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Contents
1. Preface xii

2. Notation xxi

3. About the Authors xxii

1. Chapter 1 Overview 1

1. 1.1 Computer Security Concepts 2

2. 1.2 Threats, Attacks, and Assets 9

3. 1.3 Security Functional Requirements 15

4. 1.4 Fundamental Security Design Principles 17

5. 1.5 Attack Surfaces and Attack Trees 21

6. 1.6 Computer Security Strategy 24

7. 1.7 Standards 26

1. 1.8 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 27

2. PART ONE COMPUTER SECURITY TECHNOLOGY AND

PRINCIPLES 30

1. Chapter 2 Cryptographic Tools 30

1. 2.1 Confidentiality with Symmetric Encryption 31

2. 2.2 Message Authentication and Hash Functions 37

3. 2.3 Public-Key Encryption 45

 4. 2.4 Digital Signatures and Key Management 50

5. 2.5 Random and Pseudorandom Numbers 55

6. 2.6 Practical Application: Encryption of Stored Data 57

1. 2.7 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 58

2. Chapter 3 User Authentication 63

1. 3.1 Digital User Authentication Principles 65

2. 3.2 Password-Based Authentication 70

3. 3.3 Token-Based Authentication 82

4. 3.4 Biometric Authentication 87

5. 3.5 Remote User Authentication 92

6. 3.6 Security Issues for User Authentication 95

7. 3.7 Practical Application: An Iris Biometric System 97

8. 3.8 Case Study: Security Problems for ATM Systems 99

1. 3.9 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 102

3. Chapter 4 Access Control 105

1. 4.1 Access Control Principles 106

2. 4.2 Subjects, Objects, and Access Rights 109

3. 4.3 Discretionary Access Control 110

4. 4.4 Example: UNIX File Access Control 117

5. 4.5 Role-Based Access Control 120

 6. 4.6 Attribute-Based Access Control 126

7. 4.7 Identity, Credential, and Access Management 132

8. 4.8 Trust Frameworks 136

9. 4.9 Case Study: RBAC System for a Bank 140

1. 4.10 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 142

4. Chapter 5 Database and Data Center Security 147

1. 5.1 The Need for Database Security 148

2. 5.2 Database Management Systems 149

3. 5.3 Relational Databases 151

4. 5.4 SQL Injection Attacks 155

5. 5.5 Database Access Control 161

6. 5.6 Inference 166

7. 5.7 Database Encryption 168

8. 5.8 Data Center Security 172

1. 5.9 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 178

5. Chapter 6 Malicious Software 183

1. 6.1 Types of Malicious Software (Malware) 185

2. 6.2 Advanced Persistent Threat 187

3. 6.3 Propagation—Infected Content—Viruses 188

4. 6.4 Propagation—Vulnerability Exploit—Worms 193

 5. 6.5 Propagation—Social Engineering—Spam E-mail, Trojans
202

6. 6.6 Payload—System Corruption 205

7. 6.7 Payload—Attack Agent—Zombie, Bots 207

8. 6.8 Payload—Information Theft—Keyloggers, Phishing,

Spyware 209

9. 6.9 Payload—Stealthing—Backdoors, Rootkits 211

10. 6.10 Countermeasures 214

1. 6.11 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 220

6. Chapter 7 Denial-of-Service Attacks 224

1. 7.1 Denial-of-Service Attacks 225

2. 7.2 Flooding Attacks 233

3. 7.3 Distributed Denial-of-Service Attacks 234

4. 7.4 Application-Based Bandwidth Attacks 236

5. 7.5 Reflector and Amplifier Attacks 239

6. 7.6 Defenses Against Denial-of-Service Attacks 243

7. 7.7 Responding to a Denial-of-Service Attack 247

1. 7.8 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 248

7. Chapter 8 Intrusion Detection 251

1. 8.1 Intruders 252

2. 8.2 Intrusion Detection 256

 3. 8.3 Analysis Approaches 259

4. 8.4 Host-Based Intrusion Detection 262

5. 8.5 Network-Based Intrusion Detection 267

6. 8.6 Distributed or Hybrid Intrusion Detection 273

7. 8.7 Intrusion Detection Exchange Format 275

8. 8.8 Honeypots 278

9. 8.9 Example System: Snort 280

1. 8.10 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 284

8. Chapter 9 Firewalls and Intrusion Prevention Systems 288

1. 9.1 The Need for Firewalls 289

2. 9.2 Firewall Characteristics and Access Policy 290

3. 9.3 Types of Firewalls 292

4. 9.4 Firewall Basing 298

5. 9.5 Firewall Location and Configurations 301

6. 9.6 Intrusion Prevention Systems 306

7. 9.7 Example: Unified Threat Management Products 310

1. 9.8 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 314

3. PART TWO SOFTWARE AND SYSTEM SECURITY 319

1. Chapter 10 Buffer Overflow 319

1. 10.1 Stack Overflows 321

 2. 10.2 Defending Against Buffer Overflows 342

3. 10.3 Other forms of Overflow Attacks 348

1. 10.4 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 355

2. Chapter 11 Software Security 357

1. 11.1 Software Security Issues 358

2. 11.2 Handling Program Input 362

3. 11.3 Writing Safe Program Code 373

4. 11.4 Interacting with the Operating System and Other

Programs 378

5. 11.5 Handling Program Output 391

1. 11.6 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 393

3. Chapter 12 Operating System Security 397

1. 12.1 Introduction to Operating System Security 399

2. 12.2 System Security Planning 400

