Chapter 2 Axial Loaded Members

2.1 Introduction
Axial loaded member : structural components subjected only to tension or
compression, such as trusses, connecting rods, columns, etc.
change in length for prismatic bars, nonuniform bars are determined, it
will be used to solve the statically indeterminate structures,
change in length by thermal effect is also considered
stresses on inclined sections will be calculated
several additional topics of importance in mechanics of materials will be
introduced, such as strain energy, impact loading, fatigue, stress
concentrations, and nonlinear behavior, etc.

2.2 Changes in Length of Axial Loaded Members

consider a coil spring with natural length L
subjected to an axial load P
if the material of the spring is linear elastic, then
P = k   or  = fP
k : stiffness (spring constant)
f : flexibility (compliance)
with kf = 1

some cross-sectional shapes are shown

1
 prismatic bar : a member having
straight longitudinal axis and constant
cross section

consider a prismatic bar with cross-sectional area A and length L

subjected to an axial load P
then  = P/A
and  = /L
material is elastic  = E 

L PL
∴  =  L = CC = CC
E EA

E A : axial rigidity of the bar

compare withP = k we have

EA L
k = CC or f = CC
L EA

Cable : used to transmit large tensile forces

the cross-section area of a cable is equal to the total cross-sectional area
of the individual wires, called effective area, it is less than the area of a
circle having the same diameter
also the modulus of elasticity (called the effective modulus) of a cable is
less than the modulus of the material of which it is made

2
Example 2-1
a L-shape frame ABC with
b = 10.5 in c = 6.4 in
spring constant k = 4.2 lb/in
pitch of the threads p = 1/16 in
if W = 2 lb, how many revolutions
of the nut are required to bring the
pointer back to the mark ?
(deformation of ABC are negligible)

 MB = 0 => F = Wb/c

the elongation  of the spring is

 = F/k = Wb/ck = np
Then
Wb (2 lb) (10.5 in)
n = CCC = CCCCCCCCCCC = 12.5 revolutions
ckp (6.4 in) (4.2 lb/in) (1/16 in)

Example 2-2
the contraption shown in figure
AB = 450 mm BC = 225 mm
BD = 480 mm CE = 600 mm
ABD = 1,020 mm3 ACE = 520 mm3
E = 205 GPa A = 1 mm
Pmax = ? ABC is rigid

take the free body ABC,

 MB = 0 and  Fy = 0, we have

3
 FCE = 2 P FBD = 3 P
the shortening of BD is

FBD LBD (3 P) (480 mm)

BD = CCCC = CCCCCCCCC = 6.887 P x 10-6 (P : N)
E ABD (205 GPa) (1020 mm2)
and the lengthening of CE is

FCE LCE (2 P) (600 mm)

CE = CCCC = CCCCCCCCC = 11.26 P x 10-6 (P : N)
E ACE (205 GPa) (520 mm2)

a displacement diagram showing the beam

is deformed from ABC to A'B'C' using
similar triangles, we can find the relationships
between displacements

A'A" B'B"  A + CE BD + CE

CC = CC or CCCC = CCCC
A"C' B"C' 450 + 225 225

A + 11.26 P x 10-6 6.887 P x 10-6 + 11.26 P x 10-6

or CCCCCCCC = CCCCCCCCCCCCC
450 + 225 225
substitute for A = 1 mm and solve the equation for P

P = Pmax = 23,200 N = 23.2 kN

also the rotation of the beam can be calculated

A'A" A + CE (1 + 0.261) mm

tan  = CCC = CCCC = CCCCCCC = 0.001868
A"C' 675 mm 675 mm
 = 0.11o

4
2.3 Changes in Length Under Nonuniform Conditions
consider a prismatic bar is loaded by one
or more axial loads, use the free body
diagrams, the axial forces in each segment
can be calculated

