Course schedule

Period Contents Period Contents

Ch. 1. Introduction (Doing Physics)

wk 1 Ch. 2. Motion in a Straight Line wk 9 Ch. 13. Oscillatory Motion

Ch. 3. Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

wk 2 Ch. 4. Force and Motion / Ch. 5. Using wk 10 Ch. 14. Wave Motion
Newton’s Laws

Ch. 6. Work, Energy, and Power

wk 3 Ch. 7. Conservation of Energy wk 11 Ch. 15. Fluid Motion

Ch. 8. Gravity
wk 4 Ch. 9. Systems of Particles wk 12 Ch. 16. Temperature and Heat

wk 5 Ch. 10. Rotational Motion wk 13 Ch. 17. The Thermal Behavior of Matter

Ch. 11. Rotational Vectors and Angular Ch. 18. Heat, Work, and the First Law of
wk 6 Momentum wk 14 Thermodynamics

wk 7 Ch. 12. Static Equilibrium wk 15 Ch. 19. The Second Law of Thermodynamics

wk 8 Mid-term Exam (Chaps. 1 ~ 12) wk 16 Final Exam (Chaps. 13-19)

 Ch.13 Oscillatory Motion

• Condition under which oscillatory motion occurs

• Description of oscillatory motion quantitatively in terms of

frequency, period, and amplitude

• Simple harmonic motion

• Damped harmonic motion and resonance

Warming up

Oscillation is the repetitive variation, typically in time, of

some measure about a central value or between two or
more different states. - from Wikipedia
Warming up

On chip ultra-high-Q resonator, Nature Photonics 2012

A ytterbium optical atomic clock at NIST

Oscillatory Motion

A system in oscillatory motion

undergoes repeating, periodic motion
about a point of stable equilibrium

-kx a point of stable equilibrium

-kx
Equilibriums
Characteristics of oscillatory motion

Period T [s] : time for a

complete cycle of the wave

Frequency f=1/T
[1/s]=[Hz]

Angular Frequency
ω=2π⋅f=2π/T
[rad/s]=[rad•Hz]

Amplitude A : the peak value of

the wave disturbance [m]
 Simple harmonic motion
• Simple harmonic motion (SHM) results when the force or
torque that tends to restore equilibrium is directly
proportional to the displacement from equilibrium.
Solution of the differential eqn: F d 2x
net = m 2 = −kx
dt
The paradigm example: a mass m on a spring of spring constant k
x(t ) = a cos(ωt ) + b sin(ωt ) = A cos(ωt + ϕ )

where, Angular frequency ω = k /m

A and ϕ are determined by initial conditions.

– Any amplitude A is possible.

• In SHM, frequency doesn’t depend on amplitude.
 SHM: frequency, period, phase
• Angular frequency, frequency, period:
k ω 1 k 1 m
• if 𝝎𝝎𝑻𝑻 = 𝟐𝟐𝝅𝝅 ω= f = = T= = 2π
m 2π 2π m f k
• Phase
– Describes the starting time of the displacement-versus-
time curve in oscillatory motion:
x(t) = Acos(ω t + ϕ)
SHM: velocity and acceleration

x(t ) = A cos(ωt + ϕ )

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = = −𝐴𝐴𝜔𝜔sin(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡 = = −𝐴𝐴𝜔𝜔2 cos(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Then, a (t ) = −ω 2 x(t )
𝑘𝑘
𝜔𝜔 =
𝑚𝑚
d 2x
Fnet = m 2 = −kx
dt
SHM example #1: vertical mass-spring

Same as horizontal case except the center of oscillation is changed.

SHM example #2: torsional oscillator

A fiber with torsional constant κ provides a a (t ) = −ω 2 x(t )

restoring torque d 2x
Fnet = m 2 = −kx
dt
ω = k /m

d 2θ
τ net = I 2 = −κθ
dt

Frequency depends on κ and rotational inertia: ω= κ I

SHM example #3: pendulum

Point mass on massless cord of length L a (t ) = −ω 2 x(t )

d 2x
Fnet = m 2 = −kx
dt
ω = k /m

𝐼𝐼𝛼𝛼 = 𝜏𝜏

d 2θ
I 2 = −mgL sin θ ≈ −mgLθ
dt
Taylor series expansion?

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑔𝑔
Frequency depends on g and length of the pendulum: 𝜔𝜔 = =
𝐼𝐼 𝐿𝐿
 optional
Taylor expansion
A representation of a function as an infinite sum of terms that are
calculated from the values of the function’s derivatives at a single point
∞
𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓 (𝑎𝑎) 𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓′ 𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓 ′
′ 𝑎𝑎
� 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 + (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎)2 + (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎)3 + ⋯
𝑛𝑛! 1! 2! 3!
𝑛𝑛=0

example 1: 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 at 𝑎𝑎 = 0
𝑥𝑥 1 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 3
1+ + + +⋯
1! 2! 3!

example 2: sin 𝑥𝑥 at 𝑎𝑎 = 0
𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥 5 𝑥𝑥 7
𝑥𝑥 − + − +⋯
3! 5! 7!
When 𝑥𝑥 ≪ 1, high order terms are ignored.

𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 and Taylor series

 optional
Taylor expansion
∞
𝑓𝑓 𝑛𝑛(𝑎𝑎) 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓′ 𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓′ ′ 𝑎𝑎
𝑛𝑛 2 (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎)3 + ⋯
� 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 + (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎) +
𝑛𝑛! 1! 2! 3!
𝑛𝑛=0
When 𝑥𝑥 ≪ 1
𝑥𝑥 1 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 3
example 1: 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 at 𝑎𝑎 = 0 , 1 + + + +⋯ 1 + 𝑥𝑥
1! 2! 3!

𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥 5 𝑥𝑥 7
example 2: sin 𝑥𝑥 at 𝑎𝑎 = 0, 𝑥𝑥 − + − +⋯ 𝑥𝑥
3! 5! 7!

𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 4 𝑥𝑥 6 𝑥𝑥 2
example 3: cos 𝑥𝑥 at 𝑎𝑎 = 0, 1 − + − +⋯ 1−
2! 4! 6! 2

example 4: 1/(1 − x) at 𝑎𝑎 = 0, 1 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 3 + ⋯ 1 + 𝑥𝑥

d 2θ
I 2 = −mgL sin θ ≈ −mgLθ
dt
Nonlinear pendulum

With increasing 𝜃𝜃, difference between 𝜃𝜃 and sin 𝜃𝜃 become more

significant (No more Taylor expansion with first few terms)

d 2θ
I 2 = −mgL sin θ ≈ − mgLθ
dt
Nonlinear pendulum
SHM and circular motion

Top view Side view

SHM and circular motion

• SHM can be viewed as one component

of uniform circular motion.
• Angular frequency ω in SHM is the
same as angular velocity ω in circular
motion.

As the position vector r traces out a circle, it’s x and y
components are sinusoidal functions of time.
Got it? 13.4

• The figure shows the paths traced out in the horizontal

plane by two pendulums swinging with two different
frequencies in two perpendicular directions. What is the
ratio of the x-direction frequency to the y-direction frequency?

1:2
3:2
 Energy in SHM

• Only conservative force acting on the system:

Total energy is conserved
• Energy is transferred between K and U
Energy in SHM

1 2 1
𝑈𝑈 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 = 𝑘𝑘(𝐴𝐴cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑))2
2 2
𝑘𝑘
1 1 𝜔𝜔 =
𝑚𝑚
𝐾𝐾 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 = 𝑚𝑚(𝐴𝐴𝜔𝜔sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑))2
2
2 2

𝑈𝑈 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐾𝐾 𝑡𝑡
1 1
= 𝑚𝑚(𝐴𝐴𝜔𝜔sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑)) + 𝑘𝑘(𝐴𝐴cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑))2
2
2 2
1 2
= 𝑘𝑘𝐴𝐴
2

K(t)+U(t) is constant over time

𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∝ 𝐴𝐴2
SHM is Ubiquitous

𝑈𝑈 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐹𝐹 = − = −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Most systems near stable equilibrium

have potential-energy curves that
are approximately parabolic
 SHM is ubiquitous
Damped oscillation

Spring: Elastic, Energy conserving

Damping: Viscous, Energy dissipating

 Damped oscillation

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑚𝑚 2 = 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝐹𝐹𝑑𝑑 = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝑏𝑏
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
Rewrite the equation: + 2𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔0 + 𝜔𝜔0 𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where 𝜔𝜔0 = 𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚 : undamped angular frequency

𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
𝜁𝜁 = = : damping ratio
2𝑚𝑚𝜔𝜔0 2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Different types of solutions based on the values of 𝜁𝜁

But, simply state its solution:

𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏/2𝑚𝑚 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙

 optional
Damped oscillation

𝑑𝑑2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
2
+ 2𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔0 + 𝜔𝜔0 𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

(a) Under-damped 0 < 𝜁𝜁 < 1 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔0𝑡𝑡 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐵𝐵 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡

here, 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 = 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 1 − 𝜁𝜁 2

(b) Critically damped 𝜁𝜁 = 1 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = (𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵)𝑒𝑒 −𝜔𝜔0𝑡𝑡