3. 12.3 Operating Systems Hardening 400

4. 12.4 Application Security 404

5. 12.5 Security Maintenance 406

6. 12.6 Linux/Unix Security 407

7. 12.7 Windows Security 411

8. 12.8 Virtualization Security 413

1. 12.9 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 421

 4. Chapter 13 Cloud and IoT Security 423

1. 13.1 Cloud Computing 424

2. 13.2 Cloud Security Concepts 432

3. 13.3 Cloud Security Approaches 435

4. 13.4 The Internet of Things 444

5. 13.5 IoT Security 448

1. 13.6 Key Terms and Review Questions 456

4. PART THREE MANAGEMENT ISSUES 458

1. Chapter 14 IT Security Management and Risk Assessment 458

1. 14.1 IT Security Management 459

2. 14.2 Organizational Context and Security Policy 462

3. 14.3 Security Risk Assessment 465

4. 14.4 Detailed Security Risk Analysis 468

5. 14.5 Case Study: Silver Star Mines 480

1. 14.6 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 485

2. Chapter 15 IT Security Controls, Plans, and Procedures 488

1. 15.1 IT Security Management Implementation 489

2. 15.2 Security Controls or Safeguards 489

3. 15.3 IT Security Plan 498

4. 15.4 Implementation of Controls 499

 5. 15.5 Monitoring Risks 500

6. 15.6 Case Study: Silver Star Mines 502

1. 15.7 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 505

3. Chapter 16 Physical and Infrastructure Security 507

1. 16.1 Overview 508

2. 16.2 Physical Security Threats 509

3. 16.3 Physical Security Prevention and Mitigation Measures

516

4. 16.4 Recovery from Physical Security Breaches 519

5. 16.5 Example: A Corporate Physical Security Policy 519

6. 16.6 Integration of Physical and Logical Security 520

1. 16.7 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 526

4. Chapter 17 Human Resources Security 528

1. 17.1 Security Awareness, Training, and Education 529

2. 17.2 Employment Practices and Policies 535

3. 17.3 E-mail and Internet Use Policies 538

4. 17.4 Computer Security Incident Response Teams 539

1. 17.5 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 546

5. Chapter 18 Security Auditing 548

1. 18.1 Security Auditing Architecture 550

2. 18.2 Security Audit Trail 554

 3. 18.3 Implementing the Logging Function 559

4. 18.4 Audit Trail Analysis 570

5. 18.5 Security Information and Event Management 574

1. 18.6 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 576

6. Chapter 19 Legal and Ethical Aspects 578

1. 19.1 Cybercrime and Computer Crime 579

2. 19.2 Intellectual Property 583

3. 19.3 Privacy 589

4. 19.4 Ethical Issues 596

1. 19.5 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 602

5. PART FOUR CRYPTOGRAPHIC ALGORITHMS 605

1. Chapter 20 Symmetric Encryption and Message Confidentiality

605

1. 20.1 Symmetric Encryption Principles 606

2. 20.2 Data Encryption Standard 611

3. 20.3 Advanced Encryption Standard 613

4. 20.4 Stream Ciphers and RC4 619

5. 20.5 Cipher Block Modes of Operation 622

6. 20.6 Key Distribution 628

1. 20.7 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 630

2. Chapter 21 Public-Key Cryptography and Message Authentication

 634

1. 21.1 Secure Hash Functions 635

2. 21.2 HMAC 641

3. 21.3 Authenticated Encryption 644

4. 21.4 The RSA Public-Key Encryption Algorithm 647

5. 21.5 Diffie-Hellman and Other Asymmetric Algorithms 653

1. 21.6 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 657

6. PART FIVE NETWORK SECURITY 660

1. Chapter 22 Internet Security Protocols and Standards 660

1. 22.1 Secure E-mail and S/MIME 661

2. 22.2 Domainkeys Identified Mail 664

3. 22.3 Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer

Security (TLS) 668

4. 22.4 HTTPS 675

5. 22.5 IPv4 and IPv6 Security 676

1. 22.6 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 681

2. Chapter 23 Internet Authentication Applications 684

1. 23.1 Kerberos 685

2. 23.2 X.509 691

3. 23.3 Public-Key Infrastructure 694

1. 23.4 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 697

 3. Chapter 24 Wireless Network Security 700

1. 24.1 Wireless Security 701

2. 24.2 Mobile Device Security 704

3. 24.3 IEEE 802.11 Wireless Lan Overview 708

4. 24.4 IEEE 802.11i Wireless Lan Security 714

1. 24.5 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 729

1. Appendix A Projects and Other Student Exercises for Teaching

Computer Security 732

1. A.1 Hacking Project 732

2. A.2 Laboratory Exercises 733

3. A.3 Security Education (SEED) Projects 733

4. A.4 Research Projects 735

5. A.5 Programming Projects 736

6. A.6 Practical Security Assessments 736

7. A.7 Firewall Projects 736

8. A.8 Case Studies 737

9. A.9 Reading/Report Assignments 737

10. A.10 Writing Assignments 737

11. A.11 Webcasts for Teaching Computer Security 738

2. Acronyms 739

3. List of NIST and ISO Documents 740

4. References 742

5. Credits 755

6. Index 758
ONLINE CHAPTERS AND
APPENDICES 1
1Online chapters, appendices, and other documents are Premium Content,
available via the access card at the front of this book.

