Communication Systems(BEEE308L )

Dr. Mithu Sarkar

School of Electrical Engineering
VIT Chennai
Course Objectives:

1. Understand the fundamentals of analog and digital communication

systems.
2. Comprehend the various communication systems and applications.
3. Analysis of source and channel coding theorems
Course Outcomes

1. Demonstrate the concept of modulation.

2. Examine the properties of random processes.
3. Design and analyze transmitters and receivers for analog
communication systems.
4. Assess and contrast shift keying and pulse modulation techniques.
5. Understanding the concepts of error correcting codes.
Module-1 : Basics of Communication Systems

Communication systems: Importance, elements, block diagram and role

of each block, types; Frequency ranges; Bandwidth; Need for
modulation; Noises in communication systems.
Module-1 : Basics of Communication Systems

Communication systems: Importance, elements, block diagram and role

of each block, types; Frequency ranges; Bandwidth; Need for
modulation; Noises in communication systems.
Text Books

1.B.P. Lathi, Zhi Ding, Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems, 2017,
4th Edition, Oxford University Press

2. Simon Haykin, Michael Moher, Introduction to Analog and Digital Communications,

2012, 2nd Edition, Wiley India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi
 What is Communications:
• Communication involves the transfer of information from one point to another
• Communication system is a system which describes the exchange of information or
data between two stations, i.e. between transmitter and receiver.

• Four basic elements to transfer the information:

Source: Generates the information (e.g., human voice, video, text).
Transmitter: converts message into a form suitable for transmission.(e.g.,
microphone, modem).
Channel: Medium that carries the signal, the physical medium, introduces
distortion, noise, interference(e.g., air, cables, optical fibers).
 Receiver: reconstruct a recognizable form of the message (e.g., speaker, screen).
(e.g., speaker, screen).
• Illustration
• Example: A phone call:
• Source: Your voice
• Transmitter: Phone microphone
• Channel: Cellular network
• Receiver: Friend’s phone speaker
• Destination: Friend
• Multitude of Communications
• Telephone network
• Internet
• Radio and TV broadcast
• Mobile communications
• Wi-Fi
• Satellite and space communications
• Smart power grid, healthcare…
Types of Signals
Analog Signals: Continuous signals (e.g., radio, telephone).
Digital Signals: Discrete signals (e.g., internet, computer
systems).

Analog communications
– Amplitude modulation (AM), Angle
Modulation{Frequency mod..(FM), Phase mod…(PM)}

• Digital communications
– Transfer of information in digits
– Dominant technology today
– Broadband, 3G, DAB (Digital Audio Broadcasting) and
DVB (Digital Video Broadcasting)
•A

Fig: Communication system

• Communication Channel
• The channel is central to operation of a communication system
– Linear (e.g., mobile radio) or nonlinear (e.g., satellite)
– Time invariant (e.g., fiber) or time varying (e.g., mobile radio)
characteristics (attenuation and delay) mobile receiver or transmitter is
do not change over time in motion, the frequency of the
received signal can be shifted
• The information-carrying capacity of a communication system is proportional
to the channel bandwidth. Frequencies range that a channel can effectively
transmit without significant attenuation or distortion.

• Channel bandwidth (B) is the difference between the highest and lowest
frequencies in the channel's frequency range. It is measured in Hertz (Hz):
• Pursuit for wider bandwidth
– Copper wire: 1 MHz
– Coaxial cable: 100 MHz
– Microwave: GHz
– Optical fiber: THz=1000000000000 Hz
• Importance of Bandwidth
• Data Rate (Shannon-Hartley Theorem): Bandwidth determines the
maximum data rate of a channel. According to the Shannon-Hartley
theorem, the capacity C of a channel is:
• C=B⋅𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1+SNR)C
• Where:
• C is the channel capacity in bits per second (bps).
• B is the channel bandwidth in Hz.
• SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio
• Noise in Communications
• Unavoidable presence of noise in the channel
– Noise refers to unwanted waves that disturb communications
– Signal is contaminated by noise along the path.

