 Optical Equation of Various Corrective Elements . . . . . . . . 227
4.1.7 Under or Over Correction Factor s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
4.2 Refractive Corrector Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
4.2.1 Off-axis Aberrations and Chromatism of a Singlet
Corrector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
4.2.2 Achromatic Doublet-Plate Corrector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
4.2.3 Singlet Corrector in Blue and Additional Monocentric
Filters in Red . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4.3 All-Reflective Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
4.3.1 Centered Optical Systems used Off-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.3.2 Non-Centered Optical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.3.3 Gain of Non-Centered Systems Over Centered Designs . . . 239
4.3.4 LAMOST: A Giant Non-Centered Schmidt
with Active Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
4.4 All-Reflective Spectrographs with Aspherical Gratings . . . . . . . . . . . 242
4.4.1 Comparison of Reflective Grating Spectrograph Designs . . 242
4.4.2 Diffraction Grating Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
4.4.3 Axisymmetric Gratings (β0 = 0) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
4.4.4 Bi-Axial Symmetric Gratings (β0 = 0) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
4.4.5 Flat Fielding of All-Reflective Aspherized
Grating Spectrographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Contents xiii

4.4.6 Examples of All-Reflective Aspherized

Grating Spectrographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
4.4.7 All-Reflective Spectrographs Without Central Obstruction . 252
4.4.8 Advantages of Quasi-all-Reflective Spectrographs . . . . . . . 252
4.4.9 Diffraction Gratings and Electromagnetic
Theoretical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
4.4.10 Grating Manufacturing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
4.4.11 Towards Large Size Aspherized Reflective Gratings . . . . . . 255
4.4.12 Large All-Reflective Aspherized Grating Spectrographs . . . 255
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

5 Schmidt Correctors and Diffraction Gratings Aspherized by Active

Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
5.1 Various Types of Aspherical Schmidt Correctors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
5.2 Refractive Correctors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
5.2.1 Third-Order Optical Profile of Refractive Correctors . . . . . 263
5.2.2 Elasticity and Circular Constant Thickness Plates . . . . . . . . 264
5.2.3 Refractive Correctors and the Spherical Figuring Method . 265
5.2.4 Refractive Correctors and the Plane Figuring Method . . . . . 268
5.2.5 Glass Rupture and Loading Time Dependance . . . . . . . . . . . 273
5.3 Reflective Correctors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
5.3.1 Optical Figure of the Primary Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
5.3.2 Axisymmetric Circular Primaries with k = 3/2 – Vase
Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
5.3.3 Bisymmetric Circular Primaries with k = 3/2 – MDM . . . . 279
5.3.4 Bisymmetric Circular Primaries with k = 0 – Tulip Form . . 279
5.3.5 Bisymmetric Elliptical Primary Mirror with k = 3/2 –
Vase Form – Biplate Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
5.3.6 LAMOST: A Segmented Bisymmetric Elliptical Primary . 293
5.4 Aspherized Reflective Diffraction Gratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
5.4.1 Active Optics Replication for Grating Aspherization . . . . . 293
5.4.2 Optical Profile of Aspherical Reflective Gratings . . . . . . . . . 294
5.4.3 Axisymmetric Gratings with k = 3/2 and Circular
Built-in Submasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
5.4.4 Axisymmetric Gratings with k = 0 and Circular Simply
Supported Submasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
5.4.5 Bisymmetric Gratings with k = 3/2 and Elliptic
Built-in Submasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
5.4.6 Constructional Replication Condition for Active
Optics Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

6 Theory of Shells and Aspherization of Axisymmetric Mirrors –

Meniscus, Vase and Closed Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
6.1 Active Optics Aspherization of Fast f-Ratio Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
6.2 Theory of Shallow Spherical Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
xiv Contents

6.2.1 Equilibrium Equations for Axisymmetric Loadings . . . . . . 314

6.2.2 General Equation of Shallow Spherical Shells . . . . . . . . . . . 315
6.2.3 Kelvin Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
6.2.4 Flexure and Stress Function of Shallow Spherical Shells . . 320
6.3 Variable Thickness Shell and Continuity Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
6.3.1 Shell Relations for a Constant Thickness Ring Element . . . 323
6.3.2 Various Boundaries and Constant Thickness Plain Shells . . 323
6.3.3 Some Quantities Involved in a Variable Thickness Shell . . . 324
6.3.4 Continuity Conditions of a Shell Element Ring . . . . . . . . . . 325
6.4 Edge Cylinder Link and Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
6.4.1 Three Geometrical Configurations and Boundaries . . . . . . . 327
6.4.2 Outer Cylinder Linked to a Meniscus Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
6.5 Determination of a Variable Thickness Vase Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
6.5.1 Flexure Representation in the Shell z, r Main Frame . . . . . . 332
6.5.2 Inverse Problem and Thickness Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
6.6 Active Optics Aspherization of Telescope Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
6.6.1 Active Optics Co-addition Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
6.6.2 Parabolization of Concave Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
6.6.3 Concave Paraboloid Mirrors with a Central Hole . . . . . . . . . 339
6.6.4 Aspherization of Concave Spheroid Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
6.6.5 Aspherization of Cassegrain Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
6.6.6 Comparison of Various Wide-Field Telescope Designs . . . . 350
6.6.7 Modified-Rumsey Three-Reflection Telescope Mirrors . . . . 352
6.6.8 Mirror Aspherizations of a Large Modified-
Rumsey Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