1. Chapter 25 Linux Security

1. 25.1 Introduction

2. 25.2 Linux’s Security Model

3. 25.3 The Linux DAC in Depth: Filesystem Security

4. 25.4 Linux Vulnerabilities

5. 25.5 Linux System Hardening

6. 25.6 Application Security

7. 25.7 Mandatory Access Controls

1. 25.8 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems

2. Chapter 26 Windows and Windows Vista Security

1. 26.1 Windows Security Architecture

2. 26.2 Windows Vulnerabilities

3. 26.3 Windows Security Defenses

4. 26.4 Browser Defenses

5. 26.5 Cryptographic Services

 6. 26.6 Common Criteria

1. 26.7 Key Terms, Review Questions, Problems, and Projects

3. Chapter 27 Trusted Computing and Multilevel Security

1. 27.1 The Bell-LaPadula Model for Computer Security

2. 27.2 Other Formal Models for Computer Security

3. 27.3 The Concept of Trusted Systems

4. 27.4 Application of Multilevel Security

5. 27.5 Trusted Computing and the Trusted Platform Module

6. 27.6 Common Criteria for Information Technology Security

Evaluation

7. 27.7 Assurance and Evaluation

1. 27.8 Key Terms, Review

1. Appendix B Some Aspects of Number Theory

2. Appendix C Standards and Standard-Setting Organizations

3. Appendix D Random and Pseudorandom Number Generation

4. Appendix E Message Authentication Codes Based on Block Ciphers

5. Appendix F TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

6. Appendix G Radix-64 Conversion

7. Appendix H The Domain Name System

8. Appendix I The Base-Rate Fallacy

9. Appendix J SHA-3
10. Appendix K Glossary
Preface
WHAT’S NEW IN THE FOURTH
EDITION
Since the third edition of this book was published, the field has seen
continued innovations and improvements. In this new edition, we try to
capture these changes while maintaining a broad and comprehensive
coverage of the entire field. To begin the process of revision, the third edition
of this book was extensively reviewed by a number of professors who teach
the subject and by professionals working in the field. The result is that in
many places the narrative has been clarified and tightened, and illustrations
have been improved.

Beyond these refinements to improve pedagogy and user-friendliness, there

have been major substantive changes throughout the book. The most
noteworthy changes are as follows:

Data center security: Chapter 5 includes a new discussion of data center

security, including the TIA-492 specification of reliability tiers.

Malware: The material on malware in Chapter 6 has been revised to

include additional material on macro viruses and their structure, as they
are now the most common form of virus malware.

Virtualization security: The material on virtualization security in

Chapter 12 has been extended, given the rising use of such systems by
organizations and in cloud computing environments. A discussion of
virtual firewalls, which may be used to help secure these environments,
has also been added.

Cloud security: Chapter 13 includes a new discussion of cloud security.

The discussion includes an introduction to cloud computing, key cloud
 security concepts, an analysis of approaches to cloud security, and an
open-source example.

IoT security: Chapter 13 includes a new discussion of security for the

Internet of Things (IoT). The discussion includes an introduction to IoT,
an overview of IoT security issues, and an open-source example.

SEIM: The discussion of Security Information and Event Management

(SIEM) systems in Chapter 18 has been updated.

Privacy: The section on privacy issues and its management in Chapter

19 has been extended with additional discussion of moral and legal
approaches, and the privacy issues related to big data.

Authenticated encryption: Authenticated encryption has become an

increasingly widespread cryptographic tool in a variety of applications
and protocols. Chapter 21 includes a new discussion of authenticated
description and describes an important authenticated encryption
algorithm known as offset codebook (OCB) mode.

BACKGROUND
Interest in education in computer security and related topics has been
growing at a dramatic rate in recent years. This interest has been spurred by a
number of factors, two of which stand out:

1. As information systems, databases, and Internet-based distributed

systems and communication have become pervasive in the commercial
world, coupled with the increased intensity and sophistication of
security-related attacks, organizations now recognize the need for a
comprehensive security strategy. This strategy encompasses the use of
specialized hardware and software and trained personnel to meet that
need.

2. Computer security education, often termed information security

education or information assurance education, has emerged as a
 national goal in the United States and other countries, with national
defense and homeland security implications. The NSA/DHS National
Center of Academic Excellence in Information Assurance/Cyber
Defense is spearheading a government role in the development of
standards for computer security education.

Accordingly, the number of courses in universities, community colleges, and

other institutions in computer security and related areas is growing.

OBJECTIVES
The objective of this book is to provide an up-to-date survey of developments
in computer security. Central problems that confront security designers and
security administrators include defining the threats to computer and network
systems, evaluating the relative risks of these threats, and developing cost-
effective and user friendly countermeasures.

The following basic themes unify the discussion:

Principles: Although the scope of this book is broad, there are a number
of basic principles that appear repeatedly as themes and that unify this
field. Examples are issues relating to authentication and access control.
The book highlights these principles and examines their application in
specific areas of computer security.

Design approaches: The book examines alternative approaches to

meeting specific computer security requirements.

Standards: Standards have come to assume an increasingly important,

indeed dominant, role in this field. An understanding of the current
status and future direction of technology requires a comprehensive
discussion of the related standards.

Real-world examples: A number of chapters include a section that

shows the practical application of that chapter’s principles in a real-
world environment.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
The water becomes frozen; snow falls; it covers the glassy surface,
and in time fills the space between the banks. There is nothing to
warn the wayfarer that he is leaving the track, till he suddenly finds
himself upon the ice: a horseman is fortunate if it is strong enough
to bear him.

Now we saw some Persian women sitting cross-legged on their

horses, like the men. Some of these ladies were mothers, they
carried their children slung in handkerchiefs round their necks. In a
short time I came to their village, one amongst several others which
are scattered about in this part of Turkey. The houses were clean
inside, and in this respect a great improvement upon those inhabited
by the Kurds. The floors were covered with very thick rugs made by
the wives of the proprietors. I was informed that the people in the
district send their manufactures to Erzeroum.

The inhabitants formerly lived in the neighbourhood of Erivan.

When the Russians invaded Persia, conquered the Shah, and
annexed a part of Persian soil, many of the vanquished determined
not to remain under the Muscovite yoke. Leaving their houses, they
crossed the frontier and settled in Turkey. The Sultan gave them
land. They expressed themselves as being much happier under their
present rulers than their relatives who are Russian subjects. The
latter would be delighted to pass the border-line and join their
countrymen in Anatolia; this the Muscovite authorities do not allow.
"Once a Russian, always a Russian," is the answer given to the
Persians on this question.

Our track led us along the right bank of the Murad, here about
seventy yards wide. We came to a bridge which spans the river—the
road on the opposite side leading in the direction of Van. We did not
cross the structure.
 Soon Diyadin was reached. Here there were two squadrons of
cavalry, besides infantry. The commandant, in spite of the rumours
of peace which had been telegraphed from Constantinople, was daily
expecting an outbreak of hostilities. The Russians, according to him,
had concentrated a large force of Cossacks in the neighbourhood of
Erivan. It was believed that the war would commence by an attack
upon Bayazid.

