School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I

CE 311P

LABORATORY MANUAL

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

Course Instructor: Dr. K. V. Uday

Dr. Ashutosh Kumar
Laboratory Technician: Sunil Kumar
Laboratory Attendant: Duni Chand

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Disclaimer

The information available in this manual is taken from the sources believed to be reliable and
represents current practice of testing in geotechnical engineering. Experiments must be
performed with proper safety and precautions as per the laboratory guidelines and under the
direct supervision of laboratory chief technician. This manual should not be considered as only
document for conducting the experiments. The experiments may vary depending on several
parameters that may not be cited here, hence subject expert must be consulted for each of the
experiments. Manual must be used as a guiding document for performing the tests and data
collection. User may deviate from the manual as per the requirement of the results.

Laboratory Safety

Safety must be ensured while conducting the experiments. Use of hard boots, safety glasses
and aprons are recommended while conducting the experiments. Great care shall be undertaken
while crushing the soil and dust inhaling in any form should be avoided. Use of mask is
mandatory while crushing the soil. Direct contact with soil should be avoided as some of the
soil may contain hazardous chemical. Safety protocols is evolving and may change over the
time.

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Table of contents

Sr. List of experiments Page no.

No.

1. Determination of specific gravity of soil solids by Density bottle 4

method

2. To perform grain size analysis using dry and wet sieve analysis 7

3. To perform grain size analysis using sedimentation analysis- 10

Hydrometer method

4. Determination of Atterberg limits 15

5. Determination of maximum dry density and optimum moisture 21

content using Standard Proctor Test

6. Determination of in-situ dry density of soil by 24

(a) Sand replacement method

(b) Core cutter method

7. Determination of permeability using constant head permeability test 30

8. Determination of permeability using falling head permeability test 33

9. Determination of shear strength parameters using Direct shear test 36

10. Determination of unconfined compressive strength of soil 42

11. Determination of undrained shear strength using laboratory vane-shear 46

test apparatus

12. Determination of free swell index of soil 49

13. Determination of consolidation properties of soil 52

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Experiment 1
Aim: Determination of specific gravity of soil solids by Density bottle method.

Terminology: Specific gravity of soil solids is defined as the ratio of the weights of a
given volume of solids to the weight of an equivalent volume of distilled water at standard
temperature or the ratio of unit weight of soil solids to the unit weight of water at standard
temperature.

G= Ws
= γs (1)
Vs×γw γw

Indian Standard Code: IS 2720 (Part III) –1980-Section 1, is the standard recommended to
determine specific gravity of fine-grained soils.

Note: This method is normally used for fine-grained soils. The method may also be used
for medium and coarse-grained soils, if the coarse particles are grained to pass 4.75-mm IS
sieve before using.
Apparatus Required:
1. 100 ml capacity density bottle with stopper
2. A water bath maintained at a constant temperature.
3. A vacuum desiccator connected to a pump.
4. Wash bottle containing de-aired distilled water.
5. Thermostatically controlled drying oven capable of maintaining temperature of
105 to 110 °C
6. Weighing balance accurate to 0.001g
7. Glass rod
Procedure:
1. The complete density bottle with stopper, shall be dried at 105°C to 110°C, cooled in
the desiccator and weighed to the nearest 0.001 g (M1).
2. 5-10 gm of oven dried sample passing through 2 mm IS sieve shall be transferred
to the density bottle. The density bottle with soil together with the stopper shall be
weighed to the nearest 0.001 g (M2).
3. Sufficient de-aired distilled water shall be added to the density bottle such that the
soil in the bottle is sufficiently covered. This arrangement without the stopper shall
be placed in a vacuum desiccator to release any trapped air. The bottle shall remain
in the desiccator for at least 1 hour.

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4. The vacuum shall be released, the soil in the bottle shall be stirred. The bottle shall
be removed from the desiccator and further air-free distilled water shall be added
until the bottle is full. The stopper shall then be inserted. The stoppered bottle shall
be immersed up to the neck in the constant-temperature bath for approximately 1
hour or until it has attained the constant temperature of the bath.
5. The stoppered bottle shall then be taken out of the bath, wiped dry and the whole
weighed to the nearest 0.001 g (M3).
6. The density bottle then shall be cleaned thoroughly and filled completely with de-
aired distilled water and kept in constant temperature bath and sufficient time shall
be allowed to attain a constant temperature. The bottle shall then be taken out of
the bath, wiped dry weighed to the nearest 0.001 g (M4).
7. Specific gravity shall be determined using Equation 3.
8. Steps above shall be repeated for additional specific gravity test on the same soil
sample.

Calculations:

At least three number of tests should be conducted. For correct results, the values of each
test should not vary by more than 2-3%. Weights are taken in grams.

Equation for specific gravity, G:

ρs = (
(M2−M1)ρw (2)
𝑀2−M1)−(M3−M4)

ρs
Gs = (3)
ρw

S. No Particulars Test No 1 Test No 2 Test No 3

1 Mass of density bottle (M1)

2 Mass of bottle + dry soil (M2)

3 Mass of bottle + soil + water (M3)

4 Mass of bottle + water (M4)

5 Specific Gravity, Gs Gs1= Gs2= Gs3=

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6 Gs, avg. = (Gs1+Gs2+Gs3)/3

Note: The specific gravity shall be calculated at a standard temperature of 27 0C. If the room
temperature is different than 270C, the following correction shall be applied:

Relative density of water at room temperature

G270C= GT0C ( ) (4)
Relative density of water at 27 degree celsius

Results:
The specific gravity of the tested soil is, Gs, avg. =

Inference:

Write the inference from the test performed.

Precautions:

1. Soil grains whose specific gravity is to be determined should be oven dried.

2. If on drying soil lumps are formed, they should be broken to its original size.

3. Inaccuracies in weighing and failure to eliminate the entrapped air are the main sources
of error. Both should be avoided.

4. While cleaning the density bottle, care shall be taken as there may be glass grains
projecting out and it may tear the skin.

5. Handle the apparatus with care.

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Experiment 2

Aim: To perform the grain size distribution analysis using dry and wet sieve analysis.

Indian Standard Code: This test is specified in IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985 – Method of
test for soil (Part 4- Grain size analysis).

The distribution of grain sizes larger than 75 µ sieve is determined using:

(a) Wet sieve analysis- Applicable to all types of soil

(b) Dry sieve analysis- Applicable to soil not having an appreciable amount of clay.
Apparatus Required:
1. Sieves of sizes: 4.75 mm, 2.00 mm, 1.18mm, 600μ, 425μ, 300μ, 150μ, 75μ and Pan
2. Thermostatically controlled drying oven capable of maintaining temperature of 105
to 110 °C
3. Weighing balance accurate to 0.001g
4. Trays, sieve brushes, mortar with a rubber covered pestle.
5. Mechanical sieve shaker
Procedure (Dry sieve analysis):
1. Soil sample passing through 4.75 mm IS Sieve shall be oven-dried at 105°C to
110°C.
2. About 400g of the oven dried soil shall be riffled and separated into various
fractions by passing through different set of Indian standard specified sieves.
3. The set of sieves shall be stacked one over the other in increasing order of their
mesh opening sizes. The arrangement is then shaken manually or using a
mechanical sieve shaker for 10 mins.
4. Mass of soil retained on each sieve including that collected in the pan shall be
weighed using a weigh balance.
Procedure (Wet sieve analysis):
1. Soil sample passing through 4.75 mm IS Sieve shall be oven-dried at 105°C to
110°C.
2. About 200g of the oven dried soil shall be riffled. 2g of sodium
hexametaphosphate or 1g of sodium hydroxide and 1g of sodium carbonate per
liter of water used shall then be added to the soil.
3. The mix shall be thoroughly stirred and left for soaking.

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4. The soil-soaked specimen shall be washed thoroughly over the assembly of

sieves. The washing shall be continued until the water passing each sieve is
substantially clean.
5. The fraction retained on each sieve shall be emptied carefully without any loss
of material in separate trays.
6. Mass of soil retained on each sieve including that collected in the pan shall be
weighed after being oven dried for 24 hours.

Calculations: Total weight of soil sample=

Cumulative
Mass Percent of Percent
S. IS sieve Particle Percent
retained Mass finer (%)
No (mm) size (mm) retained
(g) retained (%)
(%)

1 4.75 4.75

2 2.36 2.36

3 1.18 1.18

4 0.600 0.600

5 0.425 0.425
6 0.300 0.300
7 0.150 0.150
8 0.075 0.075
9 Pan Pan

𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐢𝐥 𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐝 𝐨𝐧 𝐚 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐢𝐞𝐯𝐞

Percentage retained on a sieve= ˟ 100 (1)
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐢𝐥 𝐬𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞

Cumulative percentage retained=∑ Percentage retained on any sieve (2)

Percentage finer= 100 – Cumulative percentage retained (3)

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Results:
1. Plot of grain size distribution curve (Percentage finer vs grain size)
𝐷60
2. Coefficient of uniformity, Cu= =
𝐷10
(𝐷30)^2
3. Coefficient of curvature, Cc= =
𝐷60∗𝐷10

Inference:
Comment on the soil type based on the test results.

