Surface Water Hydrology

Professor. Rajib Maity

Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Lecture – 11
Introduction to Evaporation and Evaporimeters

(Refer Slide Time: 00:18)

Welcome to week 3. This week, we are going to start the different abstractions from the
precipitation. So, once that precipitation falls on the ground, then it goes to different processes
and before it creates some runoff and joins to the streamflow.

Now, there are different losses with respect to the runoff and those are called abstraction. In
lecture 11 we will one such abstraction is the evaporation will be discussed and the
evaporimeters through which these operations are measured.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:01)

So, these are specific concepts covered in this class. The first one is the abstraction from
precipitation, then we will take the evaporation factors that control the evaporation and the
instrument evaporimeters through which we measure the evaporation is the concept that will be
covered in this lecture.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:46)

The outline of this lecture goes like this: In the first the abstraction from the precipitation we
give some introduction and the various abstraction and processes, then evaporation factors
controlling evaporation estimation of evaporation evaporimeters, atmometers evaporation
stations, and then summary.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:09)

Abstraction from Precipitation

Introduction

Consider a catchment area receiving precipitation. The contribution of the precipitation towards
the runoff process starts after several losses (with respect to the runoff) are encountered. In other
words, the runoff from a catchment is the precipitation in excess. So, precipitation in excess or
excess precipitation is sometimes called the abstraction or the losses precipitation excess of the
abstraction. Here is the major component of the abstraction from the precipitation is discussed in
detail.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:14)

Abstraction from the precipitation is the amount of precipitation that does not contribute to the
runoff. And there are different such components are there the major abstractions are it starts from
the specific needs the evaporation and transpiration and these two combined do we call that
evapotranspiration, then comes infiltration that goes below the ground, then interception.

Interception is basically, on the plant foliage it is an interceptor some part of the precipitation is
intercepted and then comes the depression storage there are some local depressions are there,
where the flow is stopped for some time. So, these are some of the major abstraction from the
precipitation.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:11)

Evaporation

Evaporation is the simultaneous process of heat and mass transfer by which the liquid changes its
state to a gaseous state, below the boiling temperature, from its surface. In this process water in
liquid state changes to water vapor by the transfer of water molecules to the atmosphere. It is the
primary process through which, water in a liquid state moves back to the hydrologic cycle as
atmospheric water vapor.

On the water surface, there are water molecules near the surface due to the kinetic energy that is
being received from the energy source here the major energy source is the sun. These water
molecules are always in some constant motion and the addition of the heat causes the average
speed to increase. When some molecules achieve sufficient kinetic energy, they may escape from
the water surface that net escape from the water surface from the liquid state to the gaseous state
that constitutes the evaporation it must have been the some of the molecules which are there in
the atmosphere may also come back to the liquid to the waters water surface. So, some that are
going away from the water surface something that is coming into the water surface. So, there is
some net that is going outside this water surface that is constituting the evaporation and we have
to remember that this process is below the boiling temperature.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:25)

Factors controlling the rate of evaporation

The rate of evaporation depends on various physical factors based on hydro-meteorological

conditions. The most important factors controlling evaporation are vapor pressure, temperature,
wind velocity, atmospheric pressure, soluble salt, and heat storage in the water bodies.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:55)

Vapour Pressure

For a given air temperature, there is a maximum moisture content the air can hold, and the
corresponding vapour pressure is called the saturation vapour pressure. At this vapour pressure,
the rate of evaporation and condensation are equal. The rate of evaporation is proportional to the
difference between the saturation vapour pressure and the vapour pressure in the air.

More the gradient is more evaporation takes place and these are generally expressed through
some common expression that is called the Dalton law of evaporation.

