Introduction to Programming

What is Program?
A program is a set of instructions that tells the computer (Central Processing Unit) what to do.
Since CPU can't perform any task at its own. Hence set of instructions are provided to CPU in
the form of programs to perform specific tasks.

Source code:
Human readable format of a program is called its Source code. We can modify the source code
any number of times.
Executable:
Binary format or machine readable format of any program is called as its Executable. They are
the compiled format of source code and are generally in binary format. We cannot modify the
executable of any program.

Source code Executable

1
What is Programming?
Programming can be described as the process of writing an algorithm in a sequence of computer
language instructions or we may simply say, the process of writing or editing any program. This
may seems surprising that programming are in practice from the days when there were no
concepts of computer, and the first programmer of the world was Ada Lovelace.

What is Programming Language?

Programming language is a language that provides a medium of communication between
computer and human. They provide a way through which humans can interact with the computer
with the help of programs. Programming language are often used for writing Programs. Some of
popular programming languages are: C, C++, Java, C#, PHP, Javascript, Python, Ruby etc.
Categorization of programming language:
Low Level Language(LLL)
 Low level languages are programming languages that are directly understood by the
computer or requires less interpretation. Or we may say programming language that
provides little or no abstraction. Under this category falls
Machine language and Assembly language.
 Low level languages are easily understood by computers but are hard to figure out by
humans.
 Processing of any low level languages is much faster than High level languages.
 Examples: BCPL, ALGOL etc.

High Level Language(HLL)

 High level languages are programming languages that are easily understood by humans
and are mostly written in English like statements. Or we may say programming languages
with strong abstraction.
 High level languages requires translation into machine language or low level language
hence requires compilers, interpreters to accomplish this translation job.
 Processing of any high level language takes more time compared to low level language
because of time elapsed in converting high level instructions into low level instructions.
 Examples: C, C++, Java, C# etc.

2
Compiler:
Compilers are the software program that translates or converts the source code into specific
machine code. Compilers also checks for syntax errors and ensures proper grammar of the source
code. They may or may not convert the source code into an intermediate code called Object
code. Full program is compiled at once and on any error compilation process fails.
Interpreter:
Interpreter are the software programs that directly executes instructions written in programming
language line by line. They need not any prior compilation of the whole program instead they
compile each line when they are about to execute. If any line is encountered with error, then the
whole process is terminated and execution of program stops.

Tokens in programming
Tokens:
Smallest individual element of a program is called as Token. Everything you see inside a
program is a token. There are generally five types of tokens:
 Keyword
 Identifier
 Operator
 Separator
 Literal
Keyword:
Keyword is a reserved word whose meaning is already defined by the programming language.
We cannot use keyword for any other purpose inside programming. Every programming
language have some set of keywords.
Examples: int, do, while, void, return etc(Note: These keywords are common to C and C
influenced languages).
Identifier
Identifiers are the name given to different programming elements. Either name given to a
variable or a function or any other programming element, all follow some basic naming
conventions listed below:
Keywords must not be used as an identifier.
Identifier must begin with an alphabet(a-z A-Z) or an underscore(_) symbol.

3
Identifier can contains alphabets(a-z A-Z), digits(0-9) and underscore(_) symbol.
Identifier must not contain any special character(e.g. !@$*.'[] etc) except underscore(_).
Examples of some valid identifiers:
num, Num, _num, _Num, num1, Num1, _num1, _Num1, _1num, _1Num, _num_,
number_to_add etc.
Examples of some invalid identifiers:
1num, number to add, 1_num, num-to-add, num@ etc.
Operator:
Operators are the symbol given to any arithmetical or logical operations. Various programming
languages provides various sets of operators some common operators are:
Let’s suppose two variables a=10, b=5
Arithmetic operator
Arithmetic operator are used to perform basic arithmetic operations.
Operator Description Example
+ Adds two operands. a + b gives 15
- Subtracts second operand from first. a - b gives 5
* Multiplies two operands. a * b gives 50
/ Divides two operands. a / b gives 2
% Modulus operator divides the first operand from second and a % b gives 0 (As 10/5
returns the remainder. It is generally used for checking will have 0 remainder)
divisibility.

Assignment operator
Assignment operator is used to assign value to a variable. The value is assigned from right to
left.
Operator Description Example
= Assigns value from right operand to left operand. a = 10 will assign 10 in a

Relational operator
Relational operator is used to check relation between any two operands. Whether any of them is
greater, equal or not equal.
Operator Description Example
< If value of left operand is greater than right, returns true else (a > b) will return true
returns false

4
 > If value of right operand is greater than left, returns true else (a < b) will return false
returns false
== If both operands are equal returns true else false (a == b) will return
false
!= If both operands are not equal returns true else false. (a != b) will return true
>= If value of left operand is greater or equal to right operand, (a >= b) will return
returns true else false true
<= If value of right operand is greater or equal to left operand, (a <= b) will return
returns true else false false

Logical operator
Logical operator are used to combine two boolean expression together and results in a single
boolean value according to the operand and operator used.
Operator Description Example
&& Used to combine two expressions. If both ((a>=1) && (a<=10)) will return true since
operands are true or Non-Zero, returns true else (a>=1) is true and also (a<=10) is true.
false
|| If any of the operand is true or Non-zero, ((a>1) || (a<5)) will return true. As (a>1) is
returns true else false true. Since first operand is true hence there
is no need to check for second operand.
! Logical NOT operator is a unary operator. (!(a>1)) will return false. Since (a>1) is
Returns the complement of the boolean value. true hence its complement is false.