Precautions:
1. Sieves shall be cleaned thoroughly before use.
2. While weighing, the sieve with soil sample shall be placed on the balance in a
concentric position.
3. Electric connection of the sieve shaker shall be checked properly before conducting
the test.
4. No particle of soil sample shall be pushed through the sieves.
5. The sieve or sieves shall be agitated so that the sample rolls in irregular motion over
the sieve.
6. The soil fraction retained on each sieve shall be carefully collected in containers
and the mass of each fraction determined and recorded.

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Experiment 3

Aim: To perform grain size distribution analysis using hydrometer method

(Sedimentation analysis).
General: This method covers quantitative determination of particle size distribution in a soil
having appreciable fines.
Indian Standard Code: IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985 – Method of test for soil (Part 4- Grain size
analysis).
1. Grain size analysis of the fraction passing 75 µ IS sieve.
2. This method is not applicable if less than 10 % of the material passes 75μ IS Sieve.

Apparatus Required:
1. Hydrometer as specified in IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985.
2. Two measuring cylinders of glass having a capacity of 1000 ml.
3. Thermometer to cover the range of temperature 0o C to 400 C, readable to 0.5o C
4. 75μ sieve, pan, mechanical shaker capable to shaking around 75g of soil and 150 ml
water.
5. Balance - Accurate to 0.01 g.
6. Glass rod.
7. Oven, Stopwatch, Desiccator, Stirring apparatus.
8. Reagent (Sodium hexametaphosphate, Hydrogen peroxide).

Calibration of Hydrometer
1. The volume of the hydrometer bulb (Vh) shall be determined from the volume of water
displaced.
2. Approximately 800 ml of water shall be poured into the 1000 ml measuring cylinder.
The reading of the water level shall be observed and recorded.
3. The hydrometer shall be immersed in the water and the level shall again be observed
and recorded.
4. The difference between the two readings shall he recorded as the volume of the
hydrometer bulb plus the volume of that part of the stem which is submerged.
5. For practical purposes, the error due to the inclusion of this stem volume may be
neglected.
6. The sectional area (A) of the 1000 ml measuring cylinder is equal to the volume
included between the two graduations divided by the measured distance between them.

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7. The distance from the lowest calibration mark on the stem of the hydrometer to each of
the other major calibration marks (Rh) shall be measured and recorded.
8. The effective depth (He) corresponding to each of the major calibration marks (Rh) shall
be calculated from the following formula:
Vh
H = H + 1 (h − ) (1)
e 1
2 A
where H1= Length from neck of bulb to the graduation Rb in cm.
h = Twice the length from neck of bulb to its center of volume in cm.
9. The relationship between He and Rh is plotted as a smooth curve which may be used for
finding the effective depth (He) corresponding to hydrometer readings (Rh) obtained
during the test.

Procedure:
Note: In the case of soils containing no calcium compounds or soluble salts and having a low
organic content (less than 2 percent) an extensive pre-treatment as prescribed by IS: 2720 (Part
4) – 1985 may be omitted.
1. An approximate mass of 50 g for clays and 100 g for sands shall be collected in the
evaporating dish by riffling from the air-dried sample passing the 4.75 mm IS Sieve.
2. To the soil in the evaporating dish 100 ml of sodium hexametaphosphate solution shall
be added and the mixture shall then be warmed gently for about 10 minutes.
3. The mixture is then transferred to the cup of the mechanical mixer using a jet of distilled
water to wash all traces of the soil out of the evaporating dish. The amount of water
used may be about 150 ml.
4. The soil suspension shall then be stirred well for 15 minutes.
5. The suspension shall then be transferred to the 75μ IS Sieve placed on a receiver and
the soil shall be washed on this sieve using a jet of distilled water from a wash bottle.
6. The amount of distilled water during this operation may be about 500 ml.
7. The suspension that has passed through the 75 µ sieve shall be transferred to the 1000
ml measuring cylinder and made up to exactly 1000 ml with distilled water.
8. This suspension shall then be used for the sedimentation analysis.
9. The measuring cylinder which shall then be shaken vigorously and finally be inverted
end over end. Immediately after the shaking is over, the measuring cylinder shall be
allowed to stand (in the constant temperature bath, if used) and the stopwatch started.

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10. The hydrometer shall be immersed to a depth slightly below its floating position and
then allowed to float freely. Hydrometer readings shall be taken after periods of half,
one, two and four minutes.
11. The hydrometer shall then be removed slowly, rinsed in distilled water, and kept in a
cylinder of distilled water at the same temperature as the soil suspension.
12. The hydrometer shall be re-inserted in the suspension and readings taken after periods
of 8, 15 and 30 minutes, one, two and four hours after shaking.
13. The hydrometer shall be removed, rinsed, and placed in the distilled water after each
reading.
14. After 4 hours hydrometer readings shall be taken once or twice within 24 hours. Finally,
a reading may be taken at the end of 24 hours.

Calculations:
1. Diameter of the particles - The diameter of the particle in suspension at any sampling
time ‘t’ shall be calculated from the formula:

D =√ 30 μ
. √He (2)
980(G−G1) t

D = Diameter of particle in suspension in mm.

μ = Coefficient of viscosity of water at the temperature of the suspension in poise.
G = Specific gravity of the soil fraction used in the sedimentation analysis.
Gl = Specific gravity of water.
He = Effective depth corresponding to Rh in cm.
t = Time from beginning of sedimentation to hydrometer reading in minutes.
2. The hydrometer reading corrected for meniscus (Rh) shall be calculated from the
following formula:

𝑅ℎ = 𝑅ℎ′ + 𝐶𝑚 (3)
Rh= Hydrometer reading corrected for meniscus.
𝑅ℎ′ = Hydrometer reading at the upper rim of the meniscus.
𝐶𝑚= Meniscus correction.
3. Temperature correction 𝐶𝑡: Hydrometer readings shall also be taken in pure distilled
water at the corresponding temperatures and the temperature correction calculated as
the difference between this reading and the reading corresponding to the density of
water at the calibration temperatures. A chart of such corrections for all temperatures
may also be prepared for ready use.

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4. Dispersion agent correction Cd: The correction to be applied for the dispersing agent
shall be ascertained by mixing about 2 g of the sodium hexametaphosphate solution in
distilled water in a graduated glass cylinder. The dispersing agent correction is the
difference of the readings of hydrometer in graduated glass cylinders with dispersing
agent and just in distilled water. This correction is independent of temperature.
5. Percentage finer than D- The percentage by mass (M) of particles smaller than
corresponding equivalent particle diameters shall be calculated from the formula:

100𝐺
𝑀= (𝑅 ± 𝐶 − 𝐶 ) (5)
ℎ 𝑡 𝑑
𝑀𝑏(𝐺−𝐺1 )

Where Mb = Mass of soil taken.

𝐶𝑡 = Temperature correction.
Cd = Dispersion agent correction.
6. The values of M shall be calculated for all the values of D obtained and shall be
expressed as percentages of particles finer than the corresponding value of D. These
percentages shall then be expressed as combined percentage of the total soil sample
taken for analysis.

Combined
Percentage Percentage
Corrected finer than finer than
Elapsed Hydrometer Particle
Hydrometer 𝑅ℎ ± 𝐶𝑡 D- The D as
Time Reading diameter,
Reading − 𝐶𝑑 percentage percent of
(min.) (𝑅′ ) D (mm)
ℎ
(𝑅ℎ) by mass M total
(%) sample
(%)
0.5
1.0
2.0
4.0
8.0
15.0
30.0

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60.0
120.0
240.0
720.0
1440.0

Results:
Plot of grain size distribution curve
Inference:
Write the inference from the test performed.
Precautions:
1. Standard hydrometer as prescribed by IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985 should be used for
performing the analysis.
2. Particular care shall be taken to wash off all traces of suspension adhering to the
dispersion cup.
3. The hydrometer shall be removed slowly, rinsed in distilled water, and kept in a
cylinder of distilled water at the same temperature as the soil suspension.
4. The hydrometer shall be removed, rinsed, and placed in the distilled water after each
reading.
5. In taking all readings, insertion, and withdrawal of the hydrometer before and after
taking a reading shall be done carefully to avoid disturbing the suspension
unnecessarily.
6. Disturbance to the sample shall be avoided.
7. The temperature of the suspension shall be observed and recorded once during the first
15 minutes and then after every subsequent reading. The temperature shall be read with
an accuracy of at least ±0.5%.