The critically damped system return back to equilibrium most quickly!
(c) Over-damped 𝜁𝜁 > 1 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 𝛾𝛾+ 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 𝛾𝛾− 𝑡𝑡
here, 𝛾𝛾± = 𝜔𝜔0 −𝜁𝜁 ± 𝜁𝜁 2 − 1
(d) Undamped (SHM) 𝜁𝜁 = 0 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜔𝜔0 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐵𝐵 sin 𝜔𝜔0 𝑡𝑡

http://mathworld.wolfram.com/DampedSimpleHarmonicMotion.html
Forced oscillation
Forced oscillation

𝑑𝑑2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑚𝑚 2 = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝑏𝑏 + 𝐹𝐹𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 Driving force
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 : driving frequency
Since the system is being driven at the frequency 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 ,
oscillatory motion follows this driving frequency.
𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴(𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 )𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 𝑏𝑏 1
𝜁𝜁 = =
2𝑚𝑚𝜔𝜔0 8
𝐹𝐹𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝐴 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 =
2 2 2 2 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 2
𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 − 𝜔𝜔0 + 𝑏𝑏 1
𝑚𝑚2 𝜁𝜁 =
4

1
𝜁𝜁 =
2
Forced oscillation

• For weak damping, the maximum occurs at very nearly

the natural frequency.
• Therefore, in weakly damped system, it’s possible to build
up large-amplitude oscillations with relatively small driving
forces.
Resonance 𝜁𝜁 =
𝑏𝑏
2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
=
1
8

𝑏𝑏 1
𝜁𝜁 = =
2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 4

𝑏𝑏 1
𝜁𝜁 = =
2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2
Resonance

Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse

Resonance

Boy Breaks Wine Glass with Voice

Chapter summary
• Oscillatory motion is periodic motion that results from a force or
torque that tends to restore a system to equilibrium.
• SHM, if 𝐹𝐹 = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. x(t) = Acos(ω t + ϕ)

k ω 1 k 1 m
ω= f = = T= = 2π
m 2π 2π m f k

• Mechanical energy conservation.

• Damped harmonic motion occurs when nonconservative forces

act on the oscillating system.
• Resonance is a high-amplitude oscillatory response of a system
driven at near its natural oscillation frequency.
 Ch.14 Wave Motion

• Traveling disturbances that transport energy but not matter

• Description of waves quantitatively in terms of frequency,

period, and amplitude

• Specific types of waves: waves on strings, sound waves

• Interference, reflection, and standing waves

• Doppler effect and shock waves

Longitudinal and Transverse waves

Longitudinal wave

• The disturbance is parallel to the wave motion

Transverse wave

• The disturbance is perpendicular to the wave motion

Surface wave on water
What is wave

• A disturbance that travels through “space” and “time”

• Wave transports energy but not matter.
Space domain (spatial)

Time domain (temporal)

x
t
What is wave?

• Mechanical waves are disturbances of a material medium.

(string & sound wave)
• The medium moves briefly as the wave goes by,
• but the medium itself isn’t transported any distance.
• The wave propagates as the disturbance of the medium is
communicated to adjacent parts of the medium.

• Electromagnetic waves, including light, do not require medium.

Properties of waves
Time domain (temporal) Space domain (spatial)

A: Amplitude A: Amplitude

T : Temporal Period λ: Spatial Period “wavelength”

f: Temporal Freq. (1/T) u : Spatial Freq. (1/ λ )

ω : Temporal Angular Freq. k: Spatial Angular freq.

2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
(= 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = ) “wave number” (2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = )
𝑇𝑇 𝜆𝜆
Speed of wave

Wave speed is the rate at which the wave propagates:

𝜆𝜆 2𝜋𝜋 𝜔𝜔 𝜔𝜔
𝑣𝑣 = = 𝜆𝜆𝑓𝑓 = =
𝑇𝑇 𝑘𝑘 2𝜋𝜋 𝑘𝑘
Wave math

2𝜋𝜋
At t=0, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, 𝑘𝑘 =
𝜆𝜆
at time t, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 cos[𝑘𝑘(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣)], 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝜔𝜔

y ( x, t ) = A cos(kx ± ωt ) Simple harmonic wave

Wave equation

Q: Is the Simple harmonic wave possible in reality?

y ( x, t ) = A cos(kx ± ωt )

Example: string wave

• Many media support waves: behavior of a medium in response

to disturbances, which often result in wave equation

Wave equation (1D)

𝜕𝜕2 𝑦𝑦 1 𝜕𝜕2 𝑦𝑦
=
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝑣𝑣 2 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 2
Problem 69, 70
Wave equation

• Any function of the form 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ± 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣) is a solution to the

wave equation. 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑦𝑦 1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑦𝑦
2
= 2 2
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
Let’s define a new variable, 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 ± 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢

= = (since = 1)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥

For LHS of 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑓𝑓

= =
wave equation, 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢2

For RHS of 1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑦𝑦 1 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 ±𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑓𝑓

= = 2 =
wave equation, 𝑣𝑣 2 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 2 𝑣𝑣 2 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢2
𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢
(since = ±𝑣𝑣 )
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
Got it? 14.2

• The figure shows snapshots of two waves propagating

with the same speed. Which has the greater:
(a)
• Amplitude? (a)

• Wavelength? (b)

• Wave number? (a) (b)

• Period? (b)

• Frequency? (a)
Wave speed: strings

F: Tension force
µ: Mass per unit length

The speed of waves on string :

𝐹𝐹
𝑣𝑣 =
𝜇𝜇
Wave power, P: string case

• Vertical component of the tension does work that transfer

energy along the string
𝑢𝑢

𝑢𝑢

𝑢𝑢 = vertical velocity

Average power

Wave carries energy 𝑣𝑣 =

𝐹𝐹
𝜇𝜇
Wave intensity

Wave propagation and intensity

Wave front: surface where the phase is constant
Plane wave Spherical wave

I=P/A I=P/4πr2
Wave intensity examples
 Sound wave

• Longitudinal mechanical waves

that propagate through gases,
liquids, and solids

γP
The speed in a gas: v =
ρ
P: pressure
ρ: density
γ: characteristic constant of the gas
(7/5 for air and diatomic gas,
5/3 monoatomic gas like helium)
Sound intensity level [dB]

Sound intensity levels are measured in decibels, a logarithmic unit

based on comparison with a reference intensity

β = 10 log10 ( I I 0 ) I0= 10–12 W/m2

• 0 dB: x1 power ratio, reference (acoustic wave: the minimum audible)

• 10 dB: x10 power ratio
• 20 dB: x100 power ratio
• 100 dB: x1010 power ratio
 Wave interference
• Unlike particles, two waves can be in the same place at the same
time.
• When they are, they interfere.
– In most cases, the waves superpose, or simply add.
• When wave crests coincide, the interference is constructive.
• When crests coincide with troughs, the interference is destructive.

Waves obey superposition principle!!

Wave interference

Addition of waves results in a new wave pattern

Phase difference = 0 Phase difference = π
wave1

wave2

Combined wavefor
m

Constructive Interference Destructive interference

sin(ωt ) + sin(ωt ) =
2sin(ωt ) sin(ωt ) + sin(ωt − π ) =
0
Active noise cancelling
Wave interference in two dimension

5 5
𝜆𝜆 3 1 1 3 𝜆𝜆
2 𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆 2
2 2 2 2

http://www.falstad.com/interference-java/
 optional
Wave interference in two dimension

Young’s interference experiment: demonstration of wave nature of light

 optional
Fourier theorem

• Any signal (or function) can be decomposed of simple

harmornic waves (sin/cos) N
= x(t ) ∑ Ai sin(ωi t + ϕi )
i =1

x(t ) = sin(ω0t )

1
x(t ) = sin(ω0t ) + sin(3ω0t )
3

1 1
x(t ) = sin(ω0t ) + sin(3ω0t ) + sin(5ω0t )
3 5

1 1
x(t ) = sin(ω0t ) + sin(3ω0t ) + sin(5ω0t ) + ...
3 5
 optional
Fourier analysis
N
=x(t ) ∑ A sin(ω t + ϕ )
i =1
i i i

𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
+

ωi
+

𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖

• Random shape wave can be broken

down into sine functions
ωi
 optional
Fourier analysis examples

Equalizer: frequency-specific Image processing:

volume knobs Noise removal using Fourier
transform
Dispersion

Light dispersion

• For some media, wave speed depends on wavelength

 results in Dispersion
𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
• Example: waves on the surface of deep water. 𝑣𝑣 =
2𝜋𝜋
Beats

• When waves of slightly different frequencies interfere, they

alternate between constructive and destructive interference.

ω − ω2 ω1 + ω2
sin(ω1t ) + sin(ω2t ) =
2 cos( 1 t ) sin( t)
2 2
envelope
There are two amplitude peaks for each cycle of the slow oscillation.
The frequency with which the amplitude varies is simply 𝜔𝜔1 − 𝜔𝜔2 .
Beats
Orchestras tune to an ‘A’ of the oboe.