𝐸𝐿= Rate of evaporation in mm/day

𝑒𝑤= Saturation vapour pressure in mm of Hg

𝑒𝑎= Actual vapour pressure in mm of Hg

𝐶 is a constant,

Higher the saturation deficit, i.e., (𝑒𝑤 - 𝑒𝑎) more will be the rate of evaporation.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:10)

Temperature

The rate of evaporation increases with an increase in the temperature. For instance, evaporation
amounts are high in tropical climates and tend to be low in polar regions. With an increase in the
temperature, the water molecules become more active possessing increased kinetic energy. This
increased energy allows the molecules from liquid water to escape into the air more rapidly.
However, under constant temperature conditions, the rate of evaporation need not be the same
depending on the other factors, such as seasonal variation, regional climate characteristics, land
use, land cover patterns, etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:06)

Wind Velocity

As water evaporates, the air above the evaporating surface gradually becomes more humid until
reaching the saturation point. Wind transports the evaporated water vapour away and
consequently creates greater scope for evaporation. The rate of evaporation increases with wind
up to a critical velocity, beyond which any further increase has no notable influence on the
evaporation rate.

This critical wind velocity is a function of the size of the water surface. From small water bodies,
wind removes the water vapor more quickly than the larger water bodies.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:20)

Atmospheric Pressure

A decrease in the atmospheric pressure, as in high altitudes, increases evaporation, keeping the
other factors the same. It is because, in less dense air (low atmospheric pressure), there is less
chance of the escaping water molecules from the evaporative surface colliding with the air
molecules.

Soluble Salts

The vapour pressure is reduced when a solute is dissolved in water and causes a reduction in the
rate of evaporation. The percentage reduction in evaporation approximately corresponds to the
percentage increase in the specific gravity. For instance, under identical conditions evaporation
from seawater is about 2-3% less than that from freshwater.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:27)

Heat Storage in Water bodies

Temperature rise increases the evaporation rate. The shallow water bodies get heated more
rapidly than the deep-water bodies. Deep water bodies have more heat storage than shallow ones.
A deep lake may store heat energy received in summer and release it in winter causing less
evaporation in summer and more evaporation in winter.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:59)

Estimation of Evaporation

The estimation of evaporation there are different approaches:

I. Using the evaporimeter data

II. Empirical equations
III. Analytical methods.

Evaporimeters

Evaporimeters are water-containing pans that are exposed to the atmosphere and the loss of
water by evaporation is measured at regular intervals.

Different types of evaporimeters are available. Here the four different types are sown the Class A
you have Evaporation Pan, ISI Standard Pan, Colorado Sunken Pan, and US Geological Survey
Floating Pan.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:48)

Class A Evaporation Pan

It is a standard pan of 1210 mm diameter and 255 mm depth used by the US Weather Bureau and
is known as Class A Land Pan. The depth of water is maintained between 180 mm and 200 mm.
Generally made of unpainted galvanized iron sheet. It is placed on a wooden platform of 150 mm
height above the ground to allow free circulation of air below the pan.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:02)

ISI Standard Pan

The ISI Standard Pan evaporimeters specified by this Indian standard 5973-1970 is also known
as the modified Class A Pan and it consists of 1220 mm in diameter with 255 mm in the depth as
you can see in this schematic diagram.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:23)

The pan is made of copper or stainless-steel sheet of 0.9 mm thickness, tinned inside, and painted
white outside. A fixed-point gauge indicates the level of water. It is placed over a square wooden
platform of 1225 mm width and 100 mm height to enable circulation of air underneath the pan.
The top of the pan is covered fully with a hexagonal wire netting of galvanized iron to protect the
water in the pan from birds and also to make the water temperature more uniform. The
evaporation from this pan is found to be less by about 14% compared to that from the unscreened
pan.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:40)

Colorado Sunken Pan

This pan is made up of an unpainted galvanized iron sheet and buried into the ground within 100
mm from the top level.

Advantage:

 Radiation and aerodynamic characteristics are similar to those of a lake

Disadvantages:

 Difficult to detect leaks

 Extra care is needed to keep the surrounding area free from tall grass, dust, etc.