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Experiment 4

Aim: Determination of Atterberg limits.

(a) Liquid limit using Casagrande liquid limit device
(b) Plastic limit

(a) Liquid limit using Casagrande liquid limit device.

General: The liquid limit is empirically established water content at which soil passes from
liquid state to plastic state. It provides a means to classify the soil especially when the plastic
limit is known.
Indian Standard Code: This test is specified in IS: 2720 (Part 5) –1985 – Method of test for
soils (Determination of liquid and plastic limits).
Apparatus Required:
1. Casagrande liquid limit device.
2. Grooving tool.
3. Porcelain evaporating dish - about 12 to 15 cm in diameter.
4. Spatula.
5. Palette knives.
6. Balance - sensitive to 0.01 g.
7. 425μ IS Sieve.
8. Oven.
9. Containers to determine the water content.
10. Squeeze wash bottle containing distilled water.

Procedure:
1. About 120 g of the soil sample passing 425 μ IS Sieve shall be mixed thoroughly with
distilled water in the evaporating dish to form a uniform paste.
2. A portion of the paste shall be placed in the brass cup of the liquid limit device. The
surface of the soil shall be smoothened using the spatula, such that maximum depth of
soil in the cup is 1 cm.
3. A groove shall be cut along the centerline of the soil pat in the cup using the grooving
the tool. For clays Casagrande grooving tool is used whereas for sands ASTM specified
tool is used.

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4. The crank of the liquid limit device shall be turned at a rate of 2 revolutions per second.
During this operation, the cup of liquid limit device will rise and drop through a height
of 1 cm for each revolution.
5. The number of blows required to close the groove through 12 mm along the longitudinal
axis of the groove shall be counted.
6. If the counted number of blows is about 15-35, a small amount of the sample shall be
collected in a container using the spatula at the point of closure of groove in the cup of
liquid limit device. Container shall be then transferred to the oven for calculation of
moisture content.
7. Rest of the soil from the cup shall be removed using a paper towel.

Calculations:
Test Number 1 2 3

Container Number

Number of Blows

Mass of Container (M1)

(g)
Mass of Container + wet
soil (M2) (g)
Mass of Container + Oven
Dried Soil (M3) (g)
Mass of Water (M2- M3) (g)

Mass of Oven Dry Soil (M3-

M1) (g)
Water Content w=M2− M3 ×
M3− M1

100 (%)

The slope of the flow line (plot between water content and number of blows on semi log graph)
is known as flow index.
𝑤1−𝑤2
Flow index 𝐼𝑓 = (1)
log 𝑁2−log 𝑁1

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Results:
1. Plot the variation of water content (w) versus number of blows (N) on a semi
logarithmic graph where number of blows (N) are represented on a logarithmic
scale.
2. Liquid limit of the soil(wL)- Water content corresponding to 25 number of blows
(from graph) =……………….
3. Flow index If =…………... (Using equation 1)

Inference:
Write the inference from the test performed.

Precautions:
1. The Casagrande liquid limit device shall be inspected to determine that it is clean, dry
and in good working condition such that the cup falls freely, and it does not have too
much side play at its hinge.
2. The grooving tool shall also be inspected to determine that it is clean and dry.
3. The height through which the cup is lifted and dropped shall be adjusted so that the
point on the cup which encounters the base falls through exactly 1 cm for one revolution
of the handle.
4. If evenness of the base is not maintained in course of time, the base of the liquid limit
device should be changed.
5. In the case of clayey soils, the 120 g of soil sample made using 425-micron sieve shall
be left to stand for a sufficient time (24 hours) to ensure uniform distribution of moisture
throughout the soil mass.
6. If the soil is too dry, counted number of blows will be more than 35. In this case transfer
the soil to the evaporating dish and paste should be prepared again by adding more
amount of distilled water.
7. If the soil is too wet, counted number of blows will be less than 15. In this case transfer
the soil to the evaporating dish and stir the soil with spatula for drying. Care must be
taken that no additional soil is added to bring down the moisture content.

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(b) Determination of plastic limit.

General: The plastic limit is empirically established water content at which a soil becomes to
dry to be plastic. It is used to obtain the plasticity index of the soil which is then plotted on the
plasticity chart to classify the soil. This method uses the lowest water content at which the soil
is plastic.Indian Standard Code: This test is specified in IS: 2720 (Part 5) –1985 – Method
of test for soils (Part 5- Determination of liquid and plastic limit).
Apparatus Required:
1. Porcelain evaporating dish about 12 to 15 cm in diameter or Flat Glass Plate 10 mm
thick and about 45 cm square or larger.
2. Spatula or palette knives
3. Surface for rolling- glass plate about 20 x 15 cm.
4. Balance - sensitive to 0.01 g.
5. 425μ IS Sieve.
6. Oven or rapid moisture meter.
7. Air tight containers.
8. Rod of 3 mm in diameter and about 10 cm long.

Procedure:
1. A sample weighing about 20 g from the thoroughly mixed portion of the material
passing 425μ IS Sieve shall be obtained.
2. The soil sample obtained shall be worked well into a wet soil paste with addition of
distilled water so that it can be shaped easily into a ball.
3. At least three ellipsoid ball shapes shall be formed with about 8 g of this plastic soil
mass.
4. One ellipsoid ball shall be taken and rolled between the fingers and the glass plate with
just sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter throughout its
length.
5. The rate of rolling shall be between 80 and 90 strokes/min counting a stroke as one
complete motion of the hand forward and back to the starting position again.
6. The rolling shall be done till the threads are of 3 mm diameter. The diameter is
measured by comparing it with a standard rod of 3 mm diameter.
7. The soil shall then be kneaded together to a uniform mass and rolled again.

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8. This process of alternate rolling and kneading shall be continued until the thread
crumbles when it reaches a diameter of 3 mm.
9. The crumbling may occur when the thread has a diameter greater than 3 mm. This shall
be considered a satisfactory end point, provided the soil has been rolled into a thread 3
mm in diameter immediately before.
10. The pieces of crumbled soil thread shall be collected in an air-tight container and the
moisture content is determined as per the standard procedure.
11. The steps from 5 to 10 shall be repeated taking another ellipsoid ball. Three tests are
required to be performed for calculating the average value of plastic limit.

Calculations:
Test Number 1 2 3

Container Number

Mass of Container (M1) (g)

Mass of Container + wet soil (M2) (g)

Mass of Container + Oven Dried Soil (M3)

(g)
Mass of Water (M2- M3) (g)

Mass of oven dry soil (M3- M1) (g)

Water Content w= M2−𝑀3 × 100 (%)

M3−𝑀1

Results:
Average value of water content is reported as the plastic limit of the soil.

Plastic limit (wp) = …………………

Plasticity Index= WL - WP=
Inference:
Write the inference from the test performed. Classify using the plasticity chart.

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Precautions:
1. In the case of clayey soils, to ensure uniform moisture distribution, it is recommended
that the soil paste prepared shall be left for sufficient time (24 hours) in an air-tight
container.
2. At no time, shall an attempt be made to produce failure at exactly 3 mm diameter by
allowing the thread to reach 3 mm or changing the pressure applied by hand.
3. No breaks are allowed to reduce the moisture content therefore, rolling should be done
continuously.
4. The history of the soil sample i.e. natural state, air-dried, oven-dried or unknown should
also be reported.
5. The period of soaking allowed after mixing of water to the soil shall also be reported.

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Experiment 5

Aim: Determination maximum dry density and optimum water content using standard
Proctor compaction test
General: Compaction of soil is the process by which the solid particles are packed more closely
together, usually by mechanical means, thereby increasing the dry density of the soil. The dry
density which can be achieved depends on the degree of compaction applied and on the amount
of water present in the soil. For the construction of highways, airports and other structures, it
is often necessary to compact soil to improve its strength. Proctor (1933) developed a
laboratory compaction test procedure which is adopted by IS standards as light compaction test
after some modifications.
Indian Standard Code: This test is specified in IS: 2720 (Part VII) –1980 – Method of test
for soils (Part VII- Determination of water content-dry density relation using light compaction).
Apparatus Required:
1. Cylindrical metal mould.
2. Sample extruder.
3. Metal rammer 2.6 kg.
4. Balance- One of capacity 10 kg sensitive to 1 g and other of capacity 200 g sensitive to
0.01 g.
5. 4.75 mm and 20 mm IS Sieve.
6. Oven.
7. Mixing tools such as tray or pan, spoon, trowel and spatula.
8. Steel straightedge.
9. Air-tight containers.