Movie: Concert Mater Tuning

- All-State South Carolina SC Senior Orchestra 2011 Clemson
Beats

Movie: Beats Demo with Tuning Forks

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yia8spG8OmA
 Reflection

Waves reflect at an interface

with a different medium

At the rigidly clamped end:

 The wave amplitude must remain zero.
 Incident and reflected pulses interfere
destructively.
 Reflected wave is inverted.

At the free end:

 The displacement is maximum.
 Reflected wave is not inverted.

rigidly clamped end free end

Reflection at the junction

Generally, a wave is partially reflected and partially transmitted

at an interface between different media
Reflection & refraction

Reflection Refraction
reflected

transmitted

incident More details in Chapter 30

 Standing waves

𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − cos 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 2𝐴𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

clamped clamped
at both at one
ends end

𝑚𝑚𝜆𝜆 𝑚𝑚𝜆𝜆
𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 =
2 4
with m an integer with m odd number

𝑚𝑚: mode number

𝑚𝑚=1
fundamental mode

L restricts the allowed λ and freq. to discrete values.

 Standing waves

𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − cos 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 2𝐴𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

2𝐿𝐿
𝜆𝜆 =
clamped 𝑚𝑚
at both 𝐹𝐹
ends 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑓𝑓𝜆𝜆 𝑣𝑣 =
𝜇𝜇
𝑚𝑚𝜆𝜆
𝐿𝐿 =
2
with m an integer
𝑣𝑣 𝑚𝑚 𝐹𝐹
𝑓𝑓 = =
𝜆𝜆 2𝐿𝐿 𝜇𝜇

(𝑚𝑚: integer)

L restricts the allowed λ and freq. to discrete values.

Standing waves in musical instruments

• Wind instruments are analogous, with sound waves in their

air columns.
– Wind instruments are typically open at one end or both.
 Doppler effect
For moving source

𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

The wave speed is determined by the properties of the medium,

so the speed doesn’t change with source motion.
𝜆𝜆
′
𝜆𝜆 = 𝜆𝜆 ± 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝜆𝜆 ± 𝑢𝑢 (+ for receding, - for approaching)
𝑣𝑣
𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑓
By applying 𝜆𝜆 = ′
and 𝜆𝜆 = ′ 𝑓𝑓 ′ = 𝑢𝑢
𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓 1±
𝑣𝑣
 Doppler effect

For moving observer

𝜆𝜆
𝑇𝑇 ′ =
𝑣𝑣 ± 𝑢𝑢
𝑇𝑇 ′
(+ for approaching, - for receding)

′
𝜆𝜆
𝑓𝑓 𝑇𝑇 𝑣𝑣 𝑢𝑢 𝑢𝑢
= ′= =1± 𝑓𝑓 ′ = 𝑓𝑓 1 ±
𝑓𝑓 𝑇𝑇 𝜆𝜆 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣
𝑣𝑣 ± 𝑢𝑢

Doppler effect in general case,  v ± uobserver 

f′= f
 v ± usource 
• The Doppler effect for light is similar but slightly different because light has no
medium. The formula above applies only for speeds much less than light.
More details can be found in Chapter 33.
 Shock waves

When 𝑢𝑢 ≥ 𝑣𝑣, the wave crests pile up to form a large amplitude wave.
 Shock wave
Shock waves
when a wave source moves through the medium faster than the wave speed

• The ratio u/v is called the Mach number.

• Mach angle θ is defined by sinθ = v/u.
Chapter summary
• A wave is a traveling disturbance that carries energy but not matter
- Mechanical waves/EM waves
• Longitudinal and Transverse waves
• Properties of waves
2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 𝜔𝜔
𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = , 𝑘𝑘 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = , 𝑣𝑣 = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 =
𝑇𝑇 𝜆𝜆 𝑘𝑘

• Simple Harmonic Wave y ( x, t ) = A cos(kx ± ωt )

F γP
• Wave on string v=
µ
and sound wave v=
ρ
1 2 2
• Wave power 𝑃𝑃� = 𝜇𝜇𝜔𝜔 𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣
2
• Important wave phenomena
- Reflection and refraction
- Interference (beat)
- Standing wave
- Doppler effect
- Shock wave
 Ch.15 Fluid motion

• Quantities used in describing fluid behavior, including pressure

and density

• Hydrostatic equilibrium and buoyancy force

• How conservation of matter and energy apply to fluids

– The continuity equitation

– Bernoulli’s equation
Fluid

• Fluid is matter that flows under the influence of external

forces.
• Fluids include gases and liquids:
• In gases, molecules are far apart and the density changes readily:
compressible.

• In liquids, molecules are close together and density remains nearly

constant: incompressible.

• Fluids cannot maintain a fixed structure, but flow to assume the

configuration of any container they’re confined to.

Fluid: a substance that continually

deforms (flows) under an applied
shear stress (Wikipedia)
Pressure

• The amount of force applied at right angle to the surface

of an object per unit area Is “P” scalar or vector?
𝐹𝐹
𝑃𝑃 = [𝑁𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃]
𝐴𝐴

• Average atmospheric pressure

• 101.3 kPa (1013 hPa)

(Note: Weight of fluid is ignored)

Hydrostatic equilibrium

• There is a net force due to pressure only when

pressure varies with position.
Hydrostatic equilibrium

• In the presence of gravity, pressure in a static fluid

increases with depth.
– This allows an upward pressure force to balance the
downward gravitational force.
– This condition is hydrostatic equilibrium.
– Details depend on the nature of the fluid.
Hydrostatic equilibrium

For incompressible fluids (liquids having constant density),

𝑝𝑝 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹𝑔𝑔

𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹𝑔𝑔 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑔𝑔 𝐴𝐴 𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌: density of fluid

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑔𝑔 𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝0 + 𝜌𝜌 𝑔𝑔 ℎ

where p0 is the pressure at the surface.

Measuring pressure

A barometer measures the absolute pressure of a fluid, typically air.

Vacuum suction force?
Vacuum: 𝑃𝑃0 = 0
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝0 + 𝜌𝜌 𝑔𝑔 ℎ
 optional
Pressure unit

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

atmosphere (standard) atm ≡ 101325 Pa[34]
atmosphere (technical) at ≡ 1 kgf/cm2 = 9.80665×104 Pa[34]
bar bar ≡ 105 Pa
barye (cgs unit) ≡ 1 dyn/cm2 = 0.1 Pa
≡ 13595.1 kg/m3 ×
centimetre of mercury cmHg ≈ 1.33322×103 Pa[34]
1 cm × ɡ0
≈ 999.972 kg/m3 ×
centimetre of water (4 °C) cmH2O ≈ 98.0638 Pa[34]
1 cm × ɡ0
kilogram-force per square millimetre kgf/mm2 ≡ 1 kgf/mm2 = 9.80665×106 Pa[34]
≡ 13595.1 kg/m3 ×
millimetre of mercury mmHg ≈ 133.3224 Pa[34]
1 mm × ɡ0 ≈ 1 torr
pascal (SI unit) Pa ≡ N/m2 = kg/(m·s2) = 1 Pa[35]
pièze (mts unit) pz ≡ 1000 kg/m·s2 = 103 Pa = 1 kPa
pound per square inch psi ≡ 1 lbf/in2 ≈ 6.894757×103 Pa[34]
torr torr ≡ 101325
​ ⁄760 Pa ≈ 133.3224 Pa[34]
Pressure around us

• There is 1 atm pressure around us all the time.

Why we don’t feel it?
Measuring pressure
A manometer measures pressure differences.
Gauge pressure : a measure of
pressure relative to the ambient
atmosphere.

Tire pressure is the tire’s excess pressure

over atmospheric pressure.
 Hydraulic lift

Pressure exerted by a small piston = Pressure exerted by a large piston

p1 = F1 A1 =p2 F=
2 A2 mg A2
2 2
A1  R1   15cm  mg
=F1 mg
= mg =  mg  = 
A2 R
 2  120 cm  64

Pascal’s law: a pressure increase anywhere is felt throughout the fluid.

Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy

Archimedes’ principle
The buoyancy force on an object is equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
object.

Buoyancy force Fb = ρf gVobj

Buoyancy and Floating Objects

Archimedes’ principle
Buoyancy force Fb = ρf gVobj

Fg = ρobj gVobj

ρ obj > ρ f

ρ obj = ρ f

ρ obj < ρ f
 Buoyancy and Floating Objects

ρ waterVsub g

=
ρ iceVice g

• If a submerged object is less dense than a fluid, then the buoyancy

force is greater than its weight, and the object rises.
– In a liquid, it eventually reaches the surface.
• Then the object floats at a level such that the buoyancy force
equals its weight.
• That means the submerged portion displaces a weight of
liquid equal to the weight of the object.
– In the atmosphere, a buoyant object like a balloon rises to a
level where its density is equal to that of the atmosphere.
Buoyancy and Floating Objects

When ice melts in a glass of water, does the water level changes?
Center of buoyancy

Center of mass of the water that would be there if the object were
not there
Stable boat

Unstable boat
Fluid dynamics

• Moving fluids are characterized by their flow velocity as a

function of position and time.
In unsteady flow, the fluid velocity at a given point varies with time.

v ( x, y , z , t )
In steady flow, the velocity at a given point is independent of time.

v ( x, y , z )
• Steady flows can be visualized with streamlines which are
everywhere tangent to the local flow direction.
The continuity equation

: conservation of mass in a moving fluid.