We rode for an hour over a low mountain ridge, and then

entered a vast plain girt round by sloping heights. On our right front
lay Persia. On my bridle-hand I could see the territory of the Tzar.
The mighty Ararat is in front of us, and stretches upwards into the
realms of space, its lofty crest hidden in some vaporous clouds.

It was extremely cold. A bright sun poured its rays down upon
our heads. The golden orb gave out no warmth, but it half blinded
us with its splendour.

The people in this district suffer very much from ophthalmia: a

traveller rarely finds himself in a house where one of the inmates is
not labouring under this complaint.

The plain narrows. A broad lake of water is on our left. To our

right front and amidst the rocks lies the little town of Bayazid. The
ruins of an old castle are in the fields below. The track begins to
ascend. It winds higher and higher amidst the crags. A few houses
are passed, and the barracks which contain two battalions of
infantry. We come to the Pacha's residence. Dismounting, I
proceeded to pay that official a visit.

He had been for some time in Egypt, and spoke Arabic very
fairly, having great pleasure in showing off his proficiency in this
language to the officers of his household.
 I learnt that, six weeks previous to my arrival, the Russian
authorities in Daghestan had ordered a levy of troops to be made
amidst the inhabitants. The latter declared that they were
Mohammedans, and said they did not wish to fight against their
Lord, the Commander of the Faithful. They added that the Tzar
formerly had promised that those men who wished might leave
Russia with their wives and children, and settle on Turkish soil; they
asked for this permission for themselves.

"However," continued the Pacha, "the Russian authorities would

not allow them to leave the country. Cossacks were sent to the
district in question, and 400 people—amongst them women and
children—were shot down and beaten to death!"

Bayazid is only a twelve hours' march from Erivan, the frontier

town of Russia. There is a level road between these two stations.
The Russians had a large artillery force in Erivan, and there were
only two mountain guns in Bayazid. The Turkish officers were
convinced that if an attack were made upon Bayazid, they would be
unable to offer any effectual opposition. In their opinion it would be
better for them to retire upon Karakilissa and Deli Baba, and make a
stand at these points.

Major-General Macintosh, when writing about Kurdistan during

the time of the Crimean War, remarks that he does not think there is
a place of greater importance than Bayazid, in a military point of
view, in the whole of Western Asia. There is a continuous descent
along the banks of the Euphrates to the Persian Gulf; but as this
great valley conducts through the range of Mount Taurus into Syria,
its value to Russia, on this account alone, must be obvious. It is
much nearer to her present frontier, and much more accessible than
Erzeroum, which lies on the western branch of the Euphrates; and
should the contingencies of the present war render it possible for
Russia to push on a force into the northern part of Syria, the good-
will of the Kurds[16] at the moment of undertaking such an
operation, would afford her an immense advantage. There is another
exceedingly strong pass at Bayazid, on the Persian side, where a
very small regular force might completely seal the entrance into
Persia, from the side of Erzeroum, except through the roads of
central Kurdistan. It may also be looked upon as a key to Kurdistan,
and to Diarbekir, Mosul, and the whole course of the Tigris as far as
Bagdad. I have no hesitation in saying, that Russia, with the
assistance of the Kurdish tribes, could speedily establish a route, and
march an army down this valley into Syria.[17] The distance from
Erivan to Aleppo is not above 500 miles, if so much, and the route
by Aleppo, Diarbekir, and Van, to Aderbzou, from the Mediterranean,
is quite practicable for an army.

I rode to see the barracks. Eighty years ago they formed part of
a palace belonging to a Kurdish chieftain, a certain Mahmoud Pacha.
He had expressed a wish to have the most beautiful residence in the
world, and, after conversing with numerous architects upon this
subject, had accepted the service of an Armenian. The latter had
designed a very handsome building, with large glass windows, and
everything that could be desired in the way of comfort. The Pacha
was satisfied with the palace, but not with the idea that the
Armenian architect might possibly construct a similar building for
some other kindred chieftain. To prevent this Mahmoud ordered his
executioner to cut off the Armenian's hands. This was done. The
poor victim shortly afterwards died a beggar. In the meantime the
Pacha was gathered to his fathers, leaving one son. This man, after
committing all sorts of excesses, was bitten by a snake, and died at
Alexandretta. His child was brought up at Bayazid, and afterwards
became Caimacan at Toprak Kale. He had lost his life in the affray
with the Circassians, which has already been mentioned in this work.
 On entering the barracks, sometimes called the citadel, the irony
of fate was clearly shown. The large window-frames which had been
brought to Bayazid for Mahmoud eighty years ago, and at an
immense expense, had all disappeared; their places were filled up
with sheets of Turkish newspapers. The marble pillars and carving in
alabaster over the portico were chipped and hacked about, the
harem of the former owner was a dormitory for the troops. Four
hundred soldiers slept in the rooms allotted by Mahmoud to his
seraglio.

A Hungarian doctor in the Turkish service accompanied me over

the building. Descending a flight of steps, he led the way to a large
vault. Here lay the bodies of Mahmoud and of his favourite wife, in
two tombs of the purest marble.

"He was a great rogue when he lived," said a Turkish officer who
had joined our party, pointing to an inscription which merely said,
"Mahmoud Pacha, son of Issek Pacha, lies here;" "but he is still now,
and can do no one any harm. Peace be with his bones!"
 CHAPTER XIX.
A spy—The news from Erivan—The border line—How he passed the frontier—The
Mollahs—A war of extermination preached by them—A Turkish newspaper—
Turks in Asia—Christians in Europe—The Conference—A Conference in St.
Petersburg—The European Powers dislike Russia—General Ignatieff a judge
instead of a prisoner—The hour for the evening prayer—A Turkish officer on
prayer—His opinion about European Bishops—They eat mutton every day—A
Turkish Captain.

We leave the barracks. A beautiful view extends before us. We

look down upon the red, green, and white plateau which divides us
from the Tzar's dominions. In some places the sun has slightly
melted the snow, the sand is exposed to view; in others, and nearer
the lake which lies in the midst of the plateau, patches of vegetation
can be seen. The clouds which overhung Ararat have been dispelled
by the sun: the huge mountain, enveloped in its white pall, stands
out in bold relief.