Procedure:
1. A representative portion of air-dried soil (free from lumps) about 5 kg passing 20 mm
IS sieve shall be taken.
2. About 2.7 kg of soil passing through 4.75 mm sieve shall be collected and mixed with
water such that the water content rises to 5%.
3. The proctor mould along with the base plate shall be weighed to the nearest 1g.
4. The moist soil shall be poured into the mould, top extension attached, and then
compacted in three equal layers of approximately equal mass; each layer subjected to

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25 number of blows using standard proctor hammer of 2.6 kg drooped from a height of
310mm.
5. The top extension attachment shall now be removed and the excess soil above the
mould shall be trimmed using the straightedge.
6. The weight of the mould along with the base plate and compacted soil shall be
determined.
7. The base plate shall be removed from the mould the compacted soil sample shall be
extracted using a jack.
8. Soil sample shall be collected from the extruded soil, for estimation of water content as
per the standard procedure.
9. Steps 5 to 8 shall be repeated for each increment of water added. The total number of
determinations made shall be at least five, and the range of moisture content should be
such that the optimum moisture content, at which the maximum dry density occurs, is
within that range.

Calculations:
Volume of the mould, V = 1000 cc.
Test Number 1 2 3 4 5 6

Mass of mould plus base

plate (M1) (g)
Mass of mould plus base
plate plus moist soil (M2)
(g)
wet density
𝑀2−𝑀1
𝜌= (g/cc)
𝑉

Moisture container number

Mass of empty moisture

container (M3) (g)
Mass of empty moisture
container plus moist soil
(M4) (g)
Mass of empty moisture

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container plus dry soil (M5)

(g)
Water Content w= M4−𝑀5 ×
M5−𝑀3

100 (%)
Dry density
𝜌
𝜌 = (g/cc)
𝑑 1+𝑤

Results:
1. Plot the variation of dry density versus water content.
2. Report the value of maximum dry density (MDD), 𝜌𝑑(𝑔/𝑐𝑐) =………
3. Report the value of optimum moisture content (OMC), w (%) = ……

Inference:
Write the inference from the test performed.
Precautions:
1. Aggregations of particles shall be broken down such that when the sample is sieved on
4·75 mm IS sieve only separated individual particles would be retained.
2. The water added for each stage, or the test should be such that a range of moisture
contents is obtained which includes the optimum moisture. In general, an increment of
1-2 % are suitable for sandy and gravelly soils and 2-4% percent for cohesive soils.
3. The water should be mixed thoroughly and adequately with the soil since inadequate
mixing gives rise to variable test results.
4. The compacted soil should be extended slightly more than the top edge of the mould.
5. Care should be taken to trim the top of the mould, this process should not take any soil
off from the mould top surface.
6. Each layer should be compacted uniformly with the rammer.
7. Hammer piston should be kept free from any intrusions of soil or dirt to ensure free fall
of its hammer.

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Experiment 6

Aim: Determination of in-situ dry density of soil:

(a) by sand replacement method.
(b) by core cutter method

General: In the field during soil compaction, it is sometimes necessary to check the compacted
dry density of soil and compare it with the specifications drawn for the construction. This
method is suitable for fine, medium, and coarse-grained soils.

(a) By sand replacement method.

Indian Standard Code: This test is specified in IS: 2720 (Part 28) –1974 – Method of test for
soils (Part 28- Determination of the dry density of soils in place by sand replacement method).
Apparatus Required:
1. Sand pouring cylinder.
2. Cylindrical calibrating container of volume 1000 cc.
3. Tools for digging the field soil.
4. Weighing balance with sensitivity 0.01 g.
5. Glass plate
6. Metal Tray with hole- 300 mm square and 40 mm deep with a 100 mm hole in the
center.
7. Containers.

Procedure:
Calibration of sand cone apparatus in the laboratory:
1. Clean, uniformly graded natural sand passing through 1.0 mm IS Sieve and retained on
the 600μ IS Sieve shall be used. It is referred as standard sand.
2. The pouring cylinder shall be filled so that the level of the sand in the cylinder is within
about 10 mm of the top. Its total initial mass (M1) shall be recorded.
3. The pouring cylinder shall be placed concentrically over the cylindrical calibrating
container. The valve of the sand pouring cylinder shall be opened and sand shall be
allowed to fill the calibrating container.

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4. When the amount of sand flowing from the pouring cylinder shall stop, the mass of the
sand pouring cylinder after pouring the sand in the calibrating container is measured as
M2.
5. Now the sand pouring cylinder shall be placed on a glass plate and the valve shall be
opened to allow the sand to flow freely on the plate. After the movement of sand on the
pouring cylinder is stopped, the valve shall be closed and the mass of the pouring
cylinder with the remaining sand shall be measured as M3.
6. The mass of the sand required to fill the calibrating container shall be measured as M 1-
M2-M3.
7. Mass density of the standard sand, ρsand, shall be calculated.

Procedure for field work:

1. The base plate shall be placed on a level ground in the field. Under the center hole of
the base plate a hole shall be dogged in the ground using the digging tools.
2. All the soil from the hole shall be removed and collected into a container. The mass of
the soil collected shall be measured as Msoil.
3. A small amount of soil shall be transferred to the moisture container to measure the
water content of the soil.
4. The sand shall be filled in the pouring cylinder such that sand in the cylinder is within
about 10 mm of the top (Mc1). The assembly shall be placed on the hole at the center of
base plate. The valve shall be opened and sand shall be allowed to flow freely to fill the
hole in the ground.
5. The mass of the pouring cylinder after pouring of sand shall be measured as M c2.
6. The mass of sand (Msand) required to fill the hole in the ground shall be calculated as
Mc1-Mc2-M3.
7. The volume of the sand required to fill the hole in the ground shall be calculated.
8. Bulk density and dry density of soil in the field shall be calculated.

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Calculations:
Calibration of sand cone apparatus:
Initial weight of pouring cylinder with sand (M1) (g)
Mass of pouring cylinder after pouring of sand (M2) (g)
Mass of sand poured on glass plate (M3) (g)
Mass of sand required to fill the calibrating container (M1 -M2 -
M3) (g)
Volume of the calibrating container (V) (cc)

Density of standard sand, ρsand (g/cc)

(M1 -M2 -M3)/V

Calculation water content:

Empty mass of the moisture container (M5) (g)
Empty mass of the moisture container plus moist soil (M7) (g)
Empty mass of the moisture container plus oven dry soil (M9) (g)
Water content in the field w = 𝑀7−𝑀9 ˟100
𝑀9−𝑀5

Calculation of density in field:

Mass of soil collected from field (Msoil) (g)
Initial Mass of pouring cylinder with sand (Mc1) (g)
Mass of pouring cylinder after pouring of sand (Mc2) (g)
Mass of sand required to fill the hole in the ground (Mc1 -Mc2 -M3)
(g)
Volume of sand required to fill the hole in the ground (Vhole) (cc)=
(Mc1 -Mc2 -M3)/ ρsand
Bulk density of soil in field, ρsoil (g/cc)
(Msoil)/Vhole
Dry density of soil in field, ρd (g/cc)
ρsoil /(1+w)

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Results:
The dry density of the soil in the field is ρ𝑑 (g/cc)=

Inference:
Write the inference from the test performed.

Precautions:
1. The volume of the hole in the field should be smaller than the volume of sand in the
bottle minus the volume of the cone.
2. The sand used should be properly dry otherwise the moisture content will interfere with
its dry unit weight calculations.
3. Soil collected from the filed should be transferred to the laboratory in an airtight
container to avoid any loss of moisture.
4. Any vibrations of the instruments while calibrating the sand cone device or filling the
hole in the field should be avoided.
5. Field soil should be collected from a site where there is no organic matter present.

(b) By core cutter method.

Indian Standard Code: This test is specified in IS: 2720 (Part 29) –1975 – Method of test for
soils (Part 29- Determination of the dry density of soils in place by core cutter method).
Apparatus Required:
1. Cylindrical core cutter.
2. Steel dolly.
3. Steel rammer.
4. Weighing balance with sensitivity 0.01 g.
5. Containers.
6. Steel straightedge.
7. Square metal tray.

Procedure:
Procedure for laboratory work
1. Internal volume of the core cutter shall be calculated by measuring the internal
dimensions.

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2. Mass of the empty core cutter shall be calculated.