 As it moves, new fluid is neither created nor destroyed.
Flow tube: an imaginary tube bounded by nearby streamlines
(no mixing across tube surface)

No physical boundary
but acts like a pipe
Fluid flows along not across
The Continuity Equation

Mass
𝑚𝑚 = 𝜌𝜌1 𝐴𝐴1 𝑣𝑣1 ∆𝑡𝑡
= 𝜌𝜌2 𝐴𝐴2 𝑣𝑣2 ∆𝑡𝑡

“mass flow rate”

ρ : density, v: flow speed, A : cross-sectional area

For incompressible fluids (ρ :constant)

“volume flow rate”.
The Continuity Equation
Bernoulli’s equation

Conservation of Energy (neglect fluid friction; no viscosity)

as a fluid moves along a stream tube

Work done p + 12 ρv 2 + ρ gh = constant

Mechanical energy change
𝑝𝑝1 𝐴𝐴1 � ∆𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑝𝑝2 𝐴𝐴2 � ∆𝑥𝑥2
1 1
= 𝐴𝐴2 � ∆𝑥𝑥2 � 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣2 2 + 𝐴𝐴2 � ∆𝑥𝑥2 � 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑦𝑦2 − 𝐴𝐴1 � ∆𝑥𝑥1 � 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣1 2 + 𝐴𝐴1 � ∆𝑥𝑥1 � 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑦𝑦1
2 2
Example 15.6 Draining a Tank

Since the hole is open to the atmosphere,

the pressure at the hole is atmospheric pressure pa.

1
By Bernoullis eqn: p + ρ gh + ρ v 2 =
const.
2

1 2
pa + ρ gh =pa + ρ vhole vhole = 2 gh
2
Example 15.7 A Venturi Flowmeter

p + 12 ρv 2 + ρ gh = constant 1 1
𝑝𝑝1 + 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑝𝑝2 + 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣2 2
2
2 2
𝑣𝑣1 𝐴𝐴1 = 𝑣𝑣2 𝐴𝐴2

2(𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 )
𝑣𝑣1 =
𝐴𝐴1 2
𝜌𝜌 2−1
𝐴𝐴2
The Bernoulli effect

p + 12 ρv 2 + ρ gh = constant

flow at funnel
Got it? 15.5

• A large tank is filled with liquid to the level h1 shown in the figure. It
drains through a small pipe whose diameter varies: emerging from
each section of pipe are vertical tubes open to the atmosphere.
Although the picture shows the same liquid level in each pipe, they
really won’t be the same. Rank level h1 though h4 in order from
highest to lowest.
ℎ1 > ℎ4 > ℎ2 > ℎ3
Flight and Lift

Do not apply Bernoulli’s principle here.

• A fluid flowing past the surface of a body

exerts a force on it.
• Lift is the component of the force that is
perpendicular to the flow direction.
• Drag force is the component of the surface
force parallel to the flow direction.
Flight and Lift

Knuckle ball Four seam

Flight and Lift

• 12-6 curveball
Flight and Lift

Movie: What Happens When a Spinning Basketball is Thrown Off a Dam!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2OSrvzNW9FE
Viscosity

• Viscosity: fluid friction

• Moving fluid interacts with the surfaces it contacts
• The transfer of momentum among adjacent layers within a fluid

The property of a fluid to resist the growth of shear deformation is

called viscosity.

Without viscosity, propellers would spin uselessly

and planes and ships would go nowhere.
 optional
Viscosity

𝜇𝜇1 < 𝜇𝜇2

𝐹𝐹 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= 𝜏𝜏 = 𝜇𝜇
𝐴𝐴 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

F: force acting on the top plate 𝜇𝜇: viscosity of fluid

u: speed of the top plate
A: the area of each plate
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosity
Turbulence

• Turbulence is complex, chaotic, time-dependent fluid motion.

Turbulent flow  Laminar flow
Problem 64

Water emerges from a faucet of diameter d0 in steady, near-vertical flow with

speed 𝜈𝜈0 . Show that the diameter of the falling water column is given by
𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑0 (𝜈𝜈02 )/(𝜈𝜈02 + 2𝑔𝑔𝑔) 1/4 , where h is the distance below the faucet.

The continuity equation: v0 d 02 = vd 2,

Since the water is in vertical free fall (negligible friction)  Bernoulli eqn:

v 2 =v02 + 2 gh =(d 0 /d ) 4 v02 ,

Thus,
𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑0 (𝜈𝜈02 )/(𝜈𝜈02 + 2𝑔𝑔𝑔) 1/4
Problem 66. An Airplane Speedometer

• A Pitot tube is used for measuring aircraft speeds. The tube is

mounted on the aircraft with opening A at right angles to the flow and
opening B pointing into the flow. The gauge prevents airflow through
the tube.
By applying Bernoulli’s Equation

p=
B p A + 1
2
ρ v 2
A, (vB = 0)

=vA 2 ( pB − p A ) ρ
Chapter Summary
• Fluid is characterized by pressure, density, and flow velocity.
• Hydrostatic equilibrium characterizes stationary fluids under the
influence of gravity.
• Objects submerged in a fluid are subject to an upward buoyant force, equal
to the weight of the displaced fluid. Buoyancy force Fb = ρf gVf
• Objects floating at the surface of a liquid displace a volume of water whose
weight equals that of the object.
• Moving fluids conserve matter and, under appropriate circumstances,
energy as well.
• The continuity equation describes the conservation of matter.
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 = constant for compressible fluid, 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = constant for incompressible fluid
• Bernoulli’s equation describes conservation of energy.
p + 12 ρv 2 + ρ gh = constant
• The Bernoulli effect describes the tradeoff between flow speed and
pressure. Where pressure is high, flow speed is low, and vice versa.
• Viscosity and turbulence are more complicated aspects of fluid behavior.
 Thermodynamics (Ch. 16 ~ 19)

Thermodynamics is a branch of physics concerned with heat and temperature and

their relation to energy and work. It defines macroscopic variables, such as internal
energy, entropy, and pressure, that partly describe a body of matter or radiation.
Thermodynamics describes average behavior (macroscopic properties) of
microscopic constituents.
 Ch.16 Temperature and Heat

• The meanings of temperature and heat, and the difference

between them
• How temperature is measured
• How to use heat capacity and specific heat to determine the
equilibrium temperatures of mixtures
• Heat transfer mechanism
– Including conduction, convection and radiation
• To determine the temperature of a system in thermal energy
balance
Thermodynamic Equilibrium

• Two systems are in thermodynamic equilibrium if their

macroscopic properties are no longer changing in thermal
contact.
• Macroscopic properties include length, volume, electrical
resistance, whatever.
• Two systems are in thermal contact if heating one of them results
in macroscopic changes in the other. (c.f. thermal insulation)

• Temperature
• Two systems have the same temperature
if they are in thermodynamic equilibrium.
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
In thermal contact
with no further macroscopic change

Reached thermodynamic equilibrium

A & B have the same temperature

0th law of thermodynamics: if two systems are each in thermal equilibrium
with a third system, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other

A C & B C A B
 Temperature

• Temperature is a physical quantity expressing hot and cold. It is

measured with a thermometer calibrated in one or
more temperature scales. From wikipedia

• Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the

particles in a system. Adding heat to a system causes its
temperature to rise. While there is no maximum theoretically
reachable temperature, there is a minimum temperature, known
as absolute zero, at which all molecular motion stops.
Temperatures are commonly measured in the Kelvin or
Celsius scales, with Fahrenheit still in common use in the Unites
States. From scienceworld.wolfram.com
 Phase diagram of water
Temperature scale: K (SI unit)

A constant-volume gas thermometer

• The point of zero pressure in a gas is defined as absolute zero.

• The temperature at water’s triple point is defined to be 273.16 K.
• Together, the two defined temperatures establish the kelvin scale.
Temperature scale conversion

• Celsius and Kelvin

The triple point of water occurs at 0.01oC.