N1 = - PB + PC + PD
N2 = P C + P D N3 = P D

the changes in length of each segment are

N1L1 N2 L 2 N3L3
1 = CC 2 = CC 3 = CC
EA EA EA

and the change in length of the entire bar is

 = 1 + 2 + 3

the same method can be used when the

bar consists of several prismatic segments,
each having different axial forces, different
dimensions, and different materials, the
change in length may be obtained

n Ni Li
 =  CCC
i=1
Ei Ai

when either the axial force N or the cross-sectional area A vary

continuously along the bar, the above equation no longer suitable

5
 consider a bar with varying cross-sectional area and varying axial force

for the element dx, the elongation is

N(x) dx
d  = CCCC
E A(x)
the elongation of the entire bar is obtained by integrating

L L N(x) dx
 = ∫ d  = ∫ CCCC
0 0
E A(x)

in the above equation,  = P/A is used, for the angle of the sides is 20o,
the maximum error in normal stress is 3% as compared to the exact stress,
for  small, error is less, for  large, more accurate methods may
be needed

Example 2-3
L1 = 20 in A1 = 0.25 in2
L2 = 34.8 in A2 = 0.15 in2
E = 29 x 106 psi
a = 28 in b = 25 in
P1 = 2100 lb P2 = 5600 lb

calculate C at point C

6
 taking moment about D for the free body BDE

P3 = P2 b / a = 5600 x 25 / 28 = 5000 lb

on free body ABC

RA = P3 - P1 = 5000 - 2100 = 2900 lb

then the elongation of ABC is

n Ni Li N1 L1 N2 L2
 =  CCC = CCC + CCC
i=1
Ei Ai E A1 E A2
(-2900 lb) (20 in) (2100 lb) (34.8 in)
= CCCCCCCCCC + CCCCCCCCCC
(29 x 106 psi) (0.25 in2) (29 x 106 psi) (0.15 in2)
= - 0.0080 in + 0.0168 in = 0.0088 in
 = C = 0.0088 in (↓)

this displacement is downward

Example 2-4
a tapered bar AB of solid circular cross section with length L is supported
to a tensile load P, determine 

LA dA d(x) x dA x
C = C CC = C d(x) = CC
LB dB dA LA LA

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the cross-sectional area at distance x is

 [d(x)]2  dA2 x2
A(x) = CCCC = CCC
4 4 LA2
then the elongation of the bar is

N(x) dx L B P dx (4LA2) 4 P LA2 L dx

B

 = ∫CCC = ∫ CCCCC = CCC ∫ C

E A(x) L A E ( dA2 x2)  E dA2 L x2
A

4 P LA2 1 L 4 P LA2 1
B 1 4 P LA2 LB - LA
 = CCC [- C] = CCC ( C - C ) = CCC CCC
 E dA2 x L  E dA2 LA
A LB  E dA2 LA LB
4 P L LA 4PL
= CCC ( C ) = CCCC
 E dA2 LB  E dA dB

for a prismatic bar dA = d B = d

4PL PL
 = CCC = CC
 E d2 EA

2.4 Statically Indeterminate Structures

flexibility method (force method) [another method is stiffness method
(displacement method)]
consider an axial loaded member
equation of equilibrium

 Fy = 0 RA - P + RB = 0

one equation for two unknowns

[statically indeterminate]
∵ both ends A and B are fixed, thus
AB = AC + CB = 0

8
 this is called equation of compatibility
elongation of each part can be obtained

RA a RB b
AC = CC BC = - CC
EA EA
thus, we have

RA a RB b
CC - CC = 0
EA EA

then RA = P b / L RB = Pa/L

RA a Pab
and C = AC = CC = CCC
EA LEA

summarize of flexibility method : take the force as unknown quantity,

and the elongation of each part in terms of these forces, use the equation of
compatibility of displacement to solve the unknown force

stiffness method to solve the same problem

the axial forces RA and RB can be expressed in terms of C

EA EA
RA = CC C RB = CC C
a b
equation of equilibrium

9
 RA + RB = P
EA EA Pab
CC C + CC C = P => C = CCC
a b EAL
and RA = P b / L RB = P a / L

summarize of stiffness method : to select a suitable displacement as

unknown quantity, and the unknown forces in terms of these displacement,
use the equation of equilibrium to solve the displacement

Example 2-5
a solid circular steel cylinder S is
encased in a hollow circular copper C
subjected to a compressive force P
for steel : Es, As
for copper : Ec, Ac
determine Ps, Pc, s, c, 
Ps : force in steel, Pc : force in copper
force equilibrium