3. Empty mass of the moisture container shall be determined.

Procedure for field work

1. A small area approximately 30 cm square of the soil layer to be tested shall be exposed
and levelled in the field.
2. On top of the cutter the steel dolly shall be placed and rammed down vertically into the
soil layer until only about 15 mm of the dolly protrudes above the surface.
3. The cutter shall then be dug out of the surrounding soil.
4. The ends of the soil core shall then be trimmed flat to the ends of the cutter by means
of the straight edge.
5. The mass of the cutter containing moist soil from the field shall be weighted.
6. A representative sample shall be collected from the moist soil from the cutter for water
content determination as per the standard procedure.
7. At least three tests are performed, and average value of dry density shall be reported.

Calculations:
S.N. Description Test 1 Test 2 Test 3

1 Mass of the core cutter (M1) (g)

Mass of the core cutter plus moist soil (M2)
2
(g)
Internal volume of the core cutter
3 𝜋
Vic = × 𝑑2 × ℎ (cc)
4 𝑖
𝑀2−𝑀1
Bulk density of the moist soil 𝜌 =
𝑉𝑖𝑐
4
(g/cc)
Empty mass of the moisture container (M3)
5
(g)
Empty mass of the moisture container plus
6
moist soil sample (M4) (g)
Empty mass of the moisture container plus
7
oven dry soil sample (M5) (g)
Water content of the moist soil
8
w = 𝑀4−𝑀5 ˟100 (%)
𝑀5−𝑀3

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ρ
Dry density in the field 𝜌 = (g/cc)
9 𝑑 1+𝑤

Results:
The dry density of the soil in the field is 𝜌𝑑 (g/cc)=
Inference:

Write the inference from the test performed.

Precautions:
1. Soil collected from the filed should be transferred to the laboratory in an airtight
container to avoid any loss of moisture.
2. Field soil should be collected from a site where there is no organic matter should be
present.
3. The cutting edge of the core cutter should be kept sharp.
4. Core cutter should not be used in case stones are present in the field of observation.
5. Cutting should be done in vertical direction. Care should be taken to allow some soil to
project from the lower end of the cutter.

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Experiment 7

Aim: Determination of permeability of coarse-grained soils using constant head

permeability test.
General: The permeability of a soil is a measure of its capacity to allow the flow of water
through the pore spaces between solid particles. Constant head permeability test is employed
for both undisturbed and remoulded soil specimen in the laboratory. The degree of permeability
is determined by applying a hydraulic pressure gradient in a sample of saturated soil and
measuring the consequent rate of flow. The coefficient of permeability is expressed as a
velocity. The given test is based on the principle of Darcy’s law. The volume of water passing
through the soil in a known time is measured, and the hydraulic gradient is measured using
manometer tubes. Permeability of soils is an important parameter for designing various
hydraulic structures such as dams, embankments etc.
Indian Standard Code: This test is specified in IS: 2720 (Part 17) –1986 – Method of test for
soils (Part 17- Laboratory determination of permeability).
Apparatus Required:
1. Constant head permeameter cell.
2. 75 µ wire gauge.
3. The compaction rammer.
4. Constant head tank.
5. Balance sensitive to 0.01 g.
6. Thermometer sensitive to 0.1 ºC.
7. Stopwatch.

Procedure:
1. The mass of specimen tube along with porous stones, spring and two rubber stoppers
shall be determined. (M1)
2. Bottom porous stone shall then be installed into the specimen tube and then the bottom
rubber stopper shall be fixed.
3. An oven dried sample of sand of about 2.5 kg shall be taken. With the help of a spoon,
some part of the soil sample shall be transferred to the specimen tube in small layers
and compacted simultaneously either by vibration or other compaction devices.
4. When the soil specimen in the tube is filled up to two thirds in the specimen tube, the
top porous stone shall be installed firmly on the specimen.

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5. A spring shall be placed on the top porous stone to ensure fixity of the packing
assembly.
6. A rubber stopper shall then be installed on to the top of the specimen tube.
7. The mass of assembly shall be determined. (M2)
8. The length of the compacted specimen shall then be determined.
9. The constant head chamber shall then be filled with water and a regular water supply
source shall be attached to it.
10. The soil sample shall be fully saturated by passing of water through it for about 10
mins.
11. After a steady flow is observed, water shall be collected in a graduated cylindrical
container. The time for collection of water sample shall be recorded with the help of
stopwatch.
12. The step 11 shall be repeated three times keeping the collection time same for every
reading. After calculations average value of discharge shall be reported.
13. Permeability of the soil shall be calculated using Darcy’s law. In this case also average
value of permeability shall be reported.

Calculations:
Calculation of dry density and void ratio of the specimen:
S.N. Description Values
1. Volume of the specimen (V) (cc)
2. Specific gravity of soil solids (Gs)
3. Mass of specimen tube with fittings (M1) (g)
4. Mass of specimen tube with fittings plus soil specimen (M2) (g)
𝑀2−𝑀1
5. Dry density of the specimen 𝜌 = (g/cc)
𝑑 𝑉
𝐺𝜌𝑤
6. Void ratio of the soil specimen 𝑒 = −1
𝜌𝑑

Calculations for permeability:

1. Description Test 1 Test 2 Test 3
2. Average flow (Q) (cc)

3. Time of collection (t) (sec.)

Temperature of water (T)

4.
(ºC)

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Constant head maintained

5.
(h) (cm)

6. Area of specimen (A) (cm2)

Permeability at T ºC
7. 𝑄𝐿
𝑘= (cm/s)
𝐴ℎ𝑡

The value of permeability is reported at standard temperature (27 ºC) using the following
mathematical expression.
µ
𝑇ºC
𝑘27ºC = 𝑘 𝑇ºC × 𝜇 (m/s) (1)
27ºC

Results:
The average value of permeability is kavg (m/s) =

Inference:
Write the inference from the test performed.

Precautions:
1. Full saturation of the soil sample must be ensured as Darcy’s law is applicable for fully
saturated soils.
2. Compaction of the soil specimen should be properly done layer by layer to achieve
compacted state of the soil specimen inside the tube.
3. Some air bubble may appear in the plastic tube connected to the soil specimen tube
apparatus. All the air bubbles must be removed before start of the readings.
4. Make sure that water must not leak from the specimen tube.
5. The temperature measurements must be accurately done for all the tests performed.

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Experiment 8

Aim: Determination of permeability of fine-grained soils using falling head permeability

test.
General: Falling head permeability test is employed for both undisturbed and remoulded soil
specimen in the laboratory. The given test is based on the principle of Darcy’s law. Soil
specimen used are in the state of full saturation.
Indian Standard Code: This test is specified in IS: 2720 (Part 17) –1986 – Method of test for
soils (Part 17- Laboratory determination of permeability).
Apparatus Required:
1. Falling head permeameter.
2. 75 µ wire gauge.
3. The compaction rammer.
4. Balance sensitive to 0.01 g.
5. Thermometer sensitive to 0.1 ºC.
6. Stopwatch.

Procedure:
1. The mass of specimen tube along with porous stones, spring and two rubber stoppers
shall be determined. (M1)
2. Bottom porous stone shall then be installed into the specimen tube and then the bottom
rubber stopper shall be fixed.
3. An oven dried sample of sand of about 2.5 kg shall be taken. With the help of a spoon,
some part of the soil sample shall be transferred to the specimen tube in small layers
and compacted simultaneously either by vibration or other compaction devices.
4. When the soil specimen in the tube is filled up to two thirds in the specimen tube, the
top porous stone shall be installed firmly on the specimen.
5. A spring shall be placed on the top porous stone to ensure fixity of the packing
assembly.
6. A rubber stopper shall then be installed on to the top of the specimen tube. The mass of
assembly shall be determined. (M2)
7. The length of the compacted specimen shall then be determined.
8. Falling head chamber shall then be filled with water.

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9. The soil sample shall be fully saturated by passing of water through it. Complete
saturation of the soil sample shall be ensured.
10. Using the pinch cock flow shall be closed and initial head (h1) available in the falling
head chamber shall be noted.
11. The pinch cock shall now be opened to allow flow through the soil till enough water is
collected in the burette. Stopwatch shall be simultaneously started to determine the time
taken for the flow. The pinch cock shall be closed to stop the flow.
12. Both the final head (h2) and time (t) of flow shall be noted for each test. Volume of
water collected in the burette (Vw) shall also be measured.
13. Permeability of the soil sample shall be calculated using Darcy’s law The average value
of permeability is reported.