• Celsius and Fahrenheit

• Fahrenheit and Rankine

Heat
Heat: energy being transferred from one object to another
because of a temperature difference alone.
- SI unit: joules (J)
- calorie (older unit): 1 cal = 4.184 J
- The amount of heat transferred is conventionally written as Q

V.S

Several thousand °C ~80-90 °C

Heat measures an amount of “something” whereas temperature

measures the intensity of that “something”
Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

• Heat capacity, C [J/K]

• A measure of the heat Q required per unit temperature change:
• Q = C ∆T

• Specific heat, c [J/kg·K]

• Heat capacity per unit mass
• Q = mc ∆T
• Nearly constant over a substantial T range, but not in very low T.
• It also depends on whether an object’s pressure or its volume
changes when its’ heated.
• Specific heat of water: 1 cal/g·oC
(Definition of calorie: the heat needed to raise the temperature of
1 g of water from 14.5 oC to 15.5 oC)
Specific Heats of Some Common Materials
The Equilibrium Temperature

m1c1∆T1 + m2 c2 ∆T2 = 0
Heat transferred to obj. #1 Heat transferred to obj. #2
 Heat transfer: three mechanisms

- Heat transfer is important to control heat. Ex) Effective heating and cooling. Insulation
Conduction

Heat transfer through direct physical contact (vibrational energy)

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The conductive heat flow rate, H (= ) [J/s], [W]
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
∆T
H = −kA
∆x
where k is the thermal conductivity of the material.
Thermal conductivity
 Grabbing thermal tile of 1200 oC
Refreshment Kennedy Space Center, NASA

Space Shuttle Thermal Tile Demonstration

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pp9Yax8UNoM
Conduction in composite material
Rate of heat flow

T2 − T1 T −T
H = − k1 A = −k2 A 3 2
∆x1 ∆x2

∆x
Thermal Resistance R=
kA

T2 − T1 T −T
H =− =− 3 2
R1 R2
R1 H = T1 − T2 and R2 H = T2 − T3

( R1 + R2 ) H = T1 − T2 + T2 − T3 = T1 − T3

𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇3
𝐻𝐻 =
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2
Convection

• Heat transfer through the bulk flow of a fluid

• Heated fluid becomes less dense  rise

Rayleigh-Bénard convection Bénard cell

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6BoEKUqDdLc
 Radiation

• Heat transfer by electromagnetic radiation

• The radiated power,
P = eσ AT4 (Stefan-Boltzmann Law)
e: emissivity (0 ≤ 𝑒𝑒 ≤ 1)
σ = 5.67×10–8 W/m2·K4
(Stefan-Boltzmann constant)
A: the area of the emitting surface,
T: the temperature in Kelvin
For radiation of a given wavelength,
good emitter = good absorber
poor emitter = poor absorber
e=1  perfect emitter  perfect absorber  blackbody
Thermal Energy Balance

• A system is in thermal energy balance when its rate of energy gain is

equal to its rate of energy loss.
• A system in energy balance maintains a constant temperature.
• If loss exceeds gain, the system cools.
• If gain exceeds loss, the system warms.
• All heat-loss mechanisms give
increased loss with increasing T.
 Even without active control,
systems with a fixed rate of energy input
naturally tend toward energy balance.

A house in thermal-energy balance

The Greenhouse effect

Earth receives energy from the Sun at the average rate of about 960
watts per square meter. Assuming its emissivity is 1, what should be
Earth’s average temperature?
Energy balance
The rate of energy arriving (πR2960 W/m2)
= rate going out ( 4πR2eσ T4 W/m2)
1/4
960 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚2
𝑇𝑇 =
4 × 5.67 × 10−8 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚2 𝐾𝐾 4

= 255 𝐾𝐾 (= −18 ℃)

• The natural greenhouse effect keeps Earth 33˚C warmer,

at about 288 K or 15˚C.
• Natural green house gas includes water vapor and CO2
Global Warming

Man-made global warming

Global Warming

462 oC

Iceball earth, image by NASA

 Chapter Summary

• Thermodynamic equilibrium is the state reached when macroscopic

properties of a system or systems don’t change.
• Systems in thermodynamic equilibrium are at the same temperature.
The kelvin (K) is the SI unit of temperature.
• Heat is energy in transit because of a temperature difference alone.
• The heat required to raise ∆T depends on its mass and its specific heat,
c: ∆Q = mc ∆T.
• Heat transfer mechanisms include conduction, convection, and
radiation.
∆T
H = −kA P = eσ AT4
∆x
• Thermal energy balance is a state in which the rate at which energy is
delivered to a system is equal to the rate at which the system loses
energy. A system in energy balance maintains a constant temperature.
 Ch.17 The Thermal Behavior of Matter

• The ideal-gas law

– The relationship between macroscopic and microscopic quantities,
especially temperature and molecular energy
• How to describe the three principle phases of matter
– To calculate the energies involved in phase transitions
– To interpret phase diagrams
• Calculation of thermal expansion of solids, liquids, and gases
 The Ideal Gas Law

“Experiment” shows that a gas of N molecules in a closed

container obeys a simple relation between pressure p,
volume V, and temperature T:

𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵
A piston-cylinder system k (or kB): Boltzmann’s constant; k = 1.38×10–23 J/K.
for exploring gas behavior

• The ideal gas law may also be written 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = 𝒏𝒏𝑵𝑵𝑨𝑨 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 = 𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏,
n : the number of moles of gas (N=nNA )
R : ideal gas constant 8.314 J/K·mol ( R=NAk)
NA : Avogadro’s number 6.02214129×1023 mol−1
• Mole [mol]: a unit for the amount of substance. 1 mol of C has a mass of 12 g.
• Note: Molar concentration(molarity) [M]= [mol/L]
Kinetic Theory of the Ideal Gas

Consider a gas that consists of particles that obey Newton’s laws.

Try to calculate Gas pressure: the average force the particles exert
when they collide with the container walls.

Assumptions
• Gas consists of identical molecules
with mass m, negligible size and no
internal structure.
• No intermolecular potential energy.
• Molecules move in random
directions.
• All collisions are elastic
Kinetic Theory of the Ideal Gas

The average force exerted on a wall

of a box by the ith particle

Summing over N particles,

Kinetic Theory of the Ideal Gas

However, the molecules are moving randomly so their speeds are

independent of their direction of motion. Thus, we can eliminate
reference to the x-component by using

Thus, 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2 2 1

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑉 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑁𝑁 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2
𝑉𝑉 3 3 2
Note that this is the ideal gas law if we make the substitution,
Molecular Kinetic energy Temperature
(microscopic quantity) (macroscopic quantity)
2 1 𝟏𝟏 𝟑𝟑
𝑁𝑁 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2 = 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝟐𝟐
𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗 = 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
3 2 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
Temperature measures the average kinetic energy associated with
random translational motion of the molecules.
The Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution

Molecules in a gas exhibit a range of speeds

that result from random collisions among the molecules.

1 2 3
mv = kT
2 2

At high T, the distribution is broader

and peaks at a higher speed.

The mean thermal speed is

3kT
vth =
m
where m is the molecular mass.

Applications:
- Chemical reaction rate
- Evaporation cooling
 Phase Changes
• Most substances occur in three phases—solid, liquid, gas
• It takes energy, called the heat of transformation, L, for changing phase
from solid to liquid and liquid to gas.
• The energy Q required to change the phase of a mass m: Q = Lm.

Q: You want to calibrate your thermometer. How do you make a stable ref T?
 Phase Changes

• The solid-liquid change involves the heat of fusion, Lf.

• The liquid-gas change involves the heat of vaporization, Lv.
• The direct transition from solid to gas involves the heat of sublimation, Ls.
• Energy must be removed to reverse the changes.
• During a phase change, temperature remains constant as energy goes into
breaking molecular bonds.

80 cal/g
Example 17.4 Enough Ice?

• When 200 g of ice at –10 oC are added to 1.0 kg of water at 15 oC, is

there enough ice to cool the water to 0 oC? If so, how much ice is left
in the mixture? 𝑐𝑐𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 : 4.184 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 � 𝐾𝐾 𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 : 2.05 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 � 𝐾𝐾 𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓_𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 : 334 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

For the energy to increase the ice T to 0 oC and melt it all.

𝑄𝑄1 = 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 Δ𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓_𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
= 0.20 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 2.05 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 � 𝐾𝐾 10 𝐾𝐾 + 0.20𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 334 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
= 4.1 kJ + 66.8 kJ = 70.9 kJ
For the energy to cool the water to 0 oC
𝑄𝑄2 = 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑐𝑐𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 Δ𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 62.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Since 𝑄𝑄1 > 𝑄𝑄2 , the ice is enough.

The remained ice in the mixture:
𝑄𝑄1 − 𝑄𝑄2 8.1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = = = 24 𝑔𝑔
𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓_𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 334 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 Phase diagram

Sublimation
and deposition

Melting
and freezing

Condensation
and evaporation

• The curves meet at the triple point, where all three phases coexist in equilibrium.
• The liquid-gas curve ends at the critical point, where the sharp distinction
between liquid and gas disappears.
• Crossing over a line is not instantaneous.
Supercritical Phase

Movie: Thermodynamics - Supercritical CO2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P9EftqFYaHg
Triple point

Movie: Cyclohexane at the Triple Point

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XEbMHmDhq2I
 Phase diagram

Sublimation
and deposition

Melting
and freezing

Condensation
and evaporation

• The curves meet at the triple point, where all three phases coexist in equilibrium.
• The liquid-gas curve ends at the critical point, where the sharp distinction
between liquid and gas disappears.
• Crossing over a line is not instantaneous.
Refreshment

Movie: Can You Cook Pasta By Boiling Water in a Vacuum Chamber?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A29mLMiCqvU
Thermal expansion
Most materials expand when heated

• Liquids and gases are best characterized by the coefficient of volume expansion, β.

• Solids are best characterized by the coefficient of linear expansion, α.