Increment/Decrement operator
Increment/Decrement operator is a unary operator used to increase an integer value by 1 or
decrease it by 1. Increment/decrement operator are of two types Postfix and Prefix.
Operator Description Example
Increment operator will add 1 to an integer value. a++ will give 11
++ ++a will also give 11
-- Decrement operator will subtract 1 from an integer value. a-- will give 9
--a will also give 9

Separator
Separators are used to separate different programming elements. The various types of separators
used in programming are:
(Space) \t(Tab) \n(New line) . , ; () {} []

5
 Introduction to C programming

C PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
C is a procedural programming language developed by Dennis Ritchie in 1972 at AT&T Bell
Labs. C is considered as the most powerful programming languages ever. It was originally
developed to re-implement UNIX operating system. C is a High Level Programming
language but often referred as Middle level programming language because of its ability to
provide rich support to low level programming.
C is also called as mother of all modern programming languages as many of current
programming languages such as C++, Java, C#, PHP, Python, Perl, JavaScript etc. are directly or
indirectly influenced from C. It is the also the most popular programming language ever and is
widely used for Operating Systems implementations and Embedded programming's.

Languages originated from C

FEATURE OF C
C is powerful language and its real power comes from number of features it provides. Here are
some features that C provides:

 Simple and Robust

 Portability
 Modularity
 Extensibility
 Speed
 Memory management

Features of C programming language

6
  Simple and Robust
C is considered as simplest and easiest language ever. Its simplicity lies in the lesser
number of programming constructs that are used to create any complex program.
C is a robust programming language with rich set of in-built library functions and
operators that can even write the most complex programs ever.

 Portability
C is a machine independent programming language i.e. C program can run on any
machine that has C compiler with few or no modification. Although C is doesn’t provide
platform independency as Java provides.

 Modularity
C programs are modular in nature i.e. they are basically divided into modules by
modules. Modular programming is a programming construct where we divide our
program into different modules and combine them together in a single module to form a
Program.

 Extensibility
C provides a rich set of in-build library functions. But we can also write our custom
library function and attach with the C programs to use them in future.

 Speed
C programs compiles and executes faster than any other modern programming languages.
And this is also the fact that it is used for Operating System development.

 Memory management
C provides an efficient way to access and manage memory through the use of Pointers.

ADVANTAGES OF LEARNING C
Whether you are beginning your programming with C or you have learnt some other
programming languages earlier. Learning C has its own importance, here are few advantages of
C, over other programming languages.

 C is much simpler language as compared to any other programming language. It has less
number of constructs which makes easier to learn.
 Almost every hardware have a C compiler.
 Compilation and execution of a C program is way faster than other modern programming
languages.

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  Being a high level programming language, its ability to support low level operations
makes it different from other programming languages.
 C language is considered as a backbone of the Operating System development. As all
popular OS are fully or partially written in C.
 C language is also widely used for developing Compilers, Assemblers, Language
interpreters, Device drivers, Databases etc.
 All modern programming languages are directly or indirectly inherited from C. Hence
learning C will make easier to learn C influenced programming language.

WHAT ARE TOKENS

Tokens are the smallest individual elements of a program. Tokens are the basic building blocks
of any program.
For example let’s consider this English paragraph

“Programming in C is really very interesting! I am programming since I was 14. ”

The above paragraph is made of several basic fundamentals things. Can you figure out all those
fundamentals things?
Actually the paragraph contains
13 words, 2 digits, 13 blank spaces, 2 special character (Exclamation mark and full stop)
These are the basic building blocks of any English paragraph. Likewise five fundamental things
are used to construct any simple or complex program that are keywords, identifiers, operators,
separators, literals.
Keywords
Keywords are the reserved words whose meaning is pre-defined by the programming
language specification. They convey some special meaning in the programming.
Let’s take an example of C keyword: int in C is used to declare an integer type variable.
C has total 32 keywords.

auto break case char const continue default do

double else enum extern float for goto if

int long register return short signed sizeof static

struct switch typedef union unsigned void volatile while

8
 Identifier
In programming we need some data to work upon, since program without data is
worthless. And if we have defined some data in memory then there must be some easiest
way to access them later.
As the name sounds Identifier might be used for identifying something. Yes you are right,
identifiers are used for identifying various programming elements (they might be some
variables, or some function or any other programming element). Or in simple words
Identifiers are the name given to various programming element.
There are some rules that must be followed by an identifier:
 It must not be a keyword.
 It can contain alphabets a-z A-Z, digits 0-9, and underscore _ symbol.
 It must not contain any special character other than_.
 It must begin with an alphabet or underscore _ symbol.
Examples of some valid identifiers: num, num1, _num1, first_name, _name_
Examples of some invalid identifiers: 1num, first name, email@id, name.

