Basic Biomechanics, 9th Edition

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 BRIEF CONTENTS

1 What Is Biomechanics? 1
2 Kinematic Concepts for Analyzing Human Motion 25
3 Kinetic Concepts for Analyzing Human Motion 55
4 The Biomechanics of Human Bone Growth
and Development 81
5 The Biomechanics of Human Skeletal Articulations 107
6 The Biomechanics of Human Skeletal Muscle 133
7 The Biomechanics of the Human Upper Extremity 169
8 The Biomechanics of the Human Lower Extremity 213
9 The Biomechanics of the Human Spine 255
10 Linear Kinematics of Human Movement 293
11 Angular Kinematics of Human Movement 327
12 Linear Kinetics of Human Movement 355
13 Equilibrium and Human Movement 387
14 Angular Kinetics of Human Movement 419
15 Human Movement in a Fluid Medium 445

Appendices
A Basic Mathematics and Related Skills 475
B Trigonometric Functions 480
C Common Units of Measurement 483
D Anthropometric Parameters for the Human Body 484
E Equations 486

Glossary 489
Index 497

iii

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 CONTENTS

1 What Is Biomechanics? 1
Biomechanics: Definition and Perspective 2
What Problems Are Studied by Biomechanists? 4
Professions that Rely on Knowledge of Biomechanics 10
Why Study Biomechanics? 11
Problem-Solving Approach 11
Quantitative and Qualitative Problems 11
Solving Qualitative Problems 12
Formal versus Informal Problems 13
Solving Formal Quantitative Problems 13
Units of Measurement 14
Summary 16
Introductory Problems 16
Additional Problems 17
Laboratory Experiences 19

2 Kinematic Concepts for Analyzing Human Motion 25

Forms of Motion 26
Linear Motion 26
Angular Motion 26
General Motion 27
Mechanical Systems 27
Standard Reference Terminology 28
Anatomical Reference Position 28
Directional Terms 29
Anatomical Reference Planes 30
Anatomical Reference Axes 31
Joint Movement Terminology 31
Sagittal Plane Movements 31
Frontal Plane Movements 32
Transverse Plane Movements 35
Other Movements 37
Spatial Reference Systems 37
Analyzing Human Movement 38
Prerequisite Knowledge for a Qualitative Analysis 39
Planning a Qualitative Analysis 40
Conducting a Qualitative Analysis 42
Tools for Measuring Kinematic Quantities 45
Video and Film 45
Summary 46
Introductory Problems 47
Additional Problems 48
Laboratory Experiences 49

iv

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 CONTENTS v

3 Kinetic Concepts for Analyzing Human Motion 55

Basic Concepts Related to Kinetics 56
Inertia 56
Mass 57
Force 57
Center of Gravity 58
Weight 58
Pressure 60
Volume 60
Density 62
Torque 62
Impulse 63
Mechanical Loads on the Human Body 64
Compression, Tension, and Shear 64
Mechanical Stress 65
Torsion, Bending, and Combined Loads 66
The Effects of Loading 67
Repetitive versus Acute Loads 68
Tools for Measuring Kinetic Quantities 69
Vector Algebra 69
Vector Composition 70
Vector Resolution 71
Graphic Solution of Vector Problems 72
Trigonometric Solution of Vector Problems 72
Summary 74
Introductory Problems 74
Additional Problems 75
Laboratory Experiences 77

4 The Biomechanics of Human Bone Growth and Development 81

Composition and Structure of Bone Tissue 82
Material Constituents 82
Structural Organization 82
Types of Bones 84
Bone Growth and Development 85
Longitudinal Growth 86
Circumferential Growth 86
Adult Bone Development 87
Bone Response to Stress 87
Bone Modeling and Remodeling 87
Bone Hypertrophy 89
Bone Atrophy 89
Osteoporosis 91
Postmenopausal and Age-Associated Osteoporosis 92
Female Athlete Triad 93
Preventing and Treating Osteopenia and Osteoporosis 94
Common Bone Injuries 94
The Biomechanics of Bone Fractures 94
Epiphyseal Injuries 96

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 vi CONTENTS

Summary 96
Introductory Problems 97
Additional Problems 97
Laboratory Experiences 99