I now called upon the Pacha. Whilst I was conversing with him,
a servant entered and whispered something in his ear.

"Let the fellow come in," he observed; then, turning to me, he

remarked that a Turk had just arrived from the Russian frontier, and
brought the latest news of the military preparations in Erivan.

For some time past the Russians had prohibited any inhabitant
of Turkey from crossing the border-line. It was difficult to obtain any
authentic information as to the quantity of troops the Tzar's generals
had massed in the neighbourhood. The new arrival succeeded in
passing the boundary-line by saying to the Russian officers that he
had been forcibly enlisted as a soldier, and was a deserter from his
regiment. He had obtained permission to return to Turkey by
declaring that he wished to bring his wife—who lived in a village
near Bayazid—to Erivan: the Russian general had ordered him to
obtain as much information as he could about the strength and
disposition of the Turkish forces. He was a thick-set, sturdy-looking
little fellow, with a bull neck and keen grey eyes; his attire consisting
of a blue turban, a yellow shirt, and a pair of crimson trousers.
According to him, the Mollahs were preaching a war of extermination
against the Russians in Persia. However, the natives of that country
were very lukewarm in their friendship to the Turks. It was not
impossible that they would join Russia, or at all events allow the
Tzar's troops to march through their territory in the event of an
offensive movement against Van.

The Pacha took up a Turkish newspaper which he had just

received from Constantinople.

"Listen!" he said. "The man who writes for this paper knows
what he is about."

The article was to the effect that Russia wished to drive the
Turks out of Europe because they were Mohammedans, and because
in European Turkey the Christians were in the majority. "Very good,"
said the writer, "let us abandon Europe; but in Asia the Christians
are in the minority. According to the same reasoning, the Russians
and English ought to leave all their Asiatic possessions, and give
them up to the original proprietors of the soil. Our Sultan has no
objection to let every Christian in his dominions leave Turkey and go
to Russia; but the Tzar, on the contrary, he will not let the
Mohammedans in his empire cross the frontier: if they try to do so,
he sends his soldiers; they cut the throats of our co-religionists. A
Conference, composed for the most part of Christians, has been held
at Constantinople to inquire into the way the Sultan treats his
Christian subjects. Why should not a Conference be assembled at St.
Petersburg, composed for the most part of Mohammedans, to
inquire into the way the Tartars, Turkomans, and other inhabitants of
Central Asia are treated by the Tzar?"

"Yes," said the Pacha, as he finished reading to me these

extracts. The European Powers dislike Russia, and, although they
hate her, and know that she is the origin of all our difficulties, they
are too timid to allow the fact. What a mockery it must have seemed
to the representatives of England, France, and Germany, to find
themselves sitting in judgment upon Turkey, and General Ignatieff,
instead of being equally on his trial, seated at their side, and a judge
instead of a prisoner! Does it not make you smile to think of it?"
added the Pacha; "how the general must have laughed in his
sleeve!"

Another officer entered the room. He had been educated in the

military school at Constantinople. From frequent intercourse with
Europeans, mostly Frenchmen, he had begun to look down upon the
religious observances of his countrymen.

It was about the hour for the evening prayer. The Pacha, Cadi,
and several other Turks commenced performing their devotions,
regardless of the presence of a stranger. The new arrival, the
Hungarian doctor, and myself, remained seated, the former
remarking that it was very hard work praying, at the same time
glancing rather contemptuously at his superior officers.

"Did you not pray when you were at Constantinople?" I inquired.

"Effendi, I did everything à la Franga (in European fashion).

Europeans, from what I could learn, do not pray much."
 "Not pray!" I observed; "what do you mean?"

"No, Effendi; the men, I have been told, go to the churches to

look at the women; the women, some to pray, but others to look at
the men and show off their fine clothes the one to the other. Is not
that the case in your country?" he added.

"No. Of course there are exceptions; but the English people as a

rule are religiously inclined."

"Effendi," continued the officer, "I have often heard Frenchmen

say that a Christian ought to be a poor man—that is, if he carried
out the doctrines of his Prophet. But, my friends used to laugh and
declare that their bishops and priests were rich men, and that some
of the Protestant Mollahs were so wealthy that they could afford to
keep carriages, eat mutton every day, and have servants to wait
upon them."

"The fact of our bishops and priests eating mutton or keeping

carriages does not make the Protestant religion the less true," I now
observed.

"I do not know that," replied the Turk. "If I were to be taught a
religion by a man who did not believe in it himself, or who did not
carry out its doctrines, I should think that I was wasting my time."

The rest at Bayazid had done all our party good. The horses,
which were still very emaciated on account of the long and frequent
marches, had picked up a little flesh. I determined to leave Bayazid
and accompany a Turkish captain who was going through Persia to
Van with despatches for the governor of that town. The officer must
have been sixty. He was quite grey; but, he sat his horse like a
centaur, and was more enthusiastic for the war than any Turk with
whom I had previously conversed.

"You may get killed," I remarked.

 "Please God I shall not," was his reply; "others may die, and
then there will be some promotion."
 CHAPTER XX.
A Yezeed (devil-worshippers) village—The Usebashe—The worshippers of Old
Scratch—The Yezeed's religion—The Spirit of good—The spirit of evil—The rites
—The Grand Vizier of Allah—The unmarried priests—The wives and daughters of
their congregation—A high honour—Women honoured by the attentions of a
priest—Great excitement at the priests' arrival—Mr. Layard—His admirable work
—Kelise Kandy—My host—His house—They want to conquer the Shah—Nadir
Shah—He once conquered you English in Hindostan—The Tzar of America—You
pay Shere Ali a large sum of money—He is a clever fellow.

We turned our backs upon Mount Ararat, and, ascending a low

range of hills covered with loose rocks and boulders, arrived at a
Yezeed (devil-worshippers) village.