• External noise: interference from nearby channels, humanmade noise,

natural noise(lightning), Electromagnetic radiation ...

• Internal noise: Noise originates from within the communication system

itself…e.g. thermal noise, random emission, Random fluctuations in the
flow of charge carriers (e.g., in diodes or transistors
•
• Noise is one of the basic factors that set limits on communications.
• A widely used metric is the signal-to-noise (power) ratio
• Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is a measure of the strength of the desired
signal
• Bandwidth and channel power and noise power are the critical aspect of
communication systems and signal processing.
• The noise power is directly proportional to the bandwidth.
• To maintain a fixed SNR as bandwidth increases, the channel power must
also increase proportionally:
• Transmitter and Receiver
• The transmitter modifies the message signal into a form suitable for
transmission over the channel.
• This modification often involves modulation
– Moving the signal to a high-frequency carrier (up-conversion) and
varying some parameter of the carrier wave
– Analog: AM, FM, PM
– Digital: ASK FSK PSK (SK: shift keying) , FSK, PSK (SK: shift keying)

• The receiver recreates the original message by demodulation

– Recovery is not exact due to noise/distortion
– The resulting degradation is influenced by the type of modulation
• Design of analog communication is conceptually simple
• Digital communication is more efficient and reliable; design
is more sophisticated
 Modulation
• There are two types of communication:
a. Baseband communication
b. Passband communication

a. Baseband communication:
• Signal transmission in which the signal is sent without modulation onto a
carrier frequency
• Transmitting the signal in its original frequency range without translating it
to a higher frequency band.
• High attenuation restricts baseband communication
• More susceptible to noise and signal degradation
• Ex: Local Area Networks (LANs): Ethernet cables operate as baseband
systems, Short-range telephone lines etc.
b. Passband communication
• Modulation is a technique in which message signal is transmitted to the receiver with
the help of carrier signal. Here in modulation, we combine both carrier signal and the
message signal.
• Ex: A letter is sent inside the envelope.

• The baseband signal is used to modify some parameter of a high-frequency carrier

signal.
• A carrier is a sinusoid of high frequency, and one of its parameters—such as
amplitude, frequency, or phase—is varied in proportion to the baseband signal.
• Example of carrier signal : A cos(𝝎𝒄 𝑡 + 𝝋)
 Why Modulation is Needed?
• Efficient Transmission:
Modulation shifts signals to higher frequencies, making them suitable for long-distance
transmission with reduced attenuation.
• Avoid Signal Overlap:
• Without modulation, the low frequency signals could interfere with each other, leading to a
loss of information and poor communication.
• By modulating different signals to different frequencies, multiple signals can coexist
in a single channel.
• Antenna Size:
Higher frequency signals require smaller antennas, making transmission equipment more
practical. Example: next page
• Overcoming Noise:
High-frequency modulated signals are less susceptible to low-frequency noise.
• Ex: FM radio stations are much clearer and noise-free as compared to AM because
the information is carried by changes in high frequency.
• Compatibility:
Modulation ensures signals can be sent over various mediums like air, fiber optics, or cables.
How to reduce the Antenna Size?
• Accordingly, we have below analog modulation
process:
I. Amplitude modulation (AM)
• Figure shows a baseband signal m(t) and the
corresponding AM waveform.
• In AM, the carrier amplitude varies in proportion
to m(t), keeping phase and frequency constant.
• Simple to implement but Susceptible to noise
and interference
II. Frequency modulation (FM)
• In FM, the carrier frequency is varied in
proportion m(t) by keeping amplitude constant
Requires a larger bandwidth but more resistant
to noise and interference compared to AM
III. Phase Modulation (PM):
• The phase of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the message signal. The
amplitude and frequency remain constant.
• Used in digital communications, some types of radio transmission.
• Improved signal clarity.
• More complex than AM and FM.
• Digital modulation:
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK): The phase of the carrier signal is shifted between two
values to represent binary data (0 and 1)
• Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK): The phase of the carrier is shifted among four
different values, allowing two bits per symbol. 00 → 0°; 01 → 90°, 10 → 180°
11 → 270
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): The amplitude of the carrier is varied to represent digital
data (0 and 1).
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):The frequency of the carrier is varied to represent binary
data.
• Demodulation:
• Demodulation is the process of extracting the original information or
message signal from the modulated carrier wave. Reverse process of
modulation.
• Analog: Amplitude Demodulation (AM), Frequency Demodulation (FM),
Phase Demodulation (PM)
• Digital: Phase Shift Keying (PSK), Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM).