5 The Biomechanics of Human Skeletal Articulations 107

Joint Architecture 108
Immovable Joints 108
Slightly Movable Joints 109
Freely Movable Joints 109
Articular Cartilage 111
Articular Fibrocartilage 112
Articular Connective Tissue 112
Joint Stability 113
Shape of the Articulating Bone Surfaces 114
Arrangement of Ligaments and Muscles 114
Other Connective Tissues 115
Joint Flexibility 115
Measuring Joint Range of Motion 116
Factors Influencing Joint Flexibility 116
Flexibility and Injury 117
Techniques for Increasing Joint Flexibility 118
Neuromuscular Response to Stretch 118
Active and Passive Stretching 121
Ballistic, Static, and Dynamic Stretching 121
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation 122
Common Joint Injuries and Pathologies 123
Sprains 123
Dislocations 123
Bursitis 123
Arthritis 124
Rheumatoid Arthritis 124
Osteoarthritis 124
Summary 125
Introductory Problems 125
Additional Problems 126
Laboratory Experiences 127

6 The Biomechanics of Human Skeletal Muscle 133

Behavioral Properties of the Musculotendinous Unit 134
Extensibility and Elasticity 134
Irritability and the Ability to Develop Tension 135
Structural Organization of Skeletal Muscle 136
Muscle Fibers 136
Motor Units 139
Fiber Types 140
Fiber Architecture 142
Skeletal Muscle Function 145
Recruitment of Motor Units 145
Change in Muscle Length with Tension Development 146

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 CONTENTS vii

Roles Assumed by Muscles 147

Two-Joint and Multijoint Muscles 148
Factors Affecting Muscular Force Generation 149
Force–Velocity Relationship 149
Length–Tension Relationship 150
Stretch-Shortening Cycle 151
Electromyography 152
Electromechanical Delay 153
Muscular Strength, Power, and Endurance 153
Muscular Strength 153
Muscular Power 156
Muscular Endurance 157
Muscle Fatigue 158
Effect of Muscle Temperature 158
Common Muscle Injuries 159
Strains 159
Contusions 159
Cramps 159
Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness 159
Compartment Syndrome 160
Summary 160
Introductory Problems 160
Additional Problems 161
Laboratory Experiences 163

7 The Biomechanics of the Human Upper Extremity 169

Structure of the Shoulder 170
Sternoclavicular Joint 170
Acromioclavicular Joint 170
Coracoclavicular Joint 171
Glenohumeral Joint 171
Scapulothoracic Joint 173
Bursae 173
Movements of the Shoulder Complex 174
Muscles of the Scapula 175
Muscles of the Glenohumeral Joint 176
Flexion at the Glenohumeral Joint 176
Extension at the Glenohumeral Joint 176
Abduction at the Glenohumeral Joint 178
Adduction at the Glenohumeral Joint 179
Medial and Lateral Rotation of the Humerus 179
Horizontal Adduction and Abduction at the Glenohumeral Joint 180
Loads on the Shoulder 181
Common Injuries of the Shoulder 183
Dislocations 183
Rotator Cuff Damage 184
Rotational Injuries 185
Subscapular Neuropathy 185
Structure of the Elbow 186
Humeroulnar Joint 186
Humeroradial Joint 186

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 viii CONTENTS

Proximal Radioulnar Joint 186

Carrying Angle 186
Movements at the Elbow 187
Muscles Crossing the Elbow 187
Flexion and Extension 187
Pronation and Supination 188
Loads on the Elbow 189
Common Injuries of the Elbow 192
Sprains and Dislocations 192
Overuse Injuries 192
What Research Tells Us about the Biomechanics
of Baseball Pitching 193
Structure of the Wrist 194
Movements of the Wrist 195
Flexion 195
Extension and Hyperextension 195
Radial and Ulnar Deviation 197
Structure of the Joints of the Hand 197
Carpometacarpal and Intermetacarpal Joints 197
Metacarpophalangeal Joints 197
Interphalangeal Joints 198
Movements of the Hand 198
Common Injuries of the Wrist and Hand 201
Summary 202
Introductory Problems 202
Additional Problems 203
Laboratory Experiences 205