∆V V ∆L L
β= α=
∆T ∆T
 Thermal expansion

• For solid, 𝛽𝛽 = 3𝛼𝛼

1 dV 1 dV dL 1 dV d 3
=β== β =3
V dT L dL dT L3
= ( )
3L2 (α L ) 3α Here,
= =
dL dL
( )
L 3L2

Got it? 17.3 The figure shows a donut-shaped object. If it’s heated,
will the hole get (a) larger or (b) smaller?
 Thermal expansion

Note) Concrete : α =12 x 10-6

• Reinforced concrete structure is
free of thermal expansion stress
 The anomalous behavior of water
between 0˚C and 4˚C, water contracts on heating.

V.S.

pressure melting

Cold water rises & warm water sinks (T< 4°C)

Example 17.5 Spilled Gasoline

• A steel gas can hold 20 L at 10oC. It’s filled to the brim with gas at 10
oC. If the temperature now increases to 25 oC, by how much does the
can’s volume increase? How much gas spills out?

For steel, α =12 x 10-6 K-1

For gas, 𝛽𝛽 =95 x 10-5 K-1

∆𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝛽𝛽𝑉𝑉∆T = 3α𝑉𝑉∆T

= 3 12 × 10−6 𝐾𝐾 −1 20 𝐿𝐿 15 𝐾𝐾
= 0.0108 𝐿𝐿

∆𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝛽𝛽𝑉𝑉∆T
= 95 × 10−5 𝐾𝐾 −1 20 𝐿𝐿 15 𝐾𝐾
= 0.285 𝐿𝐿

0.275 L of gas spills out.

 Chapter Summary

• The ideal gas law : relates pressure, temperature, and volume:

pV = NkT
• Derivation of the ideal gas law from Newtonian mechanics shows:

1 2 3
mv = kT
2 2
• Phase changes
• Phase changes require energy,
“heats of transformation”
• The phase structure of a substance
is described in its phase diagram.

• Thermal expansion occurs as most substances are heated.

• An exception is water in the range from 0˚C to 4˚C.
Ch.18 Heat, Work, and the First Law of
Thermodynamics

• The 1st law of thermodynamics

– extended version of conservation of energy
• The basic thermodynamic processes applied to ideal gases
• Isothermal (same T)
• Constant volume (same V)
• Isobaric (same P)
• Adiabatic (net heat transfer is 0)
• The specific heats of gases based on their molecular structure
The 1st law of thermodynamics

Two ways to raise temperature

Thermally: flow of heat, 𝑄𝑄 Mechanically: doing work, 𝑊𝑊

End result is the same for the same energy input:

An increase in the system’s internal energy, ∆𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ∆U)
The 1st law of thermodynamics

Extended version of “conservation of energy”

(includes thermal processes)
The change in the internal energy of a system depends only on the net
heat transferred to the system and the net work done on the system,
independent of the particular processes involved.

Change in the heat the work

internal energy = added + done
of a system to the system on the system

∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑄𝑄 + 𝑊𝑊 ∆𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑄𝑄 + 𝑊𝑊
Text book formula
The 1st law of thermodynamics

Sign convention for the 1st law of thermodynamics

∆𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑄𝑄 + 𝑊𝑊
Change in the heat the work
internal energy = added + done
of a system to the system on the system

∆𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑄𝑄 – 𝑊𝑊

Change in the heat the work

internal energy = added - done
of a system to the system by the system
 Reversible and irreversible process
Changing the state of a system
Quasi-static process
1. in a Reversible process
• The system remains always in thermodynamic equilibrium
• Follows a path in its p-V diagram.
• Any process carried out slowly enough is reversible.
• Possible to reverse the system’s path in its p-V diagram.

Or
2. in an irreversible process
• The system goes temporarily out of equilibrium
: no well-defined values for T, P, and other quantities
• Although the system has no well-defined path in the pV diagram, it ends up in a
definite state, back in equilibrium.
 Gas-cylinder system & work done

A piston-cylinder system: useful for describing the thermodynamic behavior of a gas

∆𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑄𝑄 + 𝑊𝑊

• Tight sealing: no gas escapes The work done on the gas is

• Work: only when the piston moves. the negative of the area under the pV curve
• If the bottom is not insulated,
heat can flow in or out. V2
W = − ∫ p dV
V1
𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹∆𝑥𝑥 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝∆𝑥𝑥 = 𝑝𝑝∆𝑉𝑉
Got it? 18.1

• Two identical gas-cylinder systems are taken from the

same initial state to the same final state, but by different
processes. Which of the following is or are the same in
both cases?
(a) The work done on or by the gas
(b) the heat added or removed
(c) the change in internal energy
Thermodynamic state variables: a quantity whose value
doesn’t depend on how a system got into its particular state.
e.g.: pressure, volume, temperature, internal energy, entropy
Heat and work are not thermodynamic state variables. They
are process functions.
Ideal-gas processes: overview

∆𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑄𝑄 + 𝑊𝑊
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑇𝑇
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 ∆𝑇𝑇 𝑊𝑊 = −𝑝𝑝∆𝑉𝑉
 1. Isothermal processes: constant T

• One way to achieve this is to keep the system

in thermal contact with a heat reservoir*.
*Reservoir: a much larger system held at constant temperature

• Work done:

dV
− nRT ln (V2 V1 )
V2 V2
− ∫ p dV =
W= − nRT ∫ =
V1 V1 V
1 2 3
mv = kT
• 1st law 2 2
Constant temperature  ∆𝑬𝑬𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 = 𝟎𝟎
Q=−W =nRT ln (V2 V1 )
Example 18.2 Bubbles

• An air bubble rises from 25 m deep water, where the

pressure is 3.5 atm (~350 kPa). How much work is done
by the bubble as it rises to the surface? Assume the
bubble remains at 300 K and the initial size of the bubble
was 8 mm.
4
• 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 3 𝑝𝑝
3

• 𝑝𝑝1 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑝𝑝2 𝑉𝑉2 , 𝑝𝑝1 = 3.5 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝2 = 1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

Therefore, 𝑉𝑉2 = 3.5 𝑉𝑉1
𝑉𝑉2 4
• 𝑊𝑊 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 ln = 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 3 𝑝𝑝 ln 3.5 = 0.94 𝐽𝐽
𝑉𝑉1 3
 2. Isovolumetric (constant-volume) process

• Work done: 𝑊𝑊 = 0 (const. vol.)

• 1st law: ∆𝑬𝑬𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 = 𝑸𝑸

𝑄𝑄 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑉𝑉 ∆𝑇𝑇 (cf. 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∆𝑇𝑇)

where 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 is the molar specific heat at constant volume [J/K·mol]

• Therefore ∆𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑉𝑉 ∆𝑇𝑇. 1 2 3

mv = kT
2 2
• For an ideal gas, ∆𝑬𝑬𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 depends on temperature alone,
so this relationship ∆𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑉𝑉 ∆𝑇𝑇 holds for any process.
Note: 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑉𝑉 ∆𝑇𝑇 only for constant-volume process
 3. Isobaric process: constant pressure

• Work done: 𝑊𝑊 = − 𝑝𝑝 ∆𝑉𝑉.

• 1st law: 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑉𝑉 ∆𝑇𝑇 + 𝑝𝑝 ∆𝑉𝑉 (it takes more heat to effect a given ∆T)

∆𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛∆𝑇𝑇
• The molar specific heat at constant pressure, 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝, expresses this
extra work: 𝑸𝑸 = 𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒑𝒑 ∆𝑻𝑻 = 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 ∆𝑇𝑇 + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛∆𝑇𝑇 → 𝑪𝑪𝒑𝒑 = 𝑪𝑪𝑽𝑽 + 𝑹𝑹
where 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 is the molar specific heat at constant pressure
Molecular specific heat, Cv and Cp

the infinitesimal change in internal energy for any process

𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇

Constant volume: 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑉𝑉 ∆𝑇𝑇

Isobaric: 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑉𝑉 ∆𝑇𝑇 + 𝑝𝑝 ∆𝑉𝑉

= 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑇
• 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 = 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 + 𝑅𝑅
4. Adiabatic processes: no net heat flow

𝑄𝑄 = 0, ∆𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑊𝑊
4. Adiabatic processes: no net heat flow

• 1st law: 𝑄𝑄 = 0, ∆𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑊𝑊

• Analysis of the adiabatic process for an ideal gas shows that

pV γ = constant or TV γ −1 = constant
where γ = 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 /𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 is the ratio of specific heats of the gas.