Operators
Operators are symbols given to any mathematical or logical operation. C language
provides a rich set of operators. There are basically seven types of operators in C:

 Arithmetic operator : + - * / %
 Assignment operator: =
 Relational operator: > , < , >=, <=, = =, !=
 Logical operator : && || !
 Bitwise operator : >> << & | ^ ~
 Increment/Decrement operator : ++ --
 Conditional/Ternary operator : ? :
 Miscellaneous operator sizeof()

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 Separators
Separators are used for separating various programming element from one another.
Separators in programming are as vital as they are in English paragraphs, as I don’t think
anyone could ever read an English sentence clearly without separator (Spaces) and
punctuation marks. Various types of separators used in C programming are:

. , : ; ( ) { } [ ] White spaces (Space, \t, \n)

Amongst all semicolon ; is the most important one as you will find everywhere in all C
programs. Semicolon ; is used to terminate any C statement and is also used for
separating one statement from another.

C CHARACTER SET
C character set defines the valid set of alphabets, digits and special characters that are
allowed in C. C character set consists of:
 Alphabets: a-z A-Z
 Digits: 0-9
 Special characters: ` ~ ! @ # $ % ^ & * ( ) _ - + = { } [ ] | \ : ; “ ‘ < , > . ? /

Data types in C programming

Data type defines the type of the data that any variable will store. It is a system of declaring
variables of different types. Data types are broadly categorized into three categories which are:
1. Primitive/Pre-defined
2. User defined
3. Derived
Primitive/Pre-defined data type:
Primitive data types are the basic data types that are needed for performing general operations.
Example: int, char, float, double
User defined data type:
User defined data types are defined by user according to their need. They are defined or created
from the primitive data types.
Example: struct, union, array, pointer

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Derived data types:
Derived data types are basically the primitive data type with increased range of values it can
store.
Example: short, long long int, double Below is a list of C data types:

Data type Size Range Format specifier

char 1 byte -127 to +127 %c

unsigned char 1 byte 0 to 255 %c

short 2 byte -32,767 to 32,767 %hi, %d, %i

unsigned short 2 byte 0 to 65,535 %hu, %d, %i

int 4 bytes -2,147,483,847 to +2,147,483,847 %d, %i, %u

unsigned int 4 bytes 0 to 4,294,967,295 %u

%d, %i, %u, %ld,

long 4 bytes -2,147,483,847 to +2,147,483,847
%l, %li

unsigned long 4 bytes 0 to 4,294,967,295 %lu, %u

-9,223,372,036,854,775,807 to
long long 8 bytes %lli
+9,223,372,036,854,775,807

unsigned long
8 bytes 0 to 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 %llu
long

float 4 bytes 1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38 %f

double 8 bytes 2.3E-308 to 1.7E+308 %lf

long double 10 bytes 3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932 %Lf

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Hello World Program in C
Here we will write our first C program. A Hello World program.
Program:
1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 printf("Hello World!");
6 return 0;
7 }
Know it:
 #include <stdio.h> is a pre-processor directive. When the above program is compiled the
compiler replaces the first line with entire contents of stdio.h file. The stdio.h (Standard
Input/Output) is called as header file and contains functions for basic input/output
operations.
 int main() is a function and defines the starting point of our program. It contains two
parts:
int It is the return type of the function. It specifies that the main() function should return
an integer value when its work is finished.
main() It is an identifier or name of the function.
Note: The starting point of any program in C is defined by main function.
 The next line contains pair of curly braces. In C we use a pair of curly braces to define a
block of statements. An opening curly brace is always followed by a closing curly brace.
 printf(); is a function used to print any data on screen. Anything inside the double quotes
" " will be printed as it is on screen.
 return 0; returns an integer value to the operating system or the Runtime environment of
C acknowledging OS/C Runtime Environment that the program has terminated
successfully.

If you have written the above program same as in the source code without making any mistake
then it should print Hello World! on the screen.

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Variables and constants in C

Variables:
Variables are the storage location in memory that holds some value. We define a variable to
make sure a stored value in memory is accessible by user later. Variables are accessed by
their identifiers (Symbolic name that refer to the value stored in the memory) to which they are
linked with. In order to use any variable and the value it contains, the variable must be declared
first.

Declaring variables in C:
Syntax: data-type variable-name;
Here data-type refers to valid C Data type.
And variable-name refers to valid C identifier.
Note: In C all variables must be declared on the top.

Example:
int num1;
The above code in C will declare an integer variable in memory with Garbage value. Garbage
value is a random value of specific type (int in our case) stored in the variable. Hence, variables
in C must be initialized prior to their use.

Initializing a variable:
Assigning a value to the variable is called as initializing a variable. Values are initialized or
assigned to any variable using assignment operator =.
Example:
int num1 = 10;
Above code will now declare an integer variable num1 in memory with 10 stored in it.

Declaring multiple variables:

Multiples variables in C can be declared one after another declaration.
int num1;
int num2 = -30;
unsigned int num3 = 10;
float num4 = 1.2;
char ch = 'a';

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The above code will declare an integer variable num1 with garbage value, num2 with value -30,
an unsigned integer variable with value 10, float variable num4 with value 1.2 and a character
variable ch with value 'a'.
Note: Values of character variable must be assigned inside a single quote. And must only contain
single character.

Declaring multiple variables of same type:

Multiple variables of same type can be declared and initialized by separating them with comma,.
int num1, num2, num3;
int num4 = 10, num5, num6 = -1290;
The above code will declare 6 integer variables num1, num2, num3, num5 uninitialized
containing garbage values and num4 with value 10, num6 with value -1290.