8 The Biomechanics of the Human Lower Extremity 213

Structure of the Hip 214
Movements at the Hip 215
Muscles of the Hip 215
Flexion 215
Extension 217
Abduction 217
Adduction 218
Medial and Lateral Rotation of the Femur 219
Horizontal Abduction and Adduction 219
Loads on the Hip 220
Common Injuries of the Hip 221
Fractures 221
Contusions 222
Strains 222
Structure of the Knee 222
Tibiofemoral Joint 222
Menisci 222
Ligaments 224
Patellofemoral Joint 225
Joint Capsule and Bursae 225
Movements at the Knee 225
Muscles Crossing the Knee 225
Flexion and Extension 225

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 CONTENTS ix

Rotation and Passive Abduction and Adduction 227

Patellofemoral Joint Motion 227
Loads on the Knee 228
Forces at the Tibiofemoral Joint 228
Forces at the Patellofemoral Joint 228
Common Injuries of the Knee and Lower Leg 229
Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries 230
Posterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries 231
Medial Collateral Ligament Injuries 231
Meniscus Injuries 231
Iliotibial Band Friction Syndrome 232
Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome 232
Shin Splints 233
Structure of the Ankle 233
Movements at the Ankle 233
Structure of the Foot 236
Subtalar Joint 236
Tarsometatarsal and Intermetatarsal Joints 236
Metatarsophalangeal and Interphalangeal Joints 236
Plantar Arches 236
Movements of the Foot 237
Muscles of the Foot 237
Toe Flexion and Extension 237
Inversion and Eversion 237
Pronation and Supination 238
Loads on the Foot 239
Common Injuries of the Ankle and Foot 239
Ankle Injuries 240
Overuse Injuries 240
Alignment Anomalies of the Foot 240
Injuries Related to High and Low Arch Structures 242
What Research Tells Us about Barefoot Running 242
Summary 243
Introductory Problems 244
Additional Problems 244
Laboratory Experiences 247

9 The Biomechanics of the Human Spine 255

Structure of the Spine 256
Vertebral Column 256
Vertebrae 257
Intervertebral Discs 258
Ligaments 262
Spinal Curves 263
Movements of the Spine 264
Flexion, Extension, and Hyperextension 265
Lateral Flexion and Rotation 266
Muscles of the Spine 266
Anterior Aspect 266
Posterior Aspect 268
Lateral Aspect 271
Loads on the Spine 272

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 x CONTENTS

Common Injuries of the Back and Neck 278

Low Back Pain 278
Soft-Tissue Injuries 280
Acute Fractures 280
Stress Fractures 280
Disc Herniations 281
Whiplash Injuries 282
Summary 283
Introductory Problems 283
Additional Problems 284
Laboratory Experiences 285

10 Linear Kinematics of Human Movement 293

Linear Kinematic Quantities 294
Distance and Displacement 295
Speed and Velocity 296
Acceleration 301
Average and Instantaneous Quantities 304
Kinematics of Projectile Motion 305
Horizontal and Vertical Components 305
Influence of Gravity 305
Influence of Air Resistance 306
Factors Influencing Projectile Trajectory 307
Projection Angle 308
Projection Speed 309
Relative Projection Height 311
Optimum Projection Conditions 312
Analyzing Projectile Motion 313
Equations of Constant Acceleration 315
Summary 320
Introductory Problems 320
Additional Problems 321
Laboratory Experiences 323

11 Angular Kinematics of Human Movement 327

Observing the Angular Kinematics of Human Movement 328
Measuring Angles 328
Joint Angles and Body Segment Orientations 329
Tools for Measuring Body Angles 331
Instant Center of Rotation 331
Angular Kinematic Relationships 331
Angular Distance and Displacement 332
Angular Speed and Velocity 335
Angular Acceleration 339
Angular Motion Vectors 341
Average versus Instantaneous Angular Quantities 341
Relationships Between Linear and Angular Motion 341
Linear and Angular Displacement 341
Linear and Angular Velocity 342
Linear and Angular Acceleration 344
Summary 347

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 CONTENTS xi

Introductory Problems 347

Additional Problems 348
Laboratory Experiences 351

12 Linear Kinetics of Human Movement 355

Newton’s Laws 356
Law of Inertia 356
Law of Acceleration 356
Law of Reaction 357
Law of Gravitation 358
Mechanical Behavior of Bodies in Contact 359
Friction 360
Momentum 365
Impulse 366
Impact 369
Work, Power, and Energy Relationships 372
Work 372
Power 373
Energy 373
Conservation of Mechanical Energy 375
Principle of Work and Energy 376
Summary 379
Introductory Problems 379
Additional Problems 380
Laboratory Experiences 383