Ps + Pc = P
flexibility method
for the copper tube

Pc L PL Ps L
c = CC = CC - CC
Ec Ac Ec Ac E c Ac

for the steel cylinder

Ps L
s = CC
E s As

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 Ps L PL Ps L
s = c CC = CC - CC
Es As Ec Ac Ec Ac
Es As
Ps = CCCCCC P
Es As + Ec Ac
Ec Ac
Pc = P - Ps = CCCCCC P
E s As + Ec A c
Ps P Es Pc P Ec
s = C = CCCCC c = C = CCCCC
As EsAs + EcAc As EsAs + EcAc

the shortening of the assembly  is

Ps L Pc L PL
 = CCC = CCC = CCCCC
Es As Ec Ac Es As + Ec Ac

stiffness method : Ps and Pc in terms of displacement 

Es As Ec A c
Ps = CC   Pc = CC 
L L
equation of equilibrium

Ps + Pc = P
Es As E c Ac
CC  + CC  = P
L L
PL
it is obtained  = CCCCC same result as above
Es As + Ec Ac

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Example 2-6
a horizontal bar AB is pinned at end
A and supported by two wires at points
D and F
a vertical load P acts at end B
(a) (all)CD = 1 (all)EF = 2
wire CD : E1, d1; wire EF : E2, d2
Pall = ?
(b) E1 = 72 GPa (Al), d1 = 4 mm, L1 = 0.4 m
E2 = 45 GPa (Mg), d2 = 3 mm, L2 = 0.3 m
1 = 200 MPa 2 = 125 MPa
Pall = ?
take the bar AB as the free body

 MA = 0=> T1 b + T2 (2b) - P (3b) = 0

i.e. T1 + 2 T2 = 3P

assume the bar is rigid, the geometric relationship between elongations is

2 = 2 1
T1 L1 T2 L2
1 = CC = f1 T1 2 = CC = f2 T2
E1 A1 E2 A2

f = L / E A is the flexibility of wires, then we have

f2 T2 = 2 f1 T1

thus the forces T1 and T2 can be obtained

3 f2 P 6 f1 P
T1 = CCCC T2 = CCCC
4 f1 + f2 4 f 1 + f2

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 the stresses of the wires are

T1 3P f2 1 A1 (4 f1 + f2)
1 = C = CC ( CCC ) => P1 = CCCCCC
A1 A1 4 f1 + f2 3 f2
T2 6P f1 2 A2 (4 f1 + f2)
2 = C = CC ( CCC ) => P2 = CCCCCC
A2 A2 4 f1 + f2 6 f2
Pallow = minimum (P1, P2)

(b) numerical calculation

A1 =  d12 / 4 = 12.57 mm2 A2 =  d22 / 4 = 7.069 mm2
f1 = L1 E1 / A1 = 0.442 x 10-6 m/N
f2 = L2 E2 / A2 = 0.9431 x 10-6 m/N
with 1 = 200 MPa and2 = 125 MPa
we can get P1 = 2.41 kN and P2 = 1.26 kN
then Pallow = 1.26 kN
at this load, Mg = 175 MPa,
at that time Al = 200 (1.26/2.41) = 105 MPa < 200 MPa

2.5 Thermal Effects, Misfits and Prestrains

temperature change => dimension change => thermal stress and strain
for most materials, thermal strain T is proportional to the temperature
change T
T =  T
 : thermal expansion coefficient
(1/oC or 1/oF)
T : increase in temperature

13
 thermal strain usually are reversible, expand when heard and contract
when cooled
no stress are produced for a free expansion body
but for some special material do not behave in the customary manner,
over certain temperature range, they expand when cooled and contract when
heated (internal structure change), e.g. water : maximum density at 4oC
for a bar with length L, its elongation

t due to temperature change T is

t = t L =  (T) L

this is the temperature-displacement

relation
no stress are produced in a statically
determinate structure when one or more
members undergo a uniform temperature
change

temperature change in a statically

indeterminate structure will usually produce
stress in members, called thermal stress

for the statically indeterminate structure, free expansion or contraction is

no longer possible
thermal stress may also occurs when a member is heated in a nonuniform
manner for structure is determinate or indeterminate

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Example 2-7
a prismatic bar AB of length L
the temperature is raised uniformly by T

 Fy = 0 RA = RB = R

displacement at A due to

T : t =  (T) L (↑)
R : R = RL/EA (↓)
A = t - R = 0
RL
∴  (T) L = CC
EA
R = E A  (T) and  = R / A = E  (T)

the stress is compressive when the temperature of the bar increases

Example 2-8
a sleeve and the bolt of the same length L are made of different
materials
sleeve : As, s bolt : Ab, b s > b
temperature raise T, s, b,  = ?