Calculations:
Calculation of dry density and void ratio of the specimen:
S.N. Description Values
1. Volume of the specimen (V) (cc)
2. Specific gravity of soil solids (Gs)
3. Mass of specimen tube with fittings (M1) (g)
4. Mass of specimen tube with fittings plus soil specimen (M2) (g)
𝑀2−𝑀1
5. Dry density of the specimen 𝜌 = (g/cc)
𝑑 𝑉
𝐺𝜌𝑤
6. Void ratio of the soil specimen 𝑒 = −1
𝜌𝑑

Calculations for permeability:

1. Description Test 1 Test 2 Test 3
Area of soil specimen (A)
2.
(cm2)

3. Initial head (h1) (cm)

4. Final head (h2) (cm)

5. Test duration (t) (sec.)

Volume of water collected

6.
on the burette (Vw) (cc)

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Permeability at T ºC
2.303𝑉𝑤𝐿 ℎ
7. 𝑘= log ( 1)
𝐴𝑡(ℎ1−ℎ2) ℎ2

(cm/s)

The value of permeability is reported at standard temperature (27 ºC) using the following
mathematical expression.

µ
𝑘27ºC = 𝑘 𝑇ºC × 𝜇 𝑇ºC (cm/s). (1)
27ºC

Results:
The average value of permeability is kavg (m/s) =

Inference:
Write the inference from the test performed.

Precautions:
1. Full saturation of the soil sample must be ensured as Darcy’s law is applicable for fully
saturated soils.
2. Compaction of the soil specimen should be properly done layer by layer to achieve
compacted state of the soil specimen inside the tube.
3. Some air bubble may appear in the plastic tube connected to the soil specimen tube
apparatus. All the air bubbles must be removed before start of the readings.
4. Make sure that water must not leak from the specimen tube.
5. The temperature measurements must be done accurately for all the tests performed.

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Experiment 9
Aim: Determination of the shear strength parameters of soil using direct shear testing.
General: Shear strength of soils is the internal shearing resistance mobilized against the
external forces. Shear strength of soils is the most important soil property concerning to
geotechnical engineers and having applications in design of foundations for structures,
embankment and slopes etc.
Indian Standard Code: This test is specified in IS: 2720 (Part 13) –1986 – Method of test for
soils (Part 13- Direct shear test).
Apparatus Required:
1. Direct shear test machine
2. Shear box grid plates, porous stones, base plates, and loading pad.
3. Weights- for providing the required normal loads.
4. Proving ring fitted with dial gauge accurate to 0.002 mm.
5. Micrometer dial gauges accurate to 0.01 mm.
6. Balance sensitive to 0.01 g.
7. 4.75 mm IS sieve.
8. Tamper.
9. Spoon.
10. Stopwatch.
11. Spatula and straight edge.

Procedure:
1. Shear box assembly shall be detached from the direct shear apparatus. Vertical pins
shall be inserted to keep the two halves of the shear box together. The loading head
shall also be removed.
2. The amount of soil to be compacted in a specific volume of the shear box shall be
calculated based on the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content values of
the soil used for the experiment.
3. After placing the base plate, grid plates shall be placed at the top and bottom of the soil
sample inside the shear box.
4. The table below shall be referred for information on placing porous stones/solid metal
plates between base plate and grid plate at the bottom and between loading head and
grid plate at the top of the shear box. It corresponds to the three different drainage
conditions for which the test can be conducted.

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Type of test Porous stone Grid plate

Not placed (plain plates of equal
Unconsolidated undrained
thickness are placed in place of Plain
(UU)
porous stone)
Consolidated undrained Saturated porous stones are
Perforated
(CU) placed
Saturated porous stones are
Consolidated drained (CD) Perforated
placed

5. Soil shall be prepared at optimum moisture content and compacted in multiple layers
using tamper into the shear box. Alternatively, a rectangular shaped hollow box shall
be used to compact the soil sample and then slipped into the shear box.
6. Loading head shall now be placed on the assembly.
7. The shear box assembly shall then be installed at the allocated space on to the direct
shear test apparatus.
8. A desired constant normal stress shall be applied using the loading mechanism provided
in the direct shear test apparatus.
9. The vertical and horizontal dial gauges shall be installed at specified places on to the
shear box.
10. A proving ring with a dial gauge shall be attached to the shear box assembly on to the
direct shear test apparatus, to measure the shear force.
11. Horizontal force to cause shear failure of soil sample shall be applied and controlled
using strain rate values. Strains are generated using an electric motor and a mechanical
assembly attached to the direct shear apparatus.
12. Generally, strain rate of 0.2 mm/min. shall be used for sandy soils and 0.01 mm/min or
lower shall be adopted for clays. Strain rate values are mentioned on a graduated scale
and shall be applied by adjusting the liver.
13. Undrained and drained conditions are achieved by controlling the strain rate. The table
below shows the strain rate to be adopted for different type of testing conditions.

Type of test Strain rate (mm/min)

Unconsolidated undrained (UU) High

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Consolidated undrained (CU) High

Consolidated drained (CD) Low

14. For every 10th small division displacement in the horizontal dial gauge, the readings of
vertical dial gauge and proving ring shall be measured.
15. Step 14 shall be continued until:
(a) Proving ring dial gauge readings reaches a maximum value and then falls.
(b) Proving ring dial gauge readings reaches a maximum and then remains constant.
16. At least three tests shall be performed with varying normal stress. In performing
different tests, the compaction of soil inside the shear box shall be kept identical.

Calculations:
Test 1
Description Value
Internal dimension of shear box (L=B)
B(mm)*B(mm)*H(mm)
Internal volume of shear box (cc)
Internal area of the shear box (cm2)
Maximum dry density (g/cc)
Optimum moisture content (%)
Mass of soil required (g)
Mass of water added (g)
Strain rate (mm/min)
Normal stress (kg/cm2)
Proving ring calibration constant

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Horizontal Horizontal Proving Proving Shear Corrected Shear Shear stress

dial gauge deflection ring ring force area of the Strain (%) (kN/m2)
reading (mm) reading-s calibratio (kN) soil sample
n-on 0.0036 × [(b)/60]
(a)*0.01 constant (c) *(d) (1 − *100 (f/ g)
1000
(𝑏) ) (m 2)
60

(a) (b) (c) (d) (f) (g) (h) (p)

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For consolidated drained (CD) test: Additional readings of vertical displacements are taken.

Vertical deflection
Vertical dial gauge reading (q)
(mm) (q)*0.01

Results:
(a) A plot is obtained between shear stress and shear strain values.
(b) If peak is observed: Soil type is dense sand or over-consolidated clay.
(c) If no peak is observed: Soil type is loose sand or normally consolidated clay.

1. For consolidated drained test plot the variation of vertical strain versus horizontal strain.
Comment on the following.
(a) Soil is dilating.
(b) No dilation is observed.

2. Calculate the friction angle and cohesion by plotting shear stress on ordinate versus
normal stress on abscissa for at least three number of tests conducted.

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Inference:
Write the inference from the test performed.

Precautions:
1. Proving ring should be calibrated before using it in the direct shear apparatus.
2. Soil sample used should be saturated for sufficient time.
3. During the performance of test enough water should be maintained in the periphery of
shear box assembly to ensure constant saturation of soil sample.
4. Any vibrations to the direct shear apparatus during the test must be avoided.
5. If consolidated test is performed eighter in undrained or drained conditions sufficient
time should be given to the sample under applied normal stress to achieve
consolidation.

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Experiment 10
Aim: Determination of unconfined compressive strength of soils using unconfined
compression test apparatus.

General: The unconfined compression test is a quick method of determining the unconfined
compressive strength and cohesion for clayey soils. This test is performed for both undisturbed
and remoulded clay specimens. The test can be performed at any specified water content as per
the requirement for engineering design.
Indian Standard Code: This test is specified in IS: 2720 (Part 10) –1991 – Method of test for
soils (Part 10- Determination of unconfined compressive strength).
Apparatus Required:
1. Compression device.
2. Proving ring.
3. Deformation dial gauge.
4. Vernier calipers.
5. Balance sensitive to 0.01g.
6. Compaction mould of internal diameter of 38 mm and height 76 mm.
7. Specimen trimming tools and accessories.
8. Porcelain evaporating dish.
9. Stopwatch.

Procedure:
1. Clay soil sample shall be taken with the following possibilities:
(a) Undisturbed sample: Specimen shall be trimmed using trimming tools and brought
down to the standard cylindrical shape with dimensions of diameter 38 mm and
height 76 mm.
(b) Remoulded sample: Soil specimen shall be prepared at known dry unit weight and
water content using compaction mould. The diameter of prepared soil specimen
shall be kept at 38 mm and height at 76 mm.
2. The diameter (D) and height (L) of soil specimen shall be measured precisely using a
vernier caliper. L/D ratio shall be maintained between 2 to 2.5.
3. The soil specimen shall be placed centrally between the two loading plates of the
unconfined compression testing machine.