7 Active Optics with Multimode Deformable Mirrors (MDM) Vase

and Meniscus Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
7.1 Introduction – Clebsch-Seidel Deformation Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
7.2 Elasticity and Vase-Form MDMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
7.3 Elasticity and Meniscus-Form MDMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
7.4 Degenerated Configurations and Astigmatism Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
7.4.1 Special Geometry for the Astigmatism Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
7.4.2 Single Astm 3 Mode and Degenerated Meniscus Form . . . . 377
7.4.3 Single Astm 3 Mode and Degenerated Vase Form . . . . . . . . 378
7.5 Meniscus Form and Segments for Large Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
7.5.1 Off-Axis Segments of a Paraboloid Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
7.5.2 Off-Axis Segments of a Conicoid Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
7.5.3 Segments of the Keck Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
7.6 Vase and Meniscus MDMs for Reflective Schmidts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
7.6.1 Centered Systems with a Circular Vase-Form Primary . . . . 385
7.6.2 Non-Centered Systems and Circular Vase-Form Primary . . 386
7.6.3 Non-Centered Systems and Elliptical Vase-Form Primary . 388
7.6.4 In-situ Aspherized Meniscus Segments of LAMOST . . . . . 388
Contents xv

7.7 Vase MDMs for Liquid Mirror Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

7.7.1 Zenithal Observations with LMTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
7.7.2 Field Distortions and Four-Lens Correctors for LMTs . . . . 391
7.7.3 LMT Concepts with MDMs for Off-Zenith Observations . . 392
7.8 MDMs as Recording Compensators for Holographic Gratings . . . . . 395
7.8.1 Holographic Gratings Correcting Aberrations . . . . . . . . . . . 395
7.8.2 Design Example for the COS Gratings of HST–Recording
Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
7.8.3 Elasticity Design of a Six-Arm MDM as Recording
Compensator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
7.9 Degenerated Configurations and Triangle Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
7.9.1 Special Geometry for the Triangle Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
7.9.2 Single Tri 3 Mode and Degenerated Meniscus Form . . . . . . 402
7.9.3 Single Tri 3 Mode and Degenerated Vase Form . . . . . . . . . . 403
7.10 Single Mode and Deformable Outer Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
7.10.1 Outer Ring Designs for High Accuracy Correction . . . . . . . 404
7.10.2 Ring with Axial Thickness Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
7.10.3 Ring with Forces Acting on Angular Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
7.11 Future Giant Telescopes and Segment Aspherization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
7.11.1 Current Trends in Giant Telescope Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
7.11.2 Active Optics Aspherization of Mirror Segments . . . . . . . . . 406
7.12 Vase Form and Middle Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
7.13 Vase Form and Saint-Venant’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

8 Own Weight Flexure and Figure Control of Telescope Mirrors . . . . . . 413

8.1 Primary Mirror Support Systems Against Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
8.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
8.1.2 Axial and Lateral Support System Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
8.1.3 Some Examples of Primary Mirror Geometries . . . . . . . . . . 415
8.2 Density and Thermal Constants of Mirror Substrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
8.3 Substrates for Large Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
8.4 Stiffness and Elastic Deformability Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
8.4.1 Mirror Materials and Stiffness Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
8.4.2 Mirror Materials and Elastic Deformability Criterion . . . . . 422
8.5 Axial Flexure of Large Mirrors Under Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
8.5.1 Density Distribution of Mirror Support Pads . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
8.5.2 Flexure of a Mirror Sub-Element Supported by a Ring Pad 424
8.5.3 Density Criterion for Pad Distribution – Couder’s Law . . . . 428
8.5.4 Other Axial Flexure Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
8.5.5 Finite Element Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
8.6 Lateral Flexure of Large Mirrors Under Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
8.6.1 Various Supporting Force Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
8.6.2 Flexure of a Mirror Supported at its Lateral Edge . . . . . . . . 439
xvi Contents