• Channel, spectrum, frequency BW, Noise

• Noise:
• Noise in communication signals refers to any unwanted disturbance that interferes
with the transmission or reception of information in a communication system.
• It can cause errors, signal degradation, and loss of data integrity, making
communication unreliable.
• Noise can be present in both analog and digital communication systems
• Types of Noise:
1. Thermal Noise (Johnson-Nyquist Noise):
• Generate due to random motion of electrons in conductors due to temperature.
• The higher the temperature of the conductor, the greater the thermal noise.
• Always present in any electrical component (resistors, capacitors, etc.).
• The noise voltage Vnoise across a resistor R at temperature T over a bandwidth Δf is
given by:
2. Shot Noise:
• Arises due to the discrete nature of charge carriers (electrons) moving
through a conductor or semiconductor material(diodes, transistors, and
photodetectors).
• Significant in systems with low currents or small signal levels, such as
photodiodes or semiconductor-based devices.
• The noise current is given by

3. Impulse Noise:
• Caused by short-duration, high-amplitude disturbances(switching devices,
lightning, or power line faults.)
• Impact is the major signal distortion and lead to data loss or corruption
4. Flicker Noise (1/f Noise):
• Due to irregularities in the operation of components, particularly in low-
frequency circuits like amplifiers.
• It has a power spectral density that is inversely proportional to frequency
5. Quantization Noise:
• Occurs when a continuous signal is digitized by an analog-to-digital converter
(ADC).
• The quantization noise power is
• Types of Communication Channels:
1. Wired (Guided) Communication Channels:
• Twisted Pair Cables:
• Consist of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together to
reduce electromagnetic interference.
• Common in telephone lines and Ethernet networks.
• 1 MHz to 1 GHz (depending on the type)

Coaxial Cables:
• A central conductor surrounded by insulation,
a metallic shield, and an outer insulating layer.
• This design minimizes interference and allows for
higher frequency signals to travel over longer distances.
• Used in cable television and broadband internet.
• 10 MHz to 1 GHz
• . Optical Fiber Cable:
• Optical fibers transmit data using light signals through very small diameter
pure glass or plastic strands with minimal loss of data.
• The bandwidth of fiber-optic cables is incredibly high due to the fact that light
can carry a large amount of data without interference from electromagnetic
sources.
• Used for high-speed data transmission for telecommunications
• 1 THz to 100 THz
2. Wireless (Unguided) Communication Channels
• Radio Waves:
• The most common wireless communication channel, used for AM/FM radio, television
broadcasts, cell phones, and Wi-Fi.
• Radio waves vary in frequency, with different frequencies used for different types of
communications.
• Typical Uses:
• AM Radio: 530 kHz to 1.7 MHz
• FM Radio: 88 MHz to 108 MHz
• Wi-Fi: 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, 6 GHz
• Cellular Networks: 800 MHz to 2.5 GHz
• Bluetooth: 2.4 GHz
• Microwave: High-frequency radio waves, used for point-to-point communication (e.g.,
satellite communication, microwave links).
• Typical Uses:
Satellite Communication: 1 GHz to 40 GHz
Microwave Links: 2 GHz to 40 GHz
Cellular Communication (4G/LTE): 2 GHz to 3.5 GHz
Infrared:
• used infrared light waves to transmit data over short distances.
• Infrared communication uses light waves with wavelengths longer than visible light.
• It's often used for short-range, low-speed communication.
• Typical Use: Remote controls, infrared data transmission between devices like
smartphones, and short-range wireless communication systems.
• Satellite Communication
• 1 GHz to 40 GHz
• Satellite communication systems use frequencies in different bands to transmit
data from satellites in space to receivers on the ground.
• Typical Uses: Global internet, television broadcasts, GPS systems, and weather
forecasting.
• Frequency spectrum:
• The entire range of frequencies available for transmission in a
communication system. .
• The spectrum is divided into specific bands for different communication
systems and services. For example, certain frequencies are allocated for FM
radio, TV broadcasting, mobile communication, Wi-Fi, and satellite services.
• Bandwidth refers to the width of a specific frequency band that a
communication system uses to transmit information.
• Larger BW means more data flow
• signal bandwidth should be low and channel band width should be high
• SIZE OF A SIGNAL :
• Signals
• A Signal is the function of one or more independent variables that carries some
information to represent a physical phenomenon. e.g. ECG, EEG .
• A signal is generally given in time-domain. Time-domain specifies that what is
the amplitude of the signal at a particular time-instant.
• But if we want to know the frequency components present in this signal, then
we will have to take help of some types of mathematical tools.
• Classification of signals:
1. Continuous & Discrete Signals
2. Randam & Diterminstic Signals
3. Periodic & Non Periodic Signals
4. Causal & Non Causal Signals
5. Energy & Power signals
6. Even & Odd signals
• Continuous-time Signal:
• signal that is specified for every value of time t (Fig. 2.3a) is a continuous time
signal of time t is a continuous signal.
• they vary smoothly over time without any interruptions or discrete steps.