The houses were built in the sides of a hill. Cone-shaped huts

made of tezek, and filled with that fuel, showed that the inhabitants
had no objection to heat in this world, however hot they might
expect to be in the next.

An old man, considerably above the middle stature, approached

our party. Addressing the Usebashe, he invited us to dismount. It
was about luncheon-time. I determined to avail myself of the
opportunity afforded me to learn a little about the ways and habits
of these strange people.

"Here we are, sir, with the worshippers of Old Scratch!" observed

Radford, as he was preparing the mid-day meal, which consisted of
a freshly-killed hen, boiled with some rice. "Mohammed has just
been telling me something about them. All I know is that Old Nick
has not much to complain of so far as his flock is concerned. They
have been at our sugar already, and would have carried off
Mohammed's tobacco if he had not been on the look out. I suppose
they think it right to steal, so as to keep on good terms with their
master."

The Yezeeds' religion, if such it may be called, is based upon the

following dogma: that there are two spirits—a spirit of good and a
spirit of evil. Allah, the spirit of good, can do no harm to any one,
and is a friend to the human race. The spirit of evil can do a great
deal of harm, and he is the cause of all our woes. From this starting-
point the Yezeeds have been brought to believe that it is a waste of
time to worship the spirit of good, who will not hurt them, and that
the proper course to pursue is to try and propitiate the spirit of evil,
who can be very disagreeable if he chooses. To do so they never
venture to make use of the name of the devil, as this they believe
would be an act of disrespect to their infernal master.

They are visited twice a year by different high priests, when

certain rites are performed. These rites are kept a great secret. The
Turks who gave me some information about the Yezeeds were
unable to give me any details about the nature of the ceremonies. I
was informed that the Yezeeds are divided into two sects; that the
one looks upon the devil as the Grand Vizier of Allah, and the other
regards him as the private secretary of the good spirit. It was said
that the two sects hated each other to such an extent that, if a man
belonging to the one which looks upon the devil as being the Grand
Vizier of Allah were to enter a village belonging to members of the
rival faith, the new arrival would have a great chance of losing his
life.

The Yezeeds' priests are many of them unmarried. However,

should a priest or sheik arrive in a village, the first thing which is
done by the inhabitants is to offer their wives and daughters for his
inspection. The sheik will select one. It will then be considered that
he has conferred a very high honour on the young lady's relatives.
There are different laws as to the subsequent treatment of these
women. In one of the sects they are not allowed to marry, but are
set apart; and, in the case of a married woman, she is not permitted
again to live with her husband. In the other sect they are permitted
to marry, or if the lady has a spouse, she must return to him. It is
then the duty of every Yezeed to make her rich presents, and the
inhabitants of the village must maintain her husband and herself
during the rest of their lives. Under these circumstances a woman
who has been honoured by the attentions of a priest is looked upon
by a youthful Yezeed in much the same light as a rich heiress by
many impecunious younger sons in a European ball-room; her hand
is eagerly sought for in marriage. If, she already possesses a
husband, the latter considers himself as one of the most fortunate of
men. The result of this is, that when a priest arrives in a village,
great excitement arises amidst the population—every man hoping
that his wife or daughter will be honoured by being selected. The
ladies take immense interest in the proceedings. The visits of the
reverend gentlemen are eagerly looked forward to by all classes of
Yezeed society.

This information was given me by some Turks with whom I had

conversed during my journey. I now asked my host if these
statements were true. He at once repudiated them, and declared
that they were inventions of the followers of Islam.

"Do you look upon the devil as the Grand Vizier of Allah?" I now
inquired.

If a bombshell had exploded in the room where I was sitting,

there could not have been greater consternation than that which
was evinced by the members of my host's family. Springing to their
feet, they fled from the building—an old woman very nearly
upsetting Radford's cooking-pot in her haste to escape into the open
air. The captain looked at me, and then indulged in a sort of
suppressed laugh.

"What has frightened them?" I inquired.

"Effendi," he replied, "you mentioned the word 'Shaitan' (devil).

It is very lucky for you," continued the old man, "that there are five
of us, and we are all well armed; for, if not, the Yezeeds would have
attacked our party for a certainty. Any disaster which may happen in
this village during the next twelve months will be put down to you. If
a man's cow or camel dies, the fellow will say that it is all your fault;
the sooner we continue our march the better."

It was getting late; the inhabitants had withdrawn to some

distance from their houses, they were gazing at our party with
lowering brows. I would gladly have repaired the mischief that I had
done; but an apology might have only made matters worse. I was
the more sorry, as I had hoped to have had the opportunity of
questioning the Yezeeds as to some of their customs. What I had
heard about them from the Turks was so different to what is related
of this singular people by Mr. Layard in his admirable work, "Nineveh
and its Remains," that I had become rather sceptical as to the
veracity of my informants. The old captain, however, consoled me by
saying that, on my journey from Van to Kars, I should have to pass
by many other Yezeed villages, and would there be able to pursue
my inquiries upon this subject.

Very shortly after leaving our halting-place, the guide stopped,

and said something to the officer.

"What is he saying?" I inquired.

"The summit of this hill is the border-line," was the reply. In

another minute we had entered the territory of the Shah.
 The track was good and firm; although there was plenty of snow
on the hills, there was but little on the plain below. After a few
hours' march, we halted for the night in a village called Kelise Kandy.

The Usebashe was well known to the chief proprietor in the

district, and, coming out to meet us, he invited our party to enter his
house.

Kelise Kandy is a large village, and much cleaner than any of

those which I had seen on the Turkish side of the frontier. The
houses were well built, and many of them whitewashed. Several
haystacks were in a yard belonging to our host, hundreds of sheep
and cattle stood in a large enclosure near his dwelling.

The proprietor was dressed at first sight a little like a European.

He had a black coat; a red sash was tied round his waist; a pair of
white trousers covered his legs. But a very high, cone-shaped,
astrachan hat was on his head, and this article of attire, much
resembling an extinguisher, did away with his otherwise slightly
European appearance.