Taking input from user using scanf() function

We use scanf() function in C to take formatted input from user. It is defined in stdio.h header
file. Here we will see how to take simple inputs from scanf() function.
Syntax:
int scanf(const char * format, ...);

How to Use:
scanf("format-specifier", &variable-name);
Here format-specifier denotes the format specifier of input. And variable-name specifies the
name of variable in which input is to be taken. The variable name is prefixed by &(Address of
operator) which returns the address of the variable. If & is somewhat confusing you leave it we
will see in-depth use of & later in pointers. Lets see basic input program.
Program:
1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int num;
6
7 printf("Enter any number : ");
8 scanf("%d", &num);

14
 9
10 printf("Number = %d", num);
11
12 return 0;
13 }

Output:
Enter any number: 120
Number = 120
Taking multiple inputs:
1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int num1, num2,num3;
6 float f1, f2;
7 printf("Enter two number:\n");
8
9 //Multiple scanf() can be used to take multiple inputs.
10 scanf("%d", &num1);
11 scanf("%d", &num2);
12
13 printf("Enter a number and two float values:\n");
14
15 //All inputs can also be taken in a single scanf()
16 scanf("%d%f%f",&num3,&f1,&f2);
17
18 printf("Num1 = %d, Num2 = %d, Num3 = %d\n", num1,num2,num3);
19 printf("f1 = %f, f2 = %f\n",f1,f2);
20 return 0;
21 }

Output:
Enter two number:
12
10
Enter a number and two float values:
130
1.2
1.6
Num1 = 12, Num2 = 10, Num3 = 130
f1 = 1.200000, f2 = 1.600000
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Control Statements in C
Control statements are the heart of any programming language. And as a developer I can say that
almost 70-80 percent of the program contains control statements. Hence mastering over control
statements means mastering the art of programming. Let’s gain control over control statements.

WHAT ARE CONTROL STATEMENTS

Since program are a sequence of statements that are executed linearly one after another.
Sometimes we need to change the normal program's flow and here control statements comes in
action.
Control statements are statements that are intended to change the normal program's flow.
To understand better let’s take an example: Suppose we are travelling from city A to city B.
There can be two approaches used to travel from A to B:
1. First approach (Uses normal program flow) will travel until he finds any obstacle(Road
block). In case of any road blocks it terminates the travel program.
2. The second approach (Uses control statements) will travel until he finds any obstacle
(Road block). If he finds any road blocks it checks for an alternate path. If an alternate
path is available then selects the alternate path to city B else terminates the travel
program.

As you can see that control statements are highly useful in certain circumstances.
There are basically three types of control statements:
 Conditional statements
 Repetitive statements
 Jump statements

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Conditional statements:
Conditional statements are also called as If-Else Statements. They checks for one or more
conditions and if the condition is satisfied i.e true one or more statements are executed. They are
most commonly used statements in programming. And if any consequence occurs in
programming to run any condition based statement (Statements that requires some condition to
be fulfilled prior to their execution) we use conditional statements.
Conditional statements can be of five types:
 If else
 Switch statement

Repetitive statements:
As the name specifies repetitive statements are used to repeat something. Repeat something but
what, repetitive statements are used to repeat one or more statements n times. But whats the need
of repetition, the need for repeating statements can be explained via a general and basic
example.
Let’s take an example of functioning of a processor:

Above diagram illustrates the core functioning of a processor Fetch-Decode-Execute, this core
functioning needs to run till we shut down our computer. Hence requires any mechanism to
repeat these three core functioning of processor until the computer is awake. And
here Repetitive statements comes in action.
There are basically three types of repetitive statements provided in C but languages like C++,
Java, C# etc provides an extra iterative statement.
 For loop
 While loop
 Do-while loop

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Jump statements:
Jump statements are also one of the important control statements and are sometimes used in
combination with repetitive statements. Unlike conditional and repetitive statements jump
statements provide an unconditional way to transfer the program's flow from one part to another.
There are three types of jump statements:
 Break
 Continue
 Goto

ADVANTAGES OF USING TERNARY OPERATOR

 Reduces the code to single line or just few lines.
 Best for short conditions.
 If used with proper formatting it can more appropriate than simple if else

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If else statement in C
If else statements are the conditional control statements. They are used to perform any condition
based operation. For example: Program to print a number if it is even, requires a condition to be
checked before the number is printed.
If else statements works on a boolean value. If the boolean value is true then the statements
under if are executed else they are skipped. In C any non-zero integer value is treated as true and
zero is treated as false.
Basically there are four types of if-else:
 Simple If
 If-Else
 If-Else-If (Ladder if)
 Nested if
Simple if:
As the name specifies Simple If is the simplest version of If. They contain single condition
expression needs to be checked and if the condition is satisfied (true) one or more statements are
executed. They do not contain any statement for else part (Part if the condition fails).
Syntax
if (condition)
{
statement/s that will execute if the condition is true.
}

Flow chart of Simple if statement

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Let’s see a simple program to understand:
Write a C program to input any number and print Hello, World! if the number is greater
than 1.
1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int n;
6 printf("Enter any number: ");
7 scanf("%d", &n);
8
9 if( n>1 ) //Checks the condition that n > 1 or not.
10 {
11 printf("Hello, World!");
12 }
13
14 return 0;
15 }
Output 1:
Enter any number: 10
Hello, World!
Output 2:
Enter any number: 0
In the output 1 users enters 10, that is greater than 1 hence the if condition will execute like
if (10>1) which is true
Since the if condition is true body of if will execute and prints "Hello, World!".