8.6.3 Other Force Distributions and Skew Surface of Forces . . . . 441

8.6.4 Finite Element Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
8.7 Active Optics and Active Alignment Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
8.7.1 Introduction and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
8.7.2 Monolithic Mirror Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
8.7.3 Segmented Mirror Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
8.7.4 Cophasing of Future Extremely Large Telescopes . . . . . . . . 452
8.8 Special Cases of Highly Variable Thickness Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
8.8.1 Introduction – Mirror Flexure in Fast Tip-Tilt Mode . . . . . . 452
8.8.2 Minimum Flexure in Gravity of a Plate Supported
at its Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
8.8.3 Field Stabilization Mirrors and Infrared Wobbling Mirrors 457
8.8.4 Design of Low Weight Wobbling Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459

9 Singlet Lenses and Elasticity Theory of Thin Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

9.1 Singlet Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
9.1.1 Aberrations of a Thin Lens with Spherical Surfaces . . . . . . 465
9.1.2 Stigmatic Lens with Descartes Ovoid and Spherical
Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
9.1.3 Aplanatic and Anastigmatic Singlet Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
9.1.4 Isoplanatic Singlet Lenses and Remote Pupil . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
9.1.5 Aspheric Lenses in the Third-Order Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
9.1.6 Power of a Two-Lens System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
9.2 Thin Lens Elastically Bent by Uniform Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
9.2.1 Equilibrium Equation of the Thin Plate Theory . . . . . . . . . . 475
9.2.2 Lens Deformation and Parabolic Thickness Distribution . . 476
9.2.3 Expansion Representation of the Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
9.2.4 Maximum Stresses at the Lens Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
9.2.5 Lenses with Particular Thickness Distributions . . . . . . . . . . 487
9.2.6 Conclusions for Active Optics Aspherization . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
9.3 Spectrograph with Single Lens and Corrector Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490

10 X-ray Telescopes and Elasticity Theory of Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491

10.1 X-ray Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
10.1.1 Introduction – The Three Wolter Design Forms . . . . . . . . . . 491
10.1.2 Basic Stigmatic Paraboloid-Hyperboloid (PH) Telescopes . 491
10.1.3 Sine Condition and Wolter-Schwarzschild (WS)
Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
10.1.4 Aberration Balanced Hyperboloid-Hyperboloid
(HH) Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
10.1.5 Aberration Balanced Spheroid-Spheroid (SS) Telescopes . . 499
10.1.6 Existing and Future Grazing Incidence X-ray Telescopes . . 499
10.2 Elasticity Theory of Axisymmetric Cylindrical Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Contents xvii

10.2.1 X-ray Mirrors and Super-Smoothness Criterion . . . . . . . . . . 501

10.2.2 Elasticity Theory of Thin Axisymmetric Cylinders . . . . . . . 501
10.2.3 Radial Thickness Distributions and Parabolic Flexure . . . . . 504
10.2.4 Radial Thickness Distributions and 4th-Degree Flexure . . . 509
10.2.5 Thickness Distributions for Tubular Image Transports . . . . 510
10.3 Elasticity Theory of Weakly Conical Tubular Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
10.3.1 Flexure Condition for Pure Extension
of Axisymmetric Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
10.3.2 Truncated Conical Shell Geometry and Cylindrical
Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
10.3.3 Linear Product Law – Flexure-Thickness Relation . . . . . . . 516
10.4 Active Optics Aspherization of X-ray Telescope Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . 517
10.4.1 Thickness Distributions for Monolithic Tubular Mirrors . . . 517
10.4.2 Boundaries for Segment Mirrors of Large Tubular
Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
10.4.3 Concluding Remarks on the Aspherization Process . . . . . . . 521
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522

Portrait Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525

Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555

Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575

Notations

Optics Notation

x, y, z rectangular coordinates
ρ, θ , z cylindrical coordinates
λ wavelength of a monochromatic propagation of light
ν frequency of a monochromatic propagation of light
D clear aperture diameter
rm semi-radius of clear aperture
f, f focal length of a system in the object and image space respectively
Ω focal ratio, or f-ratio
n, n , N index of refraction of a medium
i, i  conjugate incidence and emerging angles
R radius of curvature of axisymmetric optical surface
c curvature of an axisymmetric optical surface (the velocity of light in
vacuum is also denoted c)
cx , cy principal curvatures of an optical surface
CP Petzval curvature
κ conic constant of conicoid optical surface
u, u conjugate aperture angles
η, η conjugate ray heights
η̄ normalized ray height
ϕ field angle
ϕmax maximum field angle
z, z usual object and image conjugate distances
ζ, ζ Newton object and image conjugate distances
M transverse magnification
K optical power
H Lagrange invariant
E étendue invariant
T telephoto effect
W[4] aberration wavefront function of third order theory
ρ , θ , η̄ normalized radius, azimuth angle and image height of a wavefront
aberration function

xix