•
Discrete-time Signal:
• The Signal which is defined at
some instant of time, not at
every instant.
• These signals are also known
as sampled signals.
Analog and Digital Signals:
• A signal whose amplitude can take on any value in a continuous range is
an analog signal.
• The range of values is varying smoothly over time.
• Amplitude can take on an (uncountably) infinite number of values

• A digital signal, is one whose amplitude can take on only a finite number
of values.
(a) analog and continuous time, (b) digital and continuous time, (c) analog and discrete time, (d)
digital and discrete time.
• Energy Signals:
• A energy signals refer to signals x(t) that have finite energy but zero
average power.

• Energy Signals have finite energy and zero average power.

• They are non-periodic and usually short-lived.
• Examples include pulses, transients, and certain modulated signals
• Power Signals:
• A power signal is a signal that has an infinite total energy but a constant, non-zero
average power over time. These signals are typically continuous or periodic, and their
total energy grows without bound as time increases.
• If energy of a signal is finite, then power is zero
• If power of a signal is finite, then energy is Infinite
• Deterministic and Random Signals
• A signal whose physical description is known completely with time, either in a
mathematical form or a graphical form is a deterministic signal.
•
A signal that is known only in terms of probabilistic description, such as mean
value, mean square value, and distributions, rather than its full mathematical or
graphical description is a random signal.
• Irregular in nature.
• Noise is a irregular signal
• periodic signal and Aperiodic signal:
• A periodic signal is that type of signal which has a definite pattern and repeats
over and over with a repetition period of T. In other words. a signal is called
periodic if it exhibits periodicity as follow

T is the period of the signal.

• A periodic signal x (t) remains unchanged when time-shifted by one period
• A periodic signal, by definition, must start from -∞ and continue forever,

• A signal is said to be Aperiodic if it does not repeat.

• Even Signal:
• Any signal x(t) is called is even if it satisfies the following condition:
x(t)=x(−t)
• This means that the signal is symmetric about the vertical axis (the y-axis).
• For an even signal, the value of the signal at time t is equal to the value at time −t.
• Example:
• Cosine function, x(t)=cos(t), is even because cos(t)=cos(−t).
• Odd Signal:
• A signal x(t) is odd if it satisfies the following condition:
• x(t)=−x(−t).
• This means that the signal is anti-symmetrical about the vertical axis
• For an odd signal, the value of the signal at time t is the negative of the value at time
−t.
• Example:
• Sine function, x(t)=sin(t), is odd because sin(t)=−sin(−t)