In output 2 user enters 0, that is less than 1 hence the if condition will execute like
if (0>1 ) which is false
Since the if condition is false the body of if is skipped printing nothing.
Note: You can also write if else without curly brace if there is only one statement under if else.
Example:
1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int n = 5;
6
7 if(n>0)
8 {
9 printf("This is positive number");

20
 10 }
11 return 0;
12 }

Above program can also be written as

1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int n = 5;
6
7 if(n>0)
8 printf("This is positive number");
9
10 return 0;
11 }
Since it contains only one statement under if-else hence curly brace { } can be removed.

Let’s consider another example

1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int n = 5;
6
7 if(n>0)
8 {
9 printf("This is positive number");
10 printf("More things to be done");
11 }
12 return 0;
13 }

In above program both printf() will be executed only and only if n>0
Let’s see what happens when we remove curly brace{ }
1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int n = 5;
6
7 if(n>0)
8 printf("This is positive number");
9 printf("More things to be done");
10 return 0;
11 }

21
When considering the above program the first printf() will be executed only and only if n>0 But
the second printf() will always execute whether the if condition is true or false, as it is not the
part of if statement.

Hence you should be careful while using curly braces { }.

Using curly brace { } with if else is also consider as a Good programming practice.
If-else:
If else statement are the enhanced version of simple if. In simple if one or more statement/s are
executed if the condition is true but doesn't describes any statement/s, if the condition is false. If-
else describes statements for both whether the condition is true or false. In both case one or more
statement/s are executed.
If the condition is true body of if is executed skipping the body of else.
If the condition is false body of else is executed skipping the body of if.

Syntax of if elseif (condition)

{
statement/s that will execute if the condition is true.
}
else
{
statement/s that will execute if the condition is false.
}

Flow chart of if-else statement

22
Here is a sample program of if else:
Write a program to input any number and check whether it is negative or positive.
1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int n;
6 printf("Enter any number: ");
7 scanf("%d", &n);
8
9 if( n<0 ) //If any number is less than 0 it is negative
10 {
11 printf("Negative");
12 }
13 else //If any number is not less than 0 it is not negative.
14 {
15 printf("Positive");
16 }
17
18 return 0;
19 }
Output 1:
Enter any number: -5
Negative
Output 2:
Enter any number: 6
Positive
In output 1, when user enters -5 that is less than 0. The if statement will execute like
if( -5 < 0 ) which is true executing the body of if and skipping the body of else. Hence will print
Negative.

In output 2, when user enters 6 that is greater than 0. The if statement will execute like
if( 6 < 0 ) which is false executing the body of else and skipping the body of if. Hence will print
Positive.

If-else-if (Ladder if):

If-else-if statements are also called as ladder if due to their control flow. They are generally the
enhanced version of if-else.
Syntax of ladder ifif (condition1)
{
statement/s that will execute if condition 1 is true.
}
else if (condition2)
23
{
statement/s that will execute if the condition 2 is true.
}
else if (condition3)
{
statement/s that will execute if the condition 3 is true.
}
...
...
...
else if (condition n)
{
statement/s that will execute if the condition n is true.
}
else
{
statement/s that will execute if all conditions are flase.
}

Flow chart of if-else-if (ladder if)

24
Simple example of ladder if
Wite a program to input any number between 1-7 and print equivalent day name. For
example: 1-Monday, 2-Tuesday etc.
1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int n;
6 printf("Enter day number between 1-7: ");
7 scanf("%d", &n);
8
9 if( n == 1)
10 {
11 printf("Monday");
12 }
13 else if(n==2)
14 {
15 printf("Tuesday");
16 }
17 else if(n==3)
18 {
19 printf("Wednesday");
20 }
21 else if(n==4)
22 {
23 printf("Thursday");
24 }
25 else if(n==5)
26 {
27 printf("Friday");
28 }
29 else if(n==6)
30 {
31 printf("Saturday");
32 }
33 else if(n==7)
34 {
35 printf("Sunday");
36 }
37 else
38 {
39 printf("Invalid input");
40 }
41
42 return 0;
43 }

25
Output 1:
Enter day number between 1-7: 4
Thursday
Output 2:
Enter day number between 1-7: 8
Invalid input
In output 1 when user enters 4 the if statements will be executed like
if (4==1) which is false hence moves to the next condition
if (4==2) which is again false hence moves to the next condition
if (4==3) which is also false hence moves to the next condition
if (4==4) which is true hence statements of condition 4 will execute and will print Thursday

In output 2 when user enters 8 the if statements will execute like

if (8==1) which is false hence moves to the next condition
if (8==2) which is also false hence moves to the next condition
if (8==3) which is also false hence moves to the next condition
if (8==4) which is also false hence moves to the next condition
if (8==5) which is also false hence moves to the next condition
if (8==6) which is also false hence moves to the next condition
if (8==7) which is also false hence moves to the next condition
Since all if conditions are false hence the body of else will execute which will print Invalid
choice.
Nested if
Nested if is the combined version of all if and is the most complex format of all if. In nested
if more than one conditions are checked one after another to executed a specific statement.
Syntax of nested if:if (condition1)
{
statement/s that will execute if the condition 1 is true.
if (condition2)
{
statement/s that will execute if both condition 1 and condition 2 are true.
}
else
{
statement/s that will execute when condition 1 is true but condition 2 is false.
}
}
else
{
statement/s that will execute if the condition 1 is false.