15
 take a free body as remove the head of the bolt
for temperature raise T

1 = s (T) L 2 = b (T) L
if s > b => 1 > 2

the force existing in the sleeve and bolt, until the final elongation of the
sleeve and bolt are the same, then

Ps L Pb L
3 = CC 4 = CC
Es As Eb Ab

equation of compatibility
 = 1 - 3 = 2 + 4
Ps L Pb L
s (T) L - CC = b (T) L + CC
Es As Eb Ab
equation of equilibrium

Pb = Ps

it is obtained

(s - b) (T) Es As Eb Ab

Pb = Ps = CCCCCCCCCCC
Es As + Eb Ab

the stresses in the sleeve and bolt are

Ps (s - b) (T) Es Eb Ab

s = C = CCCCCCCCC
As Es As + Eb Ab
Pb (s - b) (T) Es As Eb
b = C = CCCCCCCCC
As Es As + Eb Ab

and the elongation of the sleeve and bolt is

16
 (s Es A + b Eb Ab) (T) L
 = CCCCCCCCCCC
Es As + Eb Ab

partial check :

if s = b = , then Pb = Ps = 0, and  =  (T) L (O.K.)

stiffness method : choose the final displacement  as an unknown

quantity

Es As
Ps = CC [s (T) L - ]
L
Eb Ab
Pb = CC [ - b (T) L]
L
∵ Ps = Pb, it is obtained
(s Es A + b Eb Ab) (T) L
 = CCCCCCCCCCC same result
Es As + E b Ab

Misfits and Prestrains

For the length of the bars slightly different
due to manufacture
if the structure is statically determinate, no
prestrains and prestress
if the structure is statically indeterminate, it
is not free to adjust to misfits, prestrains and
prestresses will be occurred
if CD is slightly longer, CD is in
compression and EF is in tension

17
 if P is added, additional strains and stresses will
be produced

Bolts and Turnbuckles

for a bolt, the distance  traveled by the nut is
 = np
where p is the pitch of the threads
for a double-acting turnbuckle, the shorten  is
 = 2np

Example 2-9
(a) determine the forces in tube and cables when the buckle with n turns
(b) determine the shorten of the tube

1 = 2np
2 = Ps L / Es As
3 = Pc L / Ec Ac

eq. of compatibility 1 - 2 = 3

Ps L Pc L
2 n p – CCC = CCC (1)
Es As Ec Ac

eq. of equilibrium 2 Ps = Pc (2)

(1) and (2)

2 n p Ec Ac Es As 4 n p Ec Ac Es As
Ps = CCCCCCCC Pc = CCCCCCCC
L (Ec Ac + 2 Es As) L (Ec Ac + 2 Es As)

Shorten of the tube is

18
 Pc L 4 n p Es As
3 = CCC = CCCCCCC
Ec Ac Ec Ac + 2 Es As

2-6 Stresses on Inclined Sections

consider a prismatic bar subjected
to an axial load P
the normal stress x = P / A
acting on mn in 3-D and 2-D views
are shown

also the stress element in 3-D

and 2-D views are presented (the
dimensions of the element are
assumed to be infinitesimally
small)

we now to investigate the stress on

the inclined sections pq, the 3-D and
2-D views are shown

the normal and shear forces on pq

are calculated
N = P cos  V = P sin 
the cross-sectional area of pq is
A1 = A / cos 
thus the normal and shear stresses on pq