• Work done: W = p2V2 − p1V1 problem 69

γ −1

Adiabatic expansion:
Temperature drops

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑝𝑝 =
𝑉𝑉 𝛾𝛾
Tactics 18.1 Deriving the Adiabatic Equation

The infinitesimal change in internal energy for any process

𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

The first law for an adiabatic process (Q=0)

𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 From ideal gas law (differentiating each side),

𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉

𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = −𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑅𝑅
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝
+ 𝛾𝛾 =0 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒, 𝛾𝛾 ≡
𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉

ln 𝑝𝑝 + 𝛾𝛾 ln 𝑉𝑉 = ln(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)
pV γ = constant
Problem 71. Deriving the Adiabatic Equation

pV γ = constant
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑝𝑝 = ⟸ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑉𝑉

nRT γ
= V (=
nR ) TV γ −1 constant
V
γ −1 constant
=
TV = a different constant
nR

TV γ −1 = constant
Deriving adiabatic equation 18.12

from pV γ = constant

p1V1γ = pV γ
p1V1γ
p= γ
V

p2V2 − p1V1
W=
γ −1
Example 18.3 An adiabatic process: diesel power
Fuel ignites in a diesel engine from the heat of compression as the piston
moves toward the top of the cylinder; there’s no spark plug as in a gasoline
engine.
Example 18.3 An adiabatic process: diesel power

Compression is fast enough that the process is essentially

adiabatic. If the ignition temperature is 500°C, what compression
ratio Vmax/Vmin is needed? Air’s specific heat ratio γ = 1.4, and
before compression the air is at 20°C

γ −1
TV = constant
γ −1 γ −1
TminVmin = TmaxVmax
1/( γ −1)
 Tmin 
1/0.4
Vmax  773K 
=  =  11
Vmin  Tmax   293K 
Ideal-gas process: summary

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑇𝑇 ∆𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑄𝑄 + 𝑊𝑊

Cyclic Processes

: Thermodynamic processes with a complete cycle

(back to its starting state)
– important in technological systems like engines.
– The work done on or by the gas in a cyclic process:
the area enclosed by the process curve in the pV diagram.
Example 18.4 Finding the work

An ideal gas with γ = 1.4 occupies 4.0 L at 300 K and 100 kPa pressure.
It’s compressed adiabatically to one-fourth of its original volume, then
cooled at constant volume back to 300 K, and finally allowed to expand
isothermally to its original volume. How much work is done on the gas?

𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝑊𝑊𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝑊𝑊𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

𝑝𝑝𝐵𝐵 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴
𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 =
𝛾𝛾 − 1

𝑊𝑊𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 0

𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴
𝑊𝑊𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = −𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 ln
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶
 Optional
p-V diagram for the ideal Diesel and Otto cycle
Otto cycle is used by gasoline ignition whereas diesel engine uses the diesel cycle.

Isentropic process: adiabatic + reversible

From Wikipedia
Work done by cyclic process of diesel engine

The work done (by the system) and heat absorbed during each of the four processes

1 → 2 (adiabatic) W12 =( p1V1 − p2V2 )/(γ − 1), Q12 =0

2 → 3 (isobaric) W23= p2 (V3 − V2 ), Q23= nCP (T3 − T2 ) ≡ Qh
3 → 4 (adiabatic) W34 =( p3V3 − p4V4 )/(γ − 1), Q34 =0
4 → 1 (isovolumic) =
W41 0,=
Q41 nCV (T1 − T4 ) ≡ −Qc

For the whole cycle, the work done

p1V1 − p2V2 + p3V3 − p4V4 γ ( p3V3 − p2V2 ) − p4V4 + p1V1
=W = + p3V3 − p2V2
(γ − 1) (γ − 1)
 1 2 3
Equipartition theorem mv = kT
2 2

In thermodynamic equilibrium,
the average energy per molecule is ½kT for each degree of freedom
Ex#1. monatomic gases (He, Ne)
3 degrees of freedom per molecule : 3 translation (vx, vy, vz)
3 1 1 1
𝑢𝑢 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 : average energy per molecule
2 2 2 2
3 3
𝑈𝑈 = 𝑛𝑛𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 : total internal energy
2 2

Ex#2. Diatomic gases (O2,H2)

5
𝑢𝑢 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 A diatomic molecule has rotational
2
degree of freedom as well as
5 translational degree of freedom.
𝑈𝑈 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑇𝑇
2
How about vibrational modes?
Molecular specific heats of an ideal gas

The specific heat of an ideal gas depends on its molecular structure.

- More complex molecules have more degrees of freedom, or ways they can
absorb energy.
1 Δ𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 Cp = CV + R γ=
Cp
𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 =
𝑛𝑛 Δ𝑇𝑇 Cv

Monatomic gases (He, Ne)

3 5
CV = R, γ = ~ 1.67
2 3

Diatomic gases (O2,H2)

5 7
CV = R, γ = ~ 1.4
2 5

Polyatomic gases (NO2) Volume specific heat capacity of H2 gas

4 Frozen rotational degree of freedom at Low T
CV = 3R, γ = ~ 1.33
3 & additional vibrational degree of freedom at High T
 quantum effect
Example 18.5 A Gas Mixture

A gas mixture consists of 2.0 mol of oxygen (O2) and 1.0 mol of argon
(Ar). Find the volume specific heat of the mixture

Quick guess:
 between 1.5R (monatomic gas) and 2.5R (diatomic gas)

Evaluate:
5 3
U mix = U O2 + U Ar = nRT + nRT = 5.0 RT + 1.5 RT = 6.5 RT
2 2

1 ∆U 6.5 R
=
Cv = = 2.2 R
n ∆T 3.0 mol
 Chapter summary
• The first law of thermodynamics: the change in a system’s internal
energy is equal to the heat added to the system minus the work
done by the system: ∆Eint = Q – W

• Thermodynamic processes take systems between states in their pV

diagrams. Reversible vs irreversible processes

• Important ideal-gas processes

• Cyclic process: combine the thermodynamic processes to take a

system through a complete cycle

• The specific heats of an ideal gas depend on the structure of the gas
molecules.
 Ch.19 The Second Law of
Thermodynamics

• The second law of thermodynamics, which limits our ability to

extract useful work from thermal energy.
• Thermodynamics of heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps
– calculation of efficiency
• Energy quality and entropy
Reversibility and Irreversibility

Reversible: Bouncing ball Irreversible: Heating by friction

• Contacting hot water with cold water cannot be reversed

• Organized states (rare)  disorganized state (common)
• It is very unlikely to assume “spontaneously” a more organized
state.
• Irreversibility is a probabilistic notion: Events that could occur
without violating the principles of Newtonian physics
nevertheless don’t occur because they’re too improbable.
Got it? 19.1

• Which of these processes is irreversible?

(a) stirring sugar into coffee
(b) building a house
(c) demolishing a house with a wrecking ball
(d) demolishing a house by taking it apart piece by piece
(e) harnessing the energy of falling water to drive machinery
(f) harnessing the energy of falling water to heat a house
The 2nd law of thermodynamics
“Systems naturally tend toward more disorganized states”
(Applied to heat engines, the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law says )
“It is impossible to construct a heat engine operating in a cycle
that extracts heat from a reservoir and delivers an equal
amount of work.”
 The heat engine efficiency

The 2nd law of thermodynamics

in energy flow diagram

• The 2nd law of thermodynamics states that it is not possible to

draw all internal energy out and turn into work
• The perfect engine is not possible! Then how close can we make?
W Q − Q Q W: work done by the engine
Efficiency of engine e = = h c
= 1 − c Qh: heat extracted from high T
Qh Qh Qh Qc: heat rejected to low T
 The Carnot engine
• Two adiabatic + two isothermal steps (Carnot cycle).
• A reversible engine ( thermodynamic equilibrium is maintained)
• Ideal gas is the working fluid
• The most efficient engine operating between the two temperatures
The efficiency of the Carnot engine

𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵
𝑄𝑄ℎ = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑇𝑇ℎ ln
𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴
note for the sign
𝑸𝑸𝒉𝒉
𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐 = −𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 ln = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 ln
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷
𝑸𝑸𝒄𝒄
𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 ln(𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 /𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 )
=
𝑄𝑄ℎ 𝑇𝑇ℎ ln(𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 /𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 )

BC and DA :adiabatic processes 𝑇𝑇ℎ 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 𝛾𝛾−1 = 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝛾𝛾−1 , 𝑇𝑇ℎ 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 𝛾𝛾−1 = 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 𝛾𝛾−1
𝛾𝛾−1 𝛾𝛾−1
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 ln(𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 /𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 ) 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐
= = = =
𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 𝑄𝑄ℎ 𝑇𝑇ℎ ln(𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 /𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 ) 𝑇𝑇ℎ

Qc Tc
eCarnot = 1− = 1−
Qh Th
 The 2nd law of thermodynamics
Clausius statement: It is impossible to construct a refrigerator
operating in a cycle whose sole effect is to transfer heat from a
cooler object to a hotter one.
Heat can never pass from a colder to a warmer body without some other change,
connected therewith, occurring at the same time.
(from Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics)

Real refrigerator Perfect refrigerator

 The 2nd law of thermodynamics
Clausius statement: It is impossible to construct a refrigerator
operating in a cycle whose sole effect is to transfer heat from a
cooler object to a hotter one.
Suppose the Clausius statement were Then, perfect heat engine is possible
false. Then we could build …

100% engine
60% engine Perfect heat engine???
reversed
Carnot’s theorem

W Qc Tc
e= = 1− ≤ eCarnot = 1 −
Qh Qh Th

• All Carnot engines operating between temperature Th and Tc have the same
efficiency
• No other engine operating between the same two temperatures can be more
efficient than the Carnot engine
 Limitations on heat engines

• The second law limitations on efficiency show that we can’t

convert thermal energy to mechanical work with 100% efficiency.
– The efficiency depends on the highest and lowest available
temperatures:
• The former is set by the limitations of materials.
• The latter is, at minimum, the temperature of the ambient
environment.
– Technologies affected include
• Electric power plants
• Gasoline engines
• Jet aircraft engines
Limitations on heat engines

Schematic diagram of an electric power plant

Limitations on heat engines

Maximum T for : fossil-fuel plant – 650 K, nuclear plant – 570 K

Cooling water ~310 K (40 °C)

310𝐾𝐾 310𝐾𝐾
𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 =1− = 52%, 𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 =1− = 46%
650𝐾𝐾 570𝐾𝐾

In reality, the efficiency is lower than ideal Carnot engine efficiency.