26
 {
Statement/s that will execute if condition 1 is false but condition 2 is true.
}
else
{
statement/s that will execute when both condition 1 and condition 2 are false.
}
}
Let’s see a program to demonstrate nested if:
Write a program to input three numbers and find maximum between all.
1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int n1, n2, n3;
6 printf("Enter any three numbers :\n");
7 scanf("%d %d %d", &n1, &n2, &n3);
8
9 if(n1>n2)
10 {
11 if(n1>n3)
12 {
13 printf("n1 = %d is max.", n1);
14 }
15 else
16 {
17 printf("n3 = %d is max.", n3);
18 }
19 }
20 else
21 {
22 if(n2>n3)
23 {
24 printf("n2 = %d is max.", n2);
25 }
26 else
27 {
28 printf("n3 = %d is max.", n3);
29 }
30 }
31
32 return 0;
33 }

27
Output 1:
Enter any three numbers:
30
12
10
n1 = 30 is max.
Output 2:
Enter any three numbers:
10
20
9
n2 = 20 is max.
Output 3:
Enter any three numbers:
10
20
30
n3 = 30 is max.
In output 1 user enters n1=30, n2=12, n3=10. The if statements will execute like.
The first outer if condition
if ( n1>n2 ) i.e ( 30>12 ) is true. Hence the first if i.e. outer if will execute skipping the outer else
part.
Then the inner condition
if ( n1>n3 ) which is also true. Hence the body of inner if will execute. And prints n1 = 30 is
max.
In output 2 user enters n1=10, n2=20, n3=9. The if statements will execute like.
The first outer if condition
if ( n1>n2 ) i.e. ( 10>20 ) is false. Hence the first outer if will be skipped and the outer else part
will execute.
Then the inner condition
if ( n2>n3 ) i.e. ( 20>9 ) which is true. Hence the inner if will execute skipping the inner else
part. And prints n2 = 20 is max.
In output 3 user enters n1=10, n2=20, n3=30. The if statements will execute like.
The first outer if condition
if ( n1>n2 ) i.e. ( 10>20 ) is false. Hence the first outer if will be skipped and outer else part will
execute.
Then the inner condition
if ( n2>n3 ) i.e. ( 20>30 ) is also false. Hence the inner if part will also be skipped executing the
inner else part. And prints n3 = 30 is max.

28
Conditional / Ternary operator in C
Ternary operator is a shorthand operator for if else and can be used to replace short if else
statements in single line. Ternary operator is also known as conditional operator, inline if,
ternary if.

As the name specifies ternary operator consist of three operand

 First is the boolean expression (condition) upon which the ternary operator works.
 Second is the statements which are executed if the boolean expression is true, and may be
treated as body of if.
 Last is the statements which are executed if the boolean expression if false, and may be
treated as body of else.

Syntax:
Basic syntax of ternary operator
(boolean expression) ? (true-part) : (false-part)

Let’s see a basic example of ternary/conditional operator:

max = (a>b) ? a : b
The above expression returns the maximum value between a and b and stores in max. If the
boolean expression is true i.e. if (a>b) then the expression will return a, else the will return b.

The above code is similar to

if(a>b)
{
max = a;
}
else
{
max = b;
}

Note: In C any non-zero integer value represents true and zero represents false.

29
ADVANTAGES OF USING TERNARY OPERATOR
 Reduces the code to single line or just few lines.
 Best for short conditions.
 If used with proper formatting it can more appropriate than simple if else.

Sample Program:
C program to find maximum between two numbers using ternary operator.
1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int num1, num2, max;
6 printf("Enter two numbers: ");
7 scanf("%d %d", &num1, &num2);
8
9 max = (num1>num2) ? num1 : num2;
10
11 printf("Max is %d", max);
12
13 return 0;
14 }

Output:
Enter two numbers: 20
30
Max is 30

NESTED TERNARY OPERATOR

Nesting of ternary operator is often dis-regarded by most of the programmer’s and even I also
never recommend it. Nesting of ternary operators will definitely reduce the code length in
characters but will also cost a poor readable code and more chances of error. Hence you must
avoid a nested ternary operator as much as you can.

30
Sample program of finding maximum between three numbers using a nested ternary operator
1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int num1, num2, num3, max;
6
7 printf("Enter three numbers: ");
8 scanf("%d %d %d", &num1, &num2, &num3);
9
10 max = ((num1>num2) ? ((num1>num3) ? num1 : num3) : ((num2>num3) ? num2 : num3));
11
12 printf("Max is %d", max);
13
14 return 0;
15 }

In above program you can see that the ternary operator may had reduced the code length but had
also made our program less readable. Hence to ensure readability of code we must use proper
formatting for the ternary operator.

PROPER FORMATTING OF TERNARY OPERATOR

A proper formatted code will enhance your code readability and will also decrease the
probability of errors in your code. A ternary operator must be well formatted in order to make it
more readable and clear.

Have a look to the poorly formatted ternary operator.

max = ((num1>num2) ? ((num1>num3) ? num1 : num3) : ((num2>num3) ? num2 : num3));

The above code can be formatted as

max = (num1>num2) ?
((num1>num3) ? num1 : num3) :
(num2>num3) ? num2 : num3;

The above code demonstrates that how a simple formatted code has increased the readability of
our program.