13 Equilibrium and Human Movement 387

Equilibrium 388
Torque 388
Resultant Joint Torques 391
Levers 394
Anatomical Levers 397
Equations of Static Equilibrium 399
Equations of Dynamic Equilibrium 400
Center of Gravity 403
Locating the Center of Gravity 404
Locating the Human Body Center of Gravity 405
Stability and Balance 408
Summary 411
Introductory Problems 411
Additional Problems 412
Laboratory Experiences 415

14 Angular Kinetics of Human Movement 419

Resistance to Angular Acceleration 420
Moment of Inertia 420
Determining Moment of Inertia 422
Human Body Moment of Inertia 423
Angular Momentum 424
Conservation of Angular Momentum 426

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 xii CONTENTS

Transfer of Angular Momentum 427

Change in Angular Momentum 430
Angular Analogues of Newton’s Laws of Motion 433
Newton’s First Law 433
Newton’s Second Law 434
Newton’s Third Law 434
Centripetal Force 435
Summary 437
Introductory Problems 437
Additional Problems 438
Laboratory Experiences 441

15 Human Movement in a Fluid Medium 445

The Nature of Fluids 446
Relative Motion 446
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow 448
Fluid Properties 448
Buoyancy 449
Characteristics of the Buoyant Force 449
Flotation 449
Flotation of the Human Body 450
Drag 452
Skin Friction 453
Form Drag 454
Wave Drag 456
Lift Force 458
Foil Shape 458
Magnus Effect 462
Propulsion in a Fluid Medium 464
Propulsive Drag Theory 464
Propulsive Lift Theory 465
Stroke Technique 465
Summary 466
Introductory Problems 466
Additional Problems 467
Laboratory Experiences 469

Appendices
A Basic Mathematics and Related Skills 475
B Trigonometric Functions 480
C Common Units of Measurement 483
D Anthropometric Parameters for the Human Body 484
E Equations 486

Glossary 489
Index 497

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 PREFACE

T he ninth edition of Basic Biomechanics has been significantly updated and

­redesigned from the previous edition. As the interdisciplinary field of biomechan-
ics grows in both breadth and depth, it is important that even introductory textbooks
reflect the nature of the science. Accordingly, the text has been revised, expanded,
and updated, with the objectives being to present relevant information from recent
research findings and to prepare students to analyze human biomechanics.
The approach remains an integrated balance of qualitative and quantitative exam-
ples, applications, and problems designed to illustrate the principles discussed. The
ninth edition also retains the important sensitivity to the fact that some beginning
students of biomechanics possess weak backgrounds in mathematics. For this reason,
it includes numerous sample problems and applications, along with practical advice
on approaching quantitative problems.

O RGANI ZATI O N

Each chapter follows a logical and readable format, with the introduction of new con-
cepts consistently accompanied by practical human movement examples and applica-
tions from across the life span and across sport, clinical, and daily living a­ ctivities.

NE W CO NTE NT HI GHLI GHT S

New content has been added to provide updated scientific information on relevant
topics. All chapters have been revised to incorporate the latest information from the
biomechanics research literature, and numerous new sport and clinical applications
and examples are included. Topics added or expanded include articular cartilage
repair, electromechanical delay, facet joint structure and function, hamstrings
strains, barefoot running, baseball pitching, stand-up paddle boarding, bone health
in microgravity, swimming technique, uses of exoskeletons, and careers utilizing
biomechanics.

Balanced Coverage
Biomechanics is a field that analyzes the mechanical aspects of biological organisms.
In this book focused on human biomechanics, anatomical and mechanical factors, as
well as functional applications are covered. The integrated approach to coverage of
these areas taken in previous editions is continued in this ninth edition.

Applications Oriented
All chapters in this new edition contain discussion of a broad range of updated hu-
man movement applications, many of which are taken from the recent biomechanics
research literature. Special emphasis has been placed on examples that span all ages
and address clinical and daily living issues, as well as sport applications.

Laboratory Experiences
The integrated laboratory manual at the end of each chapter includes a number of
updates. xiii

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 xiv Preface

P E DAG OGICA L FEAT U RES

In addition to the sample problems, problem sets, laboratory experiences, end-of-chapter

key terms lists, and lists of websites, the book contains other pedagogical features from
previous editions. These include key concepts, marginal definitions, sample problems,
­chapter summaries, introductory and additional problems, references, and appendices.