 Expensive to install

(Refer Slide Time: 16:27)

US Geological Survey Floating Pan

For incorporating characteristics of a large water body, the pan is set in floating condition
supported by drum floats. The water level in the pan is kept at the same level as the lake.
Diagonal baffles are provided around the pan to reduce the surging in the pan due to wave action.
Disadvantages:

 High cost of installation and maintenance

 The difficulty involved in performing measurements

(Refer Slide Time: 17:22)

There are a few drawbacks for the upper evaporimeters

 The difference in the heat-storing capacity and heat transfer from the sides and bottom of
a pan as compared to the lake. However, the sunken pan and floating pan aim to reduce
this deficiency.

 The height of the rim in an evaporation pan affects the wind action over the surface. Also,
it puts a shadow of variable magnitude over the water surface.

 The evaporation from a pan depends on its size up to a certain extent. For instance, a pan
of 3 m diameter produces nearly the same evaporation as from a neighboring large lake,
however, a pan of size 1.0 m diameter indicates about 20% excess evaporation than that
of the 3 m diameter pan.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:01)

Correction in the evaporation is applied on the evaporation observed from a pan to get
evaporation from a lake under similar climatic and exposure conditions. It can be expressed as:

Where CP = Pan Coefficient

Table showing Values of Pan Coefficient 𝐶𝑝

(Refer Slide Time: 19:42)

Atmometers:

There is another type of evaporimeters also known as atmometers. This is used for measuring the
rate of water evaporation from a wet surface to the atmosphere. A water supply tube fitted with a
graduated sight glass is connected to a porous surface and the amount of evaporation over a
designated time period is given by a measure of the change in water stored. It is usually mounted
on a wooden post above the ground under direct sunlight. Care must be taken to keep the porous
surface clean from which the evaporation takes place.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:55)

Evaporation Stations

Some standard guidelines by World Meteorological Organization how many evaporations pans
are required for a region. So, usually, these pans are installed in such locations where the
meteorological data are also simultaneously being collected. So, the minimum network for the
perimeter stations is as per the WMO is like this

 In the Arid zone 1 station for every 30,000 kilometers square

 In the humid temperate climates, 1 station for every 50,000-kilometer square
 In the cold region 1 station for every 100000-kilometer square.

Currently, there are 219 Class A Pan evaporimeter stations is being maintained by India
Metrological Department as per the record available.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:47)

Example

An ISI standard pan is located near a lake. On July 10, 2019, the rainfall magnitude is 0.60 cm
and the amount of water added to restore the water level to its initial state is 0.50 cm. Estimate
the evaporation from the lake assuming the pan coefficient as 0.80.

Solution

Pan evaporation = 0.60 + 0.50 =1.10 cm

Lake evaporation = Pan coefficient × pan evaporation

= 0.80 × 1.10 = 0.88 cm

(Refer Slide Time: 22:41)

Example

Compute the mean daily evaporation loss for the month of August from a stream reach of 100
km long and average width of 60 m. The mean daily evaporation measured by a Class A pan in
August is 0.50 cm. Assume the pan coefficient as 0.70.

Solution

Mean daily evaporation = Pan coefficient × pan evaporation

= 0.70 × 0.5 = 0.35 cm

Mean daily evaporation from the stream = Area of the stream × mean daily evaporation

= (100 × 103 × 60) × (0.35 /102) = 2.10 ha-m

(Refer Slide Time: 24:02)

Summary

In summary, we learned the following points from this lecture:

 Various abstractions from precipitation are introduced in this lecture.

 The evaporation process and the factors controlling it, such as temperature, wind
velocity, vapour pressure, etc. are discussed.

 Evaporation can be estimated by three different approaches, i.e., the use of evaporimeter
data, empirical equations, and analytical methods.

 Different types of evaporimeters are discussed in detail along with their shortcomings.
The empirical and analytical methods are presented in the next lecture.

 The other forms of abstractions i.e., transpiration, infiltration, interception, and

depression storage are discussed in the upcoming lectures.