31
Switch case in C programming:
Switch case is a conditional control statement that allows us to make decisions from number of
available choices. It uses an integer value or an enumeration type value for making decisions.
Switch case is similar to ladder if else.
Syntax:
switch(expression)
{
case 1: statement/s;
case 2: statement/s;
case 3: statement/s;
...
...
...
case n: statement/s;
default: statement/s;
}
Here expression is an integer variable, character or an enumeration type whose value is to be
matched with case.
Flow chart:

Switch case flow chart

32
Rules for using switch case:
 Expression should be an integer, character or an enumeration type.
 Case values should always be an integer, character or enumeration constant. And must
match the expression type.
 default case is optional.
 Cases need not to be written in order.
 No two case should have same value
For example:
case 1: statment/s;
case 2: statment/s;
case 1+1: statment/s; //Invalid
case 2: statment/s; //Invalid
 When none of the cases are matched default case executes.
Let’s see a program to understand switch case:
Program:
Write a program to input any week number and print corresponding week name using switch.
1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int week;
6
7 printf("Enter week number: ");
8 scanf("%d", &week);
9
10 switch(week)
11 {
12 case 1: printf("MONDAY\n");
13 case 2: printf("TUESDAY\n");
14 case 3: printf("WEDNESDAY\n");
15 case 4: printf("THURSDAY\n");
16 case 5: printf("FRIDAY\n");
17 case 6: printf("SATURDAY\n");
18 case 7: printf("SUNDAY\n");
19 default: printf("Invalid Input. Please enter week number between 1-7");
20 }
21 return 0;
22 }
23

33
Output:
Enter week number: 4
THURSDAY
FRIDAY
SATURDAY
SUNDAY
Invalid Input. Please enter week number between 1-7
The output of the above program is little weird. When the user input 4 the output should be
THURSDAY. But our program is printing all the statements below case 4. In the above program
we need something that terminates the control flow from switch when all statements under
matched case are executed. And here comes break statement in action.

break: Break statement is used to terminated control flow from inner switch. When
a break statement is executed, the control is transferred to next statement after switch.

The above program can be re-written as:

1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int week;
6
7 printf("Enter week number: ");
8 scanf("%d", &week);
9
10 switch(week)
11 {
12 case 1: printf("MONDAY\n");
13 break;
14 case 2: printf("TUESDAY\n");
15 break;
16 case 3: printf("WEDNESDAY\n");
17 break;
18 case 4: printf("THRUSDAY\n");
19 break;
20 case 5: printf("FRIDAY\n");
21 break;
22 case 6: printf("SATURDAY\n");
23 break;
24 case 7: printf("SUNDAY\n");
25 break;
26 default: printf("Invalid Input. Please enter week number between 1-7");
27 }
28

34
 29 return 0;
30 }
Output:
Enter week number: 4
THURSDAY
Program:
Write a program to print grading system using switch.

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
char grade = 'B';
switch (grade) {
case 'A':
printf("Excellent!\n");
break;
case 'B':
printf("Good\n");
break;
case 'C':
printf("Average\n");
break;
case 'D':
printf("Poor\n");
break;
case 'F':
printf("Failed\n");
break;
default:
printf("Invalid grade\n");
break;

35
 }

return 0;
}
Output:

Program:
Switch with multiple case labels

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

int num = 2;

switch (num) {

case 1:

case 2:

case 3:

printf("Number is between 1 and 3\n");

break;

case 4:

case 5:

case 6:

printf("Number is between 4 and 6\n");

break;

default:

printf("Number is greater than 6\n");

break;

36
 return 0;

Loop

For loop in C
Loops are as valuable control statements in programming as are conditional statements. Loops
are used for performing repetitive tasks. Read more about how loops work.

For loop is the most commonly used and popular loop amongst all three loops present in C. The
reason behind its popularity lies in its simplicity. For loop is the easiest loop to begin
programming with loops.
Syntax of for loop:
for ( initialization ; condition ; update )
{
//Body of loop
}

PARTS OF THE FOR LOOP

For loop generally contains four parts:

 First is the initialization. Here we initialize the counter variables.

 Second is the condition. Condition part contains one or more boolean expressions that
determines whether the loop will further repeat or not. If the condition satisfies (condition
is true) then the statement/s under body of loop will be executed else the loop terminates.
 Third is the body of loop. Body of loop generally contains one or more statement/s that
are executed if the loop condition is true.
 And last is the updation. Updation part generally contains expressions to update the loop
counter. Updation part is sometimes also referred as Increment/Decrement part.

Note: All the four parts of a for loop are optional. We may or may not specify any of the loop
part.

CONTROL FLOW OF FOR LOOP

37
 Working mechanism of for loop

Few more things to note about for loop:

 Initialization part runs only once.

 The condition, body of loop and updation part runs repeatedly until the loop terminates.

FLOW CHART OF FOR LOOP

Flow chart of for loop

SAMPLE PROGRAM TO DEMONSTRATE FOR LOOP

Write a program in C to print Hello, World! 10 times.

38
Program:
1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int i; //Used as a counter variable.
6
7 for( i=1 ; i<=10 ; i++)
8 {
9 printf("Hello, World!\n");
10 }
11
12 return 0;
13 }
Output:
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!