ANCIL L ARIES

Connect
The ninth edition of Basic Biomechanics is now available online with Connect,
McGraw Hill’s integrated assignment and assessment platform. Connect also offers
SmartBook 2.0 for the new edition, which is the first adaptive reading experience
proven to improve grades and help students study more effectively. All of the title’s
website and ancillary content is also available through Connect. Connect ­includes
downloadable ancillaries, student quizzing, additional student exercises, and much
more.
Resources for instructors and students include:
• Downloadable PowerPoint presentations with annotated lecture notes
• Instructor’s manual, originally developed by Darla Smith, faculty emerita, University
of Texas at El Paso
• Test bank, available with Test Builder, which allows instructors to create and
deliver online and printed (Word or PDF) tests
• Image library

SmartBook 2.0 ®
Available within Connect, SmartBook 2.0® makes study time as productive and effi-
cient as possible by identify­ing and closing knowledge gaps. SmartBook 2.0 identifies
what an individual student knows and doesn’t know based on the student’s confi-
dence level, responses to questions, and other factors. SmartBook 2.0 builds an opti-
mal, ­personalized learning path for each student, so students spend less time on
concepts they already understand and more time on those they don’t. As a student
engages with SmartBook 2.0, the reading experience continuously adapts by highlight-
ing the most impactful content that person needs to learn at that mo­ment. This en-
sures that every minute spent with SmartBook 2.0 is returned to the student as the
most value-added minute possible. The result? More confidence, better grades, and
greater success.
SmartBook 2.0 is now optimized for phones and tablets. Its interactive features
are also accessible for students with disabilities. Just like our new eBook and
ReadAnywhere app, SmartBook 2.0 is available both online and offline.

Writing Assignment
McGraw Hill’s new Writing Assignment tool delivers a learning experience that
­improves students’ written communication skills and conceptual understanding with
every assignment. Assign, monitor, and provide feedback on writing more efficiently
and grade assignments within McGraw Hill Connect®. Writing Assignment gives
­students an all-in-one place interface, so you can provide feedback more efficiently.
Features include:
• Saved and reusable comments (text and audio)
• Ability to link to resources in comments

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 Preface xv

• Rubric building and scoring

• Ability to assign draft and final deadline milestones
• Tablet ready and tools for all learners

Test Builder in Connect

Available within Connect, Test Builder is a cloud-based tool that enables instructors
to format tests that can be printed or administered within a LMS. Test Builder offers
a modern, streamlined interface for easy content configuration that matches course
needs, without requiring a download.
Test Builder allows you to:
• access all test bank content from a particular title.
• easily pinpoint the most relevant content through robust filtering options.
• manipulate the order of questions or scramble questions and/or answers.
• pin questions to a specific location within a test.
• determine your preferred treatment of algorithmic questions.
• choose the layout and spacing.
• add instructions and configure default settings.
Test Builder provides a secure interface for better protection of content and allows for
just-in-time updates to flow directly into assessments.

Remote Proctoring & Browser-Locking Capabilities

New remote proctoring and browser-locking capabilities, hosted by Proctorio within

Connect, provide control of the assessment environment by enabling security options
and verifying the identity of the student.
Seamlessly integrated within Connect, these services allow instructors to control
students’ assessment experience by restricting browser activity, recording students’
activity, and verifying students are doing their own work.
Instant and detailed reporting gives instructors an at-a-glance view of potential
academic integrity concerns, thereby avoiding personal bias and supporting evidence-
based claims.

MaxTRAQ™
The ninth edition of Basic Biomechanics can be used with MaxTRAQ™ software
(for a small additional price). MaxTRAQ is a downloadable motion analysis
software that offers an easy-to-use tool to track data and analyze various motion
elected by the ­authors. The MaxTRAQ software includes video clips of golf swing,
gait, and other ­motions; 2D manual tracking; coverage of distance and angles; and
more!
Visit http://www.motionanalysisproducts.com/Motion_Analysis_Store.html to
purchase MaxTRAQ software for use with Basic Biomechanics, 9e. Each MaxTRAQ
access code is unique and not related to any other registration or ID number. Each
code is good for one-time registration and is available by download.

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