19
are
N P cos 
 = C = CCCC = x cos2
A1 A / cos 
V P sin 
 = -C = - CCCC = - x sin  cos 
A1 A / cos 

sign convention : positive as shown in figure

also using the trigonometric relations, we get

x
 = C (1 + cos 2)
2
x
 = - C sin 2
2
it is seen that the normal and shear
stresses are changed with the angle  as
shown in figure
maximum normal stress occurs at =0

max = x

maximum shear stress occurs at  =  45o

max = x / 2

the shear stress may be controlling stress

if the material is much weaker then in
tension, such as

20
 short block of wood in compression
mild steel in tension (Luder's bands)

Example 2-10
a prismatic bar, A = 1200 mm2
P = 90 kN  = 25o
determine the stress state at pq section
show the stresses on a stress element

P 90 kN
x = - C = - CCCC = - 75 MPa
A 1200 mm2
 = x cos2 = (- 75 MPa) ( cos 25o)2 = - 61.6 MPa
 = - x sin  cos  = 28.7 MPa

to determine the complete stress state

on face ab,  = 25o, the stresses are calculated
on face ad,  = 115o, the stresses are

 = x cos2 = - 75 cos2115o = - 13.4 MPa

shear stress is the same as on face ab, the complete stress state is
shown in figure

Example 2-11
a plastic bar with square cross section of
side b is connected by a glued joint
along plane pq
P = 8000 lb  = 40o

21
 all = 1100 psiall = 600 psi
(glude)all = 750 psi (glude)all = 500 psi

determine minimum width b

A = P / x
∵  = 40o ∴ = -  = - 50o
     
x = CCC x = - CCCCC
cos2    sin  cos 

(a) based on the allowable stresses in the glued joint

 = - 750 psi  = - 50o ==> x = - 1815 psi

 = - 500 psi  = - 50o ==> x = - 1015 psi

(b) based on the allowable stresses in the plastic

x = - 1100 psi
max = 600 psi occurs on the plane at 45o = x / 2
=> x = - 1200 psi

(c) minimum width of the bar, choose x = - 1015 psi, then

8000 lb
A = CCCC = 7.88 in2
1015 psi
bmin = √A = √7.88 in2 = 2.81 in, select b = 3 in

2.7 Strain Energy

the concept of strain energy principles
are widely used for determining the
response of machines and structures to both

22
static and dynamic loads
consider a prismatic bar of length L
subjected to tension force P, which is
gradually increases from zero to maximum
value P, the load-deflection diagram is
plotted
after P1 is applied, the corresponding
elongation is , additional force dP1
produce d1, the work done by P1 is

d W = P1 d1

and the total work done is


W = ∫ P1 d1
0

the work by the load is equal the area under the load-deflection curve
strain energy : energy absorbed by the bar during the load process
thus the strain energy U is


U = W = ∫ P1 d1
0

U referred to as internal work

the unit of U and W is J (J = N．m) [SI], ft-lb [USCS]

during unloading, some or all the strain

energy of the bar may be recovered

23
 if P is maintained below the linear
elastic range
P
U = CC = W
2
PL P2 L E A 2
∵  = CC ∴ U = CCC = CCC
EA 2EA 2L
EA P2 k 2
also k = CC thus U = CC = CC
L 2k 2

the total energy of a bar consisting of

several segments is
n n Ni2 Li
U =  Ui =  CCC
i=1 i=1
2 Ei Ai
the strain energy for a nonprismatic bar
or a bar with varying axial force can be
written as
Px2 dx
L
U = ∫ CCC
0
2 E Ax
displacements caused by a single load
P   2U
U = W = CC ==>  = CC
2 P
U = UAB + UBC

strain energy density u is the total strain energy U per unit volume
for linear elastic behavior

U U P2 L 1 x2 E 2 x 
u = C = CC = CCC CC = CC = CC = CC
V AL 2EA AL 2E 2 2

24
 modulus of resilience ur
2pl
ur = CC
2E
pl : proportional limit
resilience represents the ability of the material to absorb and release
energy within the elastic range
modulus of toughness ut is the area under the stress-strain curve when
fracture, ut represents the maximum energy density can be absorbed by
the material
strain energy (density) is always a positive quantity

Example 2-12
3 round bars having same L but
different shapes as shown
when subjected to the same load P
calculate the energy stored in each bar