Note: For updation you may use any expressions that increments the value of i by 1. Such as you
are free to use: i = i + 1; or i+=1; or i++;

Also if the body of loop contains single statement then there is no need to use curly braces { }
for the for loop. As the above loop can also written as.
for ( i=1 ; i<=10 ; i++)
printf("Hello, World!\n");

But it is always recommended that use pair of curly braces { } with the for loop whether it
contains single or multiple statements.
INFINITE FOR LOOP
An infinite for loop is a loop without any termination condition. Infinite for loop runs infinite
times without terminating from the loop. They are generally used in programming when the

39
number of repetitions are unknown by the programmer, for example: The CPU works in an
infinite loop with its task as FETCH-DECODE-PROCESS. And keeps running infinitely until
the user shuts down the PC.

Processor working in an infinite loop

Various examples of infinite for loop

Loop structure Desccription

for ( i=1 ; i<=10 ; ) Here the updation part of the counter variable i is missing. Hence the value
printf("Hello, of i will remain 1 forever and the loop runs infinite times printing Hello,
World!\n"); World!

for ( i=1 ; ; i++ ) Here the condition part of the loop is missing. Due to which the loop is forced
printf("Hello, to run repeatedly infinite times printing Hello, World! As there isn’t any
World!\n"); condition to terminate.

for ( i=1 ; ; )
Here the condition as well as updating part is missing from the loop. Hence it
printf("Hello,
will also iterate infinite times printing Hello, World!
World!\n");

for ( ; ; ) Here all the three parts initialization, condition as well as updating part is
printf("Hello, missing from the loop. Hence it will also run infinite times printing Hello,
World!\n"); World!

EMPTY FOR LOOP

40
As I said earlier all the four parts of the for loop are optional. Which means we may skip any part
of the for loop. An empty loop is a loop without body of loop. Which means it’s a loop that does
nothing instead of iterating certain times.

Various examples of empty for loop

Loop structure Description

for ( i=1 ; i<=10 ;

i++ ) ;
Here the body of the loop is missing from the loop. The loop may run 10
for ( i=1 ; i<=10 ;
times but does nothing.
i++ )
{
}

for ( ; ; ) ; An empty for loop that runs infinite times.

While loop in C
In C, while is one of the keywords with which we can form loops. The while loop is one of the
most frequently used types of loops in C. The while loop is often called the entry verified loop.

Syntax
while (condition) {
// code block to be executed
}

Example
int i = 0;
while (i < 5) {
printf("%d\n", i);
i++;
}

Output
0
1
2
3
4

41
Flowchart of while loop

How while Loop Works in C?

The C compiler evaluates the expression. If the expression is true, the code block that follows, will
be executed. If the expression is false, the compiler ignores the block next to the while keyword,
and proceeds to the immediately next statement after the block.
Since the expression that controls the loop is tested before the program enters the loop, the while
loop is called the entry verified loop. Here, the key point to note is that a while loop might not
execute at all if the condition is found to be not true at the very first instance itself.
The while keyword implies that the compiler continues to execute the ensuing block as long as the
expression is true. The condition sits at the top of the looping construct. After each iteration, the
condition is tested. If found to be true, the compiler performs the next iteration. As soon as the
expression is found to be false, the loop body will be skipped and the first statement after the while
loop will be executed.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
// local variable definition
char choice = 'a';

42
 int x = 0;
// while loop execution
while(x >= 0){
(x % 2 == 0) ? printf("%d is Even \n", x) : printf("%d is Odd \n", x);
printf("\n Enter a positive number: ");
scanf("%d", &x);
}
printf("\n End of loop");
return 0;
}

Output
Enter a positive number: 12
12 is Even

Enter a positive number: 25

25 is Odd

Infinite While Loop

while(1)
{
// body of the loop..
}

Let's look at a simple example.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i=0;
while(1)
{
i++;
printf("i is :%d",i);

43
 }
return 0;
}

Do-While loop in C
The do-while loop is one of the most frequently used types of loops in C. The do and while keywords
are used together to form a loop. The do-while is an exit-verified loop where the test condition is
checked after executing the loop's body. Whereas the while loop is an entry-verified.

Syntax
do {
// code block to be executed
}
while (condition);

Example
int i = 0;

do {
printf("%d\n", i);
i++;
}
while (i < 5);

Output
0
1
2
3
4

44
Flowchart of do...while Loop

How do while Loop Works?

The loop construct starts with the keword do. It is then followed by a block of statements inside
the curly brackets. The while keyword follows the right curly bracket. There is a parenthesis in
front of while, in which there should be a Boolean expression.

Now let's understand how the while loop works. As the C compiler encounters the do keyword,
the program control enters and executes the code block marked by the curly brackets. As the end
of the code block is reached, the expression in front of the while keyword is evaluated.

If the expression is true, the program control returns back to the top of loop. If the expression is
false, the compiler stops going back to the top of loop block, and proceeds to the immediately next
statement after the block. Note that there is a semicolon at the end of while statement.

Difference Between while and do while Loops

The loops constructed with while and do-while appear similar. You can easily convert a while loop
into a do-while loop and vice versa. However, there are certain key differences between the two.

The obvious syntactic difference is that the do-while construct starts with the do keyword and ends
with the while keyword. The while loop doesn't need the do keyword. Secondly, you find a
semicolon in front of while in case of a do-while loop. There is no semicolon in while loops.

45