A number of servants, all armed with daggers stuck in their

waist-belts, and with hats, if possible, still more like an extinguisher
than that which their master wore, stood round the room. It was a
good-sized apartment, thirty feet long by twenty broad. The floor
was covered with a thick Persian carpet, of beautiful design, but not
dear; indeed, I subsequently learnt that it had only cost fifteen
pounds of our money.

Light was let into the room by some double windows—probably

made in this fashion so as to keep out the cold. Our host, after
motioning to me to squat down on one side of him, and to the
Usebashe to squat down on the other, produced a cigar-case, and
offered me a cigarette.
 He had been often in Erzeroum, and also in Russia, where he
had imbibed a taste for smoking tobacco in this form. His
acquaintance with the Muscovites had not prepossessed him in their
favour.

"They want to conquer the Shah," he presently remarked. "They

will make use of us as a stepping-stone to Van and Bagdad; after
which they will annex their catspaw. We ought to have another Nadir
Shah," he continued. "If we had one, the Russians would not dare to
laugh at us as they do."

"I thought that there were very good relations between the
Courts of Teheran and St. Petersburg," I now remarked.

"The Shah is obliged to be on good terms with the Tzar," replied

the Persian. "The Tzar is too strong for him."

"If there be a war between Russia and Turkey, which side will
Persia take?"

The proprietor shook his head.

"We ought to go with Islam," he remarked; "but, better still,

remain neutral. I am told that there are many Russian officers in
Teheran. They are doing their best to influence the Shah in their
master's favour. Nadir Shah once conquered you English in
Hindostan," he added.

"No, he conquered part of India before we went there. However,

now Hindostan belongs to us."

"I thought he had," continued the man. "I was told so in Russia;
I was also informed that the Tzar of America had defeated you, and
was an ally of the Emperor of Russia. Is that the case?"

"There is no Tzar in America" I replied, "we have had no war

with the United States for many years."
 "But you paid them a certain sum of money to prevent them
going to war with you?" observed my host; "and not only that, but
you pay Shere Ali, of Afghanistan, a large sum every year with the
same object. Will Shere Ali fight against Russia if there is a war
between the Tzar and Turkey?"

"I do not know."

"Some Muscovites say that Shere Ali is on their side," remarked

the Persian. "But he is a clever fellow, and is not likely to join the
weakest party."
 CHAPTER XXI.
Dinner—The Persian's wife is poorly—The wonderful wet paper—The samovar—The
harem—Be not alarmed—She is in a delicate state of health—Jaundice—She
feels better already—No medicine for your complaint—A mustard plaster would
be useless—Sons of the devil—My lord's baksheesh—Commotion amongst the
servants.

Later in the day dinner was brought in—a chicken surrounded by

a huge pile of rice. A Turk as rich as our Persian host would have
provided his guest with fifteen or twenty courses, but the Persians
are satisfied with one. I was not aware of the custom, and only
tasted the chicken. Presently it was taken away; instead of a fresh
dish making its appearance, some water was brought, in an ewer, for
us to wash our hands.

"You Englishmen are very temperate," said the host, rising.

I did not tell him what was passing through my mind. I was
ravenously hungry, and would gladly have had that chicken brought
back again; but it was already in the hands of the servants outside.
They were devouring the contents.

"You are a great hakim," now observed the proprietor.

"Who told you that?" I remarked, surprised that the reputation

acquired in the Kurd's house had thus preceded me.

"The Usebashe knows it. Mohammed, too, has told my servant.

Praise be to Allah who has sent you here!"
 "I am not a hakim!" I hastily replied. "I am an officer."

"Do not say that," said the Persian, who spoke Turkish fluently.
"Do not deny the talents that Allah has given you. Your arrival has
cast a gleam of sunshine on our threshold, and you will not go away
without gladdening the hearts of my family."

"What do you want me to do?" I inquired.

"My wife is poorly: I ask you to cure her."

"But really I know very little about medicine. I have only a few
simple remedies with me."

"Simple remedies indeed!" said the Persian. "A man who can set
a person's shoulder on fire with a piece of wet paper!"

"What is the matter with your wife?"

"I do not know, but you will tell me."

"Well, I must see her," I replied.

"Impossible!" said the Persian. "She is in the harem. I cannot

take you there!"

"But how can I tell you what is the matter with her if I do not
see her?"

"Give me a piece of that wonderful wet paper, perhaps it will

cure her."

"Effendi," said the Usebashe, turning to the Persian, "you cannot

tell a horse's age without looking into his mouth. The Frank cannot
tell your wife's ailments without looking at her tongue."

A consultation took place between my host and some other

Persian visitors. It was at length agreed that, as a hakim, I might be
admitted into the harem.

In the meantime, a servant brought in a samovar (tea-urn),

which the proprietor had purchased at Erivan; and whilst the
Usebashe and myself were drinking tea, with lemon-juice instead of
cream—as is the custom in Persia as well as in Russia—my host left
the room and proceeded to the harem to announce to his wife that I
would see her.

Presently he returned, and, taking my hand, helped me to rise

from the ground. Then, going first, he led the way across a yard,
surrounded by a high wall and planted with fruit-trees, to a detached
building, which I had previously thought was a mosque.

"This is the harem," said the proprietor. We entered an outer

room, he drew a thick curtain which hung against one of the walls.
An opening now appeared: stooping low, I entered the inner
apartment. It was furnished, or rather unfurnished, like the one set
apart for the Usebashe and myself. A pan of live charcoal stood in
one corner. In the other, reclining on a quantity of silk cushions, was
the wife of my host.

She was enveloped from head to foot in a sheet made of some

gauze-like material. There were so many folds that it was impossible
to distinguish her features or even divine the contour of her form.
Her feet, which were very small and stockingless, were exposed to
view. She had taken them out of two tiny white slippers which lay by
the side of the charcoal pan, and was nervously tapping the ground
with her heel.

"She is alarmed," said my host. "Be not alarmed," he added,

turning to his wife. "It is the hakim who has come to make you
well."
 These remarks did not tranquillize the lady. Her heel tapped the
ground more quickly than before, the whole of her body shook like
an aspen-leaf.