P2 L
U1 = CCC
2EA
n Ni2 Li P2 (L/5) P2 (4L/5) P2 L 2 U1
U2 =  CCC = CCCC + CCCC = CCC = CC
i=1
2 EiAi 2EA 2 E (4A) 5EA 5
n Ni2 Li P2 (L/15) P2 (14L/15) 3 P2 L 3 U1
U3 =  CCC = CCCC + CCCCC = CCC = CC
i=1
2 EiAi 2EA 2 E (4A) 20 E A 10

the third bar has the least energy-absorbing capacity, it takes only a small
amount of work to bring the tensile stress to a high value
when the loads are dynamic, the ability to absorb energy is important, the

25
presence of grooves is very damaging

Example 2-13
determine the strain energy of a prismatic
bar subjected to (a) its own weight (b) own
weight plus a load P
(a) consider an element dx
N(x) =  A (L - x)
 : weight density
[N(x)]2 dx
L
2
L[A(L - x)] dx 2 A L3
U = ∫ CCCC = ∫ CCCCCC = CCC
0 0
2 E A(x) 2EA 6E

it can be obtained from the energy density

N(x)
 = CC =  (L - x)
A
2 2 (L - x)2
u = CC = CCCC
2E 2E
L [A(L - x)]2 dx
L 2 A L3
U = ∫u dV = ∫u (Adx) = ∫ CCCCCC = CCC
0 0
2EA 6E
same result as above
(b) own weight plus P

N(x) =  A (L - x) + P
[A(L - x) + P]2 dx  2 A L3  P L2
L P2 L
U = ∫ CCCCCCCC = CCC + CCC + CCC
0
2EA 6E 2E 2EA

note that the strain energy of a bar subjected to two loads is not equal to
the sum of the strain energies produced by the individual loads

26
Example 2-14
determine the vertical displacement B
of the joint B, both bar have the same
axial rigidity E A
equation of equilibrium in vertical
direction, it is obtained
P
F = CCCC
2 cos 
the strain energy of the two bars is

F2 L1 P2 H
U = 2．CCC = CCCCC L1 = H / cos 
2EA 4 E A cos3

the work of force P is

W = P B / 2

equating U and W and solving for B

PH
B = CCCCC
2 E A cos3

this is the energy method to find the displacement, we did not need to
draw a displacement diagram at joint B

Example 2-15
a cylinder and cylinder head are clamped by bolts as shown
d = 0.5 in dr = 0.406 in g = 1.5 in t = 0.25 in L = 13.5 in
compare the energy absorbing of the three bolt configurations

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(a) original bolt

nNi2 Li P2(g - t) P2 t
U1 =  CCC = CCCC + CCC
i=1
2 EiAi 2 E As 2 E Ar
 d2  dr2
As = CC Ar = CC
4 4
thus U1 can be written as
2 P2 (g - t) 2 P2 t
U1 = CCCCC + CCC
  E d2  E dr2

(b) bolt with reduced shank diameter

P2 g 2 P2 g
U2 = CCC = CCC
2 E Ar  E dr2

the ratio of strain energy U2 / U1 is

U2 g d2 1.5．0.52
C = CCCCCC = CCCCCCCCCCCCC = 1.40
U1 (g - t) dr2 + t d2 (1.5 - 0.25) 0.4062 + 0.25 x 0.5
(c) long bolts
2 P2 (L - t) 2 P2 t
U3 = CCCCC + CCC
 E d2   E dr2

the ratio of strain energy U3 / 2 U1 is

U3 (L - t) dr2 + t d2
CC = CCCCCCCC
2 U1 2 [(g - t) dr2 + t d2]
(13.5 - 0.25) 0.4062 + 0.25．0.52
= CCCCCCCCCCCCCCC = 4.18
2 [(1.5 - 0.25) 0.4062 + 0.25 ．0.52]

thus, the long bolts increase the energy-absorbing capacity

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 when designing bolts, designers must also consider the maximum tensile
stresses, maximum bearing stresses, stress concentration, and other matters

2.8 Impact Loading

2.9 Repeated Loading and Fatigue

2.10 Stress Concentrations

2.11 Nonlinear Behavior

2.12 Elastoplastic Analysis

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