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4. Top loading plate shall be moved to touch the top of the soil specimen and proving ring
dial gauge shall be set at zero mark.
5. A dial gauge shall be attached to the unconfined testing machine to record vertical
upward movement of the bottom loading plate. Initial readings of this gauge shall be
set at zero mark.
6. Now the machine shall be turned on and loading shall be applied at a controlled vertical
strain rate of 0.5 to 2 percent.
7. The force readings shall be taken at a suitable intervals of dial gauge readings:
(a) Up to 6% axial strain force. the readings shall be taken at an interval of 0.5 mm of
dial gauge readings.
(b) After 6% axial strain force readings shall be reported at 1 mm of dial gauge reading.
8. Readings shall be continued until:
(a) Load reaches a peak and then decreases.
(b) Load reaches a maximum value and remains constant thereafter.
(c) Deformation of specimen is past 20% strain before reaching the peak.
9. The sample shall be unloaded and removed from between the two loading plates.
10. Soil specimen shall be transferred to an evaporating dish for determination of moisture
as per the standard procedure.

Calculations:
Soil specimen:
S.N. Description Value
1. Initial diameter of the specimen (Di) (mm)
2. Initial height of the specimen (Hi) (mm)
3. Initial cross-sectional area of specimen (Ai) (mm2)
4. Initial volume of the specimen (Vi) (mm3)
Initial dry density specified for soil used in making the
5.
specimen 𝜌𝑑 (g/cc)
6. Initial water content specified for the specimen (w) (%)
8. Dry mass of soil taken to prepare the specimen (Ms) (g)
Mass of water taken to achieve initial water content
9.
specified (Mw) (g)

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Observations from test:

Area Provin Axial

Proving Axial
𝐴 g ring compressive
Dial Axial Axial ring force (N)
S.N 𝐴𝑖 dial stress
gauge deformat strain = calibratio
. 1 − 𝑒 reading (kN/m2)
readings ion (mm) (e) n factor (b)*(c)
(cm2) (d/a) *10
(c) (d)
(a) (b)

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Results:
1. Plot the variation of compressive stress as ordinate versus axial strain in percent as
abscissa.
2. The unconfined compressive strength of the soil specimen tested 𝑞𝑢 =…… kN/m2.
(Corresponding to the peak point of plot obtained under point 1)
3. Cohesion value of the soil specimen is cu= .............. kN/m2.

Inference:
Write the inference from the test performed.

Precautions:
1. Remoulded soil specimen prepared should be well compacted to desired density. If
undisturbed sample is used, desired dimension should be properly trimmed.
2. After the specimen is formed, the ends shall be trimmed perpendicular to the long axis
and removed from the mould.
3. Projections along the center line of the top and bottom loading plates used to rest and
load the soil specimen should be of same diameter as that of soil specimen to avoid any
effect of stress concentrations at the boundaries.
4. Only clayey soil specimen should be used. Samples containing appreciable amount of
sand or other coarser materials must be avoided.
5. The failure pattern shall be sketched carefully and shown on the data sheet.

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Experiment 11

Aim: Determination of the undrained shear strength of soft clays using laboratory vane
shear test apparatus.
General: Vane shear test is a useful method of measuring the shear strength of soft clays by
applying a torque to the soil. This method covers the measurement of the shear strength of a
sample of cohesive soil without having to remove it from its container or sampling tube. The
sample therefore does not suffer disturbance due to preparation of a test specimen. The method
may be used for soils that are too soft or too sensitive to enable a satisfactory compression test
specimen to be prepared. The shear strength of the remoulded soil, and hence the sensitivity,
can also be determined. Sensitivity is the ratio of the undrained shear strength of an undisturbed
clay specimen to that of the same specimen after remoulding at the same water content. The
method is less expensive and quicker to perform. The test can be conducted in the laboratory
as well as in the field. The laboratory vane shear test for the measurement of shear strength of
cohesive soils is useful for soils having low shear strength (less than 0.3 kg/cm 2) for which
unconfined test is difficult to be performed.
Indian Standard Code: This test is specified in IS: 2720 (Part 30) –1980 – Method of test for
soils (Part 30- Laboratory vane shear test).
Apparatus Required:
1. Laboratory vane shear apparatus.
2. Torsional springs with known stiffness values.
3. Vernier Caliper.
4. Sensitive weighing balance accurate to 0.01g.
5. Specimen container of internal diameter of 38 mm and height 76 mm.
6. Porcelain evaporating dish.
7. Calibrated chart for reading the torque values corresponding to angle of twist.
8. Spatula.

Procedure:
1. Soil specimens shall pe prepared by rapidly mixing the soil with the water taken until
uniform water homogenization is obtained.
2. The uniformly prepared sample shall be filled in the specimen container. The H/D
aspect ratio shall be maintained at about a value of 2.

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3. The torque shall be applied using springs of different stiffness referred as spring
constants (2, 4, 6, 8 kg/cm). Initially the spring of stiffness 2 kg/cm shall be attached
to the vane shear apparatus.
4. The specimen container consisting of the specimen shall be mounted on the base of the
vane shear apparatus.
5. The shear vanes shall be lowered into the specimen to their full length without
disturbing the soil specimen. The top of the vanes shall be at least 10 mm below the top
of the specimen.
6. The initial readings of the angle of twist for the upper and lower needles shall be noted
before applying torque.
7. The vanes shall be rotated at a uniform rate of about 0.1o per second by operating the
torque application handle or automatically using a motor until the lower needle of angle
handle reverts which indicates the failure of soft soil specimen.
8. Final readings of the angle of twist shall be noted by measuring the upper needle’s
indicated angle.
9. The same procedure shall be repeated by installing the springs of varying stiffnesses
such as 4, 6 and 8 kg-cm.

Calculations:
S.N. Initial Final Difference Spring Torque Undrained Average S
reading reading of constant shear strength (kg/cm2)
3
of upper of readings (k) (T=k* Ø) (𝑆 = × 𝑇)
19
pointer upper (Ø)
(rad) pointer (rad) (kg-cm) (kg-cm)
(kg/cm2)
(rad)

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Results:
Average unconfined strength of tested specimen is S=…… kg/cm2.
Inference:
Write the inference from the test performed.

Precautions:
1. If the specimen container is closed at one end, it should be provided with a hole of about
1 mm diameter at the bottom.
2. The repetition of tests for all springs of different stiffness is important for reporting the
acceptable results.
3. Both the needles should essentially be at the same angle before starting the experiment.
4. Torque values should be read from the calibration chart provided. Such calibration
charts must be updated time to time.
5. Any bending in vanes should be noted and must be corrected before conducting the
experiment.

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Experiment 12

Aim: Determination of the free swell index of the soil.

General: The dominant clay minerals present in fine-grained soils control the physical and
engineering behavior of the soils. One of such property is swelling behavior of fine-grained
soils upon interaction with water. The property of swelling is captured by measuring free swell
index. Free swell index is the increase in volume of a fine-grained soil specimen without any
external constraints on submergence in water.
Indian Standard Code: This test is specified in IS: 2720 (Part 40) –1977 – Method of test for
soils (Part 40-Determination of free swell index of soils).
Apparatus Required:
1. 425 µ IS sieve.
2. Graduated glass cylinders of 100 ml capacity 2 number conforming to IS: 878 -1956.
3. Glass rod for stirring.
4. Balance of capacity 500 g and sensitivity of 0.01 g.
5. Kerosene oil.
6. Filled distilled water bottle capacity minimum 250 ml.
7. Spoon.

Procedure:
1. Two representative oven dried soil samples each of 10 grams passing through 425 µ
sieve shall be taken.
2. 10 g of soil sample shall be poured in each of the graduated glass cylinders using a
spoon.
3. One of the graduated glass cylinders shall be filled with distilled water and the other
with kerosene oil. The graduated glass cylinders shall be filled to a capacity of 100 ml.
4. The entrapped air in the specimens contained in the filled graduated glass cylinders
shall be removed by gentle shaking or stirring with a glass rod.
5. The samples shall be allowed to settle in both the cylinders Sufficient time (not less
than 24 h) shall be allowed for the soil sample to attain equilibrium state of volume
without any further change in the volume of the soils.
6. The final volumes of each of the graduated glass cylinders containing soil specimens
shall be noted.

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7. The volume of the soil specimen in the graduated glass cylinder containing kerosene
is refereed as the original volume for both the soil specimens. Kerosene being a non-
polar liquid does not cause swelling of the soil.

Calculations:
Free swell index is calculated using equation 1:
𝑉𝑤−𝑉𝑘
FSI = × 100 (%) (1)
𝑉𝑘

Vw = Volume of the soil specimen read from the graduated glass cylinder containing distilled
water.
Vk = Volume of the soil specimen read from the graduated glass cylinder containing kerosene.