"She has never seen any man save myself in the harem," said
her husband; "and you—you are a European."

"What is the nature of her illness?"

"She is in a delicate state of health."

"Can I look at her tongue?"

There was a whispered conversation with the lady. By this time

she was a little more calm. Removing the folds of her veil, she
allowed the tip of a very red little tongue to escape from her lips.

"Well, what do you think of it?" said my host, who was taking
the greatest interest in these proceedings.

"It is a nice tongue; but now I must see her eyes."

"Why her eyes?"

"Because she may have what is called jaundice, I must see if her
eye is yellow."

"Perhaps she had better expose the whole face," said the
Persian.

"Perhaps she had," I remarked.

And the poor little lady, whose nerves were now less excited,
slowly unwound the folds of muslin from around her head. She was
certainly pretty, and had very regular features, whilst a pair of large
black eyes, which looked through me as I gazed on them, were
twinkling with an air of humour more than of fear.
 She understood Turkish well, as she came from the border, and,
looking at me, said something in a low voice.

"She feels better already," said my host. "The sight of you has
done her good, when you have given her some medicine, she will
doubtless be quite well."

"What is the matter with you?" I said, turning to the patient.

She blushed. Her husband then remarked that she fancied

strange dishes at her meals, and in fact was delicate.

It gradually dawned upon me what the nature of her malady

was, and the more particularly as I was informed by my host that
they had been married but a very few months.

"I have no medicine for your complaint," I remarked.

"No medicine!" said the Persian indignantly. "Mohammed has

shown me the bottles and the little boxes. Besides that, you have
the wet paper!"

"A mustard plaster would be useless."

"But she must have something!" said the husband.

Now, my medicine-chest was very limited in its contents. It

merely contained cholera medicine, pills, and a few ounces of
quinine, besides the prepared mustard plasters.

A pill, in the lady's condition, would not have been safe: I could
not have answered for the consequences. Cholera mixture might
have been equally disastrous in its effects. Quinine, I thought, could
not do any harm; it is exceedingly nasty, an infinitesimally small dose
leaves a very disagreeable taste in the mouth.
 "You shall have some medicine," I observed. "Please God it will
do you good."

"Inshallah! Inshallah!" replied my host devoutly; and

accompanying me to the room prepared for the Usebashe and
myself, I gave him three grains of quinine, to be taken in three
doses, one grain in each dose.

"Will it do her much good?" inquired the Persian.

"That depends upon Allah," I remarked.

"Of course it does," said my host, and taking the medicine, he

returned to his seraglio.

As we were leaving the house, I observed a great commotion

amidst my host's servants. Mohammed was some time before he
joined our party.

"What was the matter?" I asked.

"Effendi, they are sons of the devil, these Persians!" vociferated

my man indignantly. "I waited behind to give them my lord's
baksheesh, but they were greedy creatures, and one—a strong man
—snatched all the paras out of my hand, and thrust the money in his
waist-belt. The others cursed and called him many dogs, but the
fellow did not care. They then wanted me to give them more money;
I had none to bestow. They are like jackals, these Persians. They
would cut a man's throat as soon as eat a pillaff!"
 CHAPTER XXII.
Villages—Arab Dize—Shadili—Shalendili—Karenee—Kurds—Radford wishes to
bleed the inhabitants—Persian men with their beards dyed red—Every part of a
woman is false—These Persians are a nation of women—The old fire-
worshippers' superstition—Gardens—Irrigation—Soldiers—The flint fire-locks—
They are unclean ones, these Persians—The little dogs do some things well—A
Persian will kiss you on one cheek, and will stab you behind your back.

We rode along a flat country. A few hills could be seen on our

bridle-hand. The track was in capital order for the march. After
passing several small hamlets—amongst others, Arab Dize, Shadili,
and Shalendili—we pulled up at a large village called Karenee. It was
inhabited by Kurds, all of them being Persian subjects. Here there
were 350 houses. Judging by the number of people who came to ask
for medicine, so soon as I dismounted from my horse, the whole
population was unwell. It appeared that the Persian in whose house
I had stopped on the previous evening had sent word to the chief
proprietor in this Kurdish village, to say that a celebrated hakim was
on his way. No amount of expostulation saved us from the intrusion
of the inhabitants. Every one wished me to look at his tongue and to
feel his pulse. Radford, who was in another room, was interrupted in
his cooking by a crowd of the humbler Kurds, who believed that,
when the master was so great a hakim, his servant must necessarily
have some medical skill.

Presently my servant entered.

"What has happened?" I remarked.

 "I cannot get on with my cooking, sir," was the reply. "They will
come and shove out their dirty tongues just over my cooking-pot.
Some of the people who have got nasty diseases and sore legs insist
upon showing them to me. Quite turns me hup, that it does. I had
two boxes of hantibilious—I have given them all away. If I had only
a pair of champagne nippers, sir, I would draw the rascals' teeth,
perhaps that would take away their taste for my doctoring. Do you
think it would do any harm if I were to bleed one or two of them, sir
?"

"Could you stop the bleeding after the operation?" I inquired.

"That, sir, is just what was passing in my mind. If I thought as

how I could, I would have taken a little blood from each of them in
turn. It would have cooled them down a little, and they would not
have been so anxious for my company in future."

On reaching a village about three hours' distance from our

sleeping quarters, we heard that the short road over the mountains
to Van was blocked by the snow, and that it would be absolutely
necessary to go by Khoi, and by a circuitous route which I had
hoped to avoid.

I did not believe the statement, and ordered the guide to take
the mountain track. The man reluctantly consented. Higher and
higher we ascended the steep which divided us from the capital of
Armenia. The snow at each moment became more deep. At last the
guide halted, and distinctly refused to advance.

"I shall lose my life," he said. "You can do what you like with
your own, but I have children for whom to provide."

The Usebashe interfered.

"The fellow is telling the truth about the road," he said. "I too,
like yourself, thought that he was deceiving us. We had better go to
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