Fossil plant has ~40%, and nuclear plant has ~34% efficiency.
* Car engines have ~25-40% efficiency.
 Example 19.2 A combined-cycle power plant

Gas turbine not efficient

because exhaust also hot.

773
egas = 1 − = 55%
1723

281
egas = 1 −
𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 64%
773
281
ecombined = 1 − = 84%
1723

Modern combined-cycle power plants achieve efficiencies approaching 60%

by combining a conventional steam system.
Refreshment
 Refreshment

According to the US Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency

and Renewable Energy, “EVs convert about 59%–62% of the electrical
energy from the grid to power at the wheels. Conventional gasoline
vehicles only convert about 17%–21% of the energy stored in gasoline to
power at the wheels.”
- Evs efficiency: ~ 60% (from the grid energy to power at the wheels)
(The efficiency of an electric motor is typically between 85% and 90%.)
- Combined-cycle power plant efficiency: 60%
- Average loss in electric power transmission and distribution: 8%

Total efficiency (from power plant to the wheel) of EVs : 0.6 x (1-0.08) x 0.6  ~ 33%
Refrigerators and heat pumps

The coefficient of performance describes the relative amount of work

needed for heat pump
What we want
COP =
What we put in
– For a summer heat pump, “what we want” is
cooling:
Qc Qc Tc
COPrefrigerator
= = =
W Qh − Qc Th − Tc

– For a winter heat pump, “what we want” is

heating:
Qh Qh Th
COPheat pump
= = =
W Qh − Qc Th − Tc

– The larger the temperature difference, the lower

the COP and the more work that’s needed.
Energy quality

E1 E2

E1+E2
Energy quality

Mechanical Energy, W Thermal Energy, Q

E=100 J E=100 J

High Energy Quality Low Energy Quality

Low disorder High disorder

Low entropy High entropy

Entropy, S

• “A quantitative measure of energy quality”

• Formally, S describes the degree of disorder in a system.
• Mathematically, the change in entropy ∆S associated with a
thermodynamic process between states 1 and 2 is given by

2 dQ
∆S = ∫
1 T
Unit: J/K

• Entropy is a function of state

(state variable) like T or p
Carnot cycle

W Q T Qc Tc
e= = 1 − c ≤ eCarnot = 1 − c =
Qh Qh Th Qh Th

From the derivation of Carnot engine efficiency

The heat rejected The heat added
Qh from the system
𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐 𝑄𝑄ℎ to the system
=
𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 𝑇𝑇ℎ
If we define Q
as the heat
added to the
W system
𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐 𝑄𝑄ℎ
+ =0
𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 𝑇𝑇ℎ

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐 𝑄𝑄ℎ

Qc ∆𝑆𝑆 = � = + =0
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 𝑇𝑇ℎ
𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
 Entropy change of reversible cycle

Any reversible cycle :

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� =0
𝑇𝑇

Entropy change
2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
∆𝑆𝑆12 =�
1 𝑇𝑇

𝐵𝐵
c.f. ∮ 𝐹𝐹⃗ � 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟⃗ = 0 for conservative force, F. Δ𝑈𝑈𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = − ∫𝐴𝐴 𝐹𝐹⃗ � 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟⃗

• Entropy is state variable: entropy change of irreversible process can

be calculated using reversible process that goes between two states.
Adiabatic free expansion

• No heat flow  adiabatic

• But it is irreversible process.
(not exact adiabatic process in chapter 18.)
𝑉𝑉1
• The vacuum doesn’t exert pressure to
oppose the gas. (No work done by the gas)
No change of internal energy

How about the change of entropy?

𝑉𝑉2

Same amount of internal energy, but different quality

 Adiabatic free expansion

Entropy is a thermodynamic state variable.

 A reversible process that takes the gas
between the same two states results in the
same entropy change.

Isothermal expansion (no T change)

 V2 
W = Q = nRT ln 
 V1 

Irreversible, dQ 1 Q  V2 
free expansion ∆S = ∫ = ∫ dQ = = nR ln 

∆S > 0 T T T  V1 
No work done Isothermal expansion
W=Q
Different process, but same initial and final state
Entropy and the availability of work

 V2  dQ 1 Q  V2 
W = Q = nRT ln  ∆S = ∫ = ∫ dQ = = nR ln 
 V1  T T T  V1 

After the irreversible free expansion, the gas can no longer do the
work done by isothermal expansion, even though its internal
energy is unchanged.

By comparing W and ΔS shown above,

During an irreversible process (∆S increase)

 The energy becomes unavailable to work is

E Tmin ∆S
=
where Tmin is the lowest temp available to the system.
Example 19.4 The loss of energy quality
2.0-L cylinder contains 5.0 mol of compressed gas at 300 K.
If the cylinder is discharged into a 150-L vacuum chamber and its temperature
remains at 300 K, how much energy has become unavailable to do work?
Isothermal free expansion:
dQ 1 Q  V2 
∆S = ∫ = ∫ dQ = = nR ln 
T T T  V1 
∆S ~ energy quality:

E Tmin ∆S
=
Evaluate
V 
Eunavailable = Tmin ∆S = Tmin nR ln  2 
 V1 
152 L 
= ( 300 K )( 5.0mol )(8.314 J / K ⋅ mol ) ln  
 2.0 L 
= 54kJ
 Entropy S: irreversible heat transfer

Tf Tf
dQ1 dQ2
T2
∆S = ∫T T T∫ T
+
1 2

Tf Tf
m1c1dT m2 c2 dT
=∫ +∫
T1
T T2
T
T1
 Tf   Tf 
= m1c1 ln  + m2 c2 ln 
2 dQ  T1   T2 
∆S = ∫ dQ = mcdT
1 T
Example: m1=25 kg, c1=4.2 kJ/kg K , T1= 95°C
m2=35 kg, c2=4.2 kJ/kg K , T2= 35°C  Tf= 60°C
333 333
Δ𝑆𝑆 = 25 � 4200 � ln + 35 � 4200 � ln = 978.5 𝐽𝐽/𝐾𝐾
368 308

If environmental temperature: 15°C

𝐸𝐸𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 Δ𝑆𝑆 = 288 � 978.5 = 281.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
A statistical interpretation of entropy

𝑆𝑆 = 𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵 ln Ω
Ω : # of microstates

• A gas with two identical molecules in a box

• 4 microstates and 3 macrostates are possible.
 A statistical interpretation of entropy

• Probability of finding all the gas molecules on one side : 2/16 (2/4
in case of 2 molecules)

100 molecules 1023 molecules

 optional
Water in a bottle

What is the final state for the water in the bottles?

Why don’t the water molecules in the closed bottle evenly disperse in
the space as vapor form?
Gibbs free energy:
the thermodynamic potential
that is minimized when a
system reaches chemical
equilibrium at constant
pressure and temperature.

𝐺𝐺 𝑝𝑝, 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑈𝑈 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 − 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇

U is the internal energy
Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics

• The second law of thermodynamics

The entropy of a closed system cannot decrease.
• At best, entropy can remain constant (ideal reversible process).
• Irreversible processes and dissipative forces like friction lead to
entropy increase.
• When the system enlarges to include the entire universe, the
second law reads
The entropy of the universe cannot decrease.
• Any situation that appears to involve an increase in order and
thus a decrease in entropy is always accompanied by a
corresponding and greater increase in entropy.
Q: S in living things?
 Chapter summary
• The second law of thermodynamics is fundamentally a statement
about the tendency of systems to evolve toward more disordered
states.
– The Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law asserts that it’s impossible to
build a perfect heat engine, one that cyclically converts thermal energy into
work with 100% efficiency.
• The maximum efficiency is the Carnot efficiency: eCarnot = 1 – Tc / Th.
– The Clausius statement says that it’s impossible to build a perfect
refrigerator, one whose sole effect is to transfer energy from a cooler to a
hotter object.
• Real refrigerators therefore require mechanical energy input.
– In its most general statement, the second law says that the entropy of a
closed system cannot decrease.
• Entropy is a measure of disorder: the higher the entropy, the more disorder.
• High entropy is associated with low-quality energy, and vice versa.
2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• ∆𝑆𝑆12 = ∫1 𝐸𝐸𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 Δ𝑆𝑆
𝑇𝑇