Determination Measuring cylinder No. Readings after 24 hrs. FSI

No. Kerosene Distilled Kerosene Distilled
water (Vk) (ml) water (%)
(Vw) (ml)

Results:
Free swell index of the tested sample is FSI = ...........................%

Inference:
Write the inference from the test performed. Classify the soil on the basis of IS 1498-
1970 (Reaffirmed 2002)
Precautions:
1. In the case of highly expansive soils such as Sodium Bentonites the sample size may
be 5g. Alternatively a cylinder of 250 ml capacity for 10 grams of soil sample may be
used.
2. Any disturbance such as vibrations around the graduated glass cylinders while settling
of the soil specimens should be avoided.

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3. Both the graduated glass cylinders should be covered at the top to ensure no evaporation
occurs in any of the specimen mixture while settling is in process for 24 hr.

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Experiment 13

Aim: Determination of consolidation properties of soil (1D consolidation testing)

General: Consolidation under applied loading is an important engineering property of fine-
grained soils. The voids in saturated soils are filled with water, under the application of external
loading the decrease in volume or compression happens due to squeezing out of water out of
the voids. The outflow of water from the soil matrix during the process of consolidation is
controlled by the permeability of soils. Initially the load is borne by the pore water with the
development of pore water pressure and gradually transferred to the soil skeleton upon
dissipation of pore water pressure with time.
This method covers the determination of the magnitude and rate of the consolidation of a
saturated in the form of a disc confined laterally and allowed to drain freely from the top and
bottom surfaces. The method is concerned mainly with the primary consolidation phase, but it
can also be used to determine secondary compression characteristics.
The theory of one-dimensional consolidation given by Karl von Terzaghi, is regarded as the
most important contribution in understanding time dependent load settlement behavior of fine-
grained soils.
Indian Standard Code: This test is specified in IS: 2720 (Part 15) –1986 – Method of test for
soils (Part 15-Determination of consolidation properties).
Apparatus Required:
1. Consolidometer (Oedometer) along with the following:
a) A ring of diameter 60 mm and height 20 mm.
b) Two porous stones.
c) Guide ring.
d) Outer ring.
e) Water jacket with base.
f) Pressure pad.
2. Loading device consisting of frame consisting of a lever system, loading yoke dial
gauge fixing device and weights.
3. Dial gauges of accuracy of 0.01 mm.
4. Thermostatically controlled oven.
5. Stopwatch.
6. Tamping rod and sample extractor.
7. Balance, soil trimming tools, spatula, filter papers, sample containers.

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Procedure:
1. Two porous stones shall be saturated either by boiling in distilled water for about 15
minutes or by keeping them submerged in the distilled water for 4 to 8 hrs.
2. The soil specimen shall be prepared at maximum dry density and optimum moisture
content using the ring with calculated weights of the dry soil sample and amount of
distilled water required to be added. After thorough mixing of the dry soil with distilled
water, tamping rod shall be used for compacting the soil in layers.
3. Various components of the consolidometer shall be assembled. The soil specimen shall
be placed with porous stones both at the top and bottom of the soil specimen. A filter
paper shall be provided between the soil specimen and porous stones both at the top
and bottom of the soil specimen to prevent the clogging of pores in the porous stone.
The pressure pad shall be placed centrally on the top porous stone.
4. A dial gauge shall be installed to measure the vertical compression or swelling of the
soil specimen. This step is a check on to measure and control the swelling of the soil
specimen.
5. The mould shall be filled with distilled water and an initial loading shall be applied to
the assembly. The magnitude of this load shall be chosen by trial such that there is no
swelling. Quantitatively, it should not be less than 50 g/cm2 for ordinary soils and 25
g/cm2 for very soft soils.
6. The load shall be allowed to stand until there is no change in dial gauge readings for
consecutive 2 hours or for a maximum of 24 hours. This initial load shall be kept applied
during the further testing procedure. Constant dial gauge readings observed
corresponding to initial load shall be taken as reference for further testing procedure.
7. Simultaneously, the first loading of intensity 0.1 kg/cm 2 shall be applied and the
stopwatch started simultaneously. The dial gauge readings shall be recorded at various
time intervals. The dial gauge readings shall be taken until 90% consolidation is
reached. Primary consolidation is assumed to be completed within 24 hrs.
8. The consolidation testing procedure (Steps 1 through 7) shall be repeated for successive
constant loading increments. The usual loading intensity is as follows 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1,
2, 4 and 8 kg/cm2.
9. After the completion of the test for the last value of loading chosen, the loading shall
now be reduced by ¼ of the value of the last loading and allowed it to stand for 24 hrs.
10. The loadings shall further be reduced in steps of one fourth of the previous intensity till
an intensity of 0.1 kg/cm2 is reached. The final reading of the dial gauge corresponding

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to the ceasing of the waiting time for each loading removed shall be noted.
11. The specimen assembly shall be dismantled, and soil specimen shall further be tested
for estimation of the water content as per the standard procedure.
Calculations:
Ring dimensions:
Diameter (cm) = ………….
Area (cm2) = …………….
Height (cm) = ……………

Initial observations for specimen:

Specific gravity of soil solids (Gs) = …………
Specimen height (Ho) (cm) = ……………
Mass of ring (g) = ……………
Maximum dry density (𝜌𝑑) (g/cc) = ………………….
Optimum moisture content (OMC) (%) = ………………
g
Dry mass of specimen (𝑀𝑠)(g) = Maximum dry density ( ) × volume of specimen(cc)=
cc

Mass of water added 𝑀𝑤 (g) = OMC (%) ˟ Ms.

Mass of ring plus wet soil (g) = ………….
Bulk density (𝜌) (g/cc) = ……………

Important expressions for use:

Ms
Equivalent height of solids (Hs) = (cm) (1)
Gs.𝜌w.𝐴
∆e
Coefficient of compressibility (av) = (cm2/kg) (2)
∆σ
∆𝑒
Compression index (Cc) =
log𝜎2
(3)
𝜎1

Coefficient of Consolidation (Cv)

𝐻 2
0.848×( 𝑎𝑣)
Cv = 2
(Square root of time method) (4a)
𝑡90
𝐻 2
0.197×( 𝑎𝑣)
Cv = 2
(Log time method) (4b)
𝑡50

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Table for Time-Displacement relationship (Loading)

Loading
intensity 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 4 8
2
(kg/cm )
Time Elapsed
Dial Dial Dial Dial Dial Dial Dial
(min.)
readings readings readings readings readings readings readings

0
0.25
1
2
4
8
15
30
60
120
240
480
1440

Table for Time-Displacement relationship (Unloading)

Removed loading (kg/cm2) Retained loading (kg/cm2) Final dial gauge reading
0 8
4 4
2 2
1 1
0.5 0.5
0.3 0.2
0.1 0.1
0.1 0.05 (seating pressure)

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Water content determination:

Mass of dry soil sample (M1) (g) =

Mass of the saturated soil sample plus ring (M2) (g) =
Mass of oven dried soil sample plus ring (M3) (g) =
Water content (w) (%) = 𝑀2−𝑀3×100. (5)
𝑀1

Table for calculation of consolidation parameters:

Applied loading intensity (𝜎); Final compression (∆𝐻); Final specimen height (H); Void ratio
e; Drainage path length (Hav); Coefficient of Compressibility (av); coefficient of consolidation
Cv.

𝑒
Final 𝐻 t50 or
(𝜎) ∆𝐻 (H) = av Hav Cv
dial 𝐻𝑠 ∆e ∆𝜎 t90
(kg/cm2) (cm) (cm) (cm2/kg) (cm) (cm2/min)
reading −1 (min.)

Results:
1. Relationship of void ratio (e) versus log (𝜎′) is plotted. Compression index is calculated.
Cc = ………….
2. Relationship of coefficient of compressibility (av) versus log (𝜎′) is plotted.
3. Coefficient of consolidation Cv versus log (𝜎′) is plotted.
4. Void ratio (e) versus coefficient of consolidation (C v) is plotted.

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Inference:
Write the inference from the test performed.

Precautions:
1. Fittings of the Consolidometer which is to be enclosed shall be moistened before the
start of the experiment.
2. The assembly is mounted on the loading frame should be such that it is centered, and
the load applied should be in axial compression.
3. Care must be taken to ensure that the porous stone and pressure pad are not touching
the walls of mould on their sides.
4. The dial gauge for measuring compression or swelling before the application of
additional loading should be set such that there is a sufficient margin of run to capture
the swelling phenomena in soil specimen.
5. For successive loading increments the succeeding loading magnitude should be kept
approximately double to the preceding loading.

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END OF EXPERIMENTS

REFERENCES:

 INDIAN STANDANDS: Methods of Test for soil. IS 2720.

 BRITISH STANDARDS: Methods of Test for Soils for Civil Engineering
Purposes. BS 1377.

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