EMP 403: ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION

AND EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

By Dr. Jackline Nyerere

Kenyatta University
Introduction
● What is planning?

● What areas do you plan in?

● Why do you need to plan?

● Why do we need educational planning?

ctd
● The govt. of Kenya created a planning division within
ministry of edu. In 1971
● The rationale was that edu. Institutions as well as
teachers needed to be planners of edu. Process
● Educ had become more and more a means of
economic development
● The edu was expanding as resources were diminishing
● The population was growing and thus future demand
anticipated
What is planning?
● Planning helps administrators answer basic questions
relevant to the decision making process
● Questions such as:
➢ What is to be done?
➢ Where shall it be done?
➢ When will it be done?
➢ Who will do it?
➢ How will it be done?
● Planning in all its forms is a rational process of
preparing a set of decisions for future actions directed
at achieving objectives already set
● It is thus a continuous process
● Its concerned with not only where to go but with how
to get there and by what route

● Find out definition of planning by different

scholars
● Droor; planning is the process of preparing a set of
decicions for action in the future…

● EIDE; Planning..as a systematic application of research

to problems of policy, constituting the main link
between research and policy making

● Anderson and Bowman; planning…a process of

preparing sets of decisions for future action..
Def of planning
● From all these defs. Planning usually starts with a set of
inter-related preliminary decisions called a plan
● A plan is a recommended future course of action
● It is a guide to achieve previously established objectives
in an optimum manner
Functions of planning
● There are four functions of planning:
1. Decision making function:
➢ This function is carried out mainly by politicians,
professionals and high ranking influential people in the
country
✓ In Kenya; cabinet and professionals
✓ Eg at independence govt. goals was to set up national
goals of education; Ominde commission was set up
2. Technical function
● This function focuses on the formation of plans,
identification of targets and evaluation of required
resources
● It is carried out by the planners
● These are technicians trained in statistics and found in
planning divisions
● They deal with both qualitative and quantitative aspects
of education
3. Implementation
● Refers to the procedures for fulfilling plan targets

● These are performed by administrators of the system at

national and county levels going down

● They oversee and coordinate implementation of plans

4. Control function
● This function involves the discovery of discrepancies
between actual and planned achievement as well as
errors and problems of plans

● Leads to modifications of plans

● This function requires close interaction btn

administrators and planners
Characteristics of planning
● They are four in number:
1.Planning is focused on the future drawing its
enlightment from the present in the sense planning
takes a long-range view of what is desired
2. Planning is focused on action; thus it is action
oriented
● Planning is therefore seen in implementation exercise
● Action will reveal what problems are being encountered
and possible solutions
3. Planning involves a lot of effort which is exerted
in the entire exercise of formulating, adopting and
implementing plans. It is deliberate endeavor
4. Planning is interdependent on certain variables;
i.e. it must be closely tied to the decision-making process
and operations
SCOPE OF PLANNING
● Here the concern is the extent to which planning can
be applied
● The fields planning is essential;
➢ In education planning may be used to determine the
trend of population growth, teacher supply & demand
➢ Planning may be used to determine the rate of urban
growth; help to determine social and economic
amenities needed
➢ Family planning
Lec 2: Planning as applied to
Education
● According to Coombs:

● Educational planning involves the application of

rational, systematic analysis to the process of
educational development with the aim of making
education more effective and efficient in terms of
responding to the needs and goals of the students
and society at large.
Key terms in the def.
1. rational; used in reference to planners; they are supposed
to be endowed with the capacity to think about
educational issues, to interpret these issues and come up
with solutions to educational problems
2. Systematic analysis; points to the development of
education. Education should develop in an orderly fashion,
e.g. right from independence
3. More efficient; qns here is how do we make education
more efficient, what inputs do we need to bring about high
quality
Effectiveness ; has to do with provision of teaching and
learning materials, years learners spend in school,
● 4. Edu has to respond to changing order of the society;
Society is not static..edu must respond to changing needs
of the society
● Just like any other planning, edu planning is future
oriented but drawing on past experiences
1.
Characteristics of edu. planning
1. It is a rational process
●It is characterized by the organized development of
society’s learning activities
●It is concerned with social goals, means to achieve those
goals
2. It is a dynamic concept; because;
●It provides reasonably detailed procedures
●It provide a coordinating link among short term and
long term goals
●It borrows heavily from other disciplines e.g. economics
3. Perception of the whole; it must consider such elements
as; politics, social factors and patterns of living
4. Edu planning is a scientific process
● It revolves around the method of analysis, decision
making, setting objectives
● It establishes an inventory of needs to determine logical
process of solving them
Dimensions of educational planning
● Educational plans must be significant to the community
for which they are being made
● Educational plans must be feasible
● Educational plans must be relevant
● They should be definitive; must specify the maximum
number of contingencies to be given prior
consideration. Helps to limit occurrence of unexpected
events that could divert resources from planned
objectives
● Parsimoniousness; i.e. must be outlined in the simplest
manner possible
Planning time horizons
1. Long term planning
● Is also referred to as forecasting
● Not less than 20 years duration
● Objectives at this stage are stated in very general terms

2. Medium term planning

● Referred to as actual planning
● These plans get their guidance from the long term plans
● These plans cover a breakdown of resources
● Mainly cover five years
3. Short term planning
● Also referred to as programming
● Obtain their direction from medium term plans
● They break even further the resources and strategies to
be used
● They usually annual
● They cover basic patterns of operation
Lec 3. Factors affecting educational
planning
● These are the bottlenecks to effective planning of
education
● Edu planning is a technical area
● Planners require knowledge of what their
responsibilities would be
● Educational planners require data which can enable
them to determine their area of operation
● The following are factors affecting edu. planning
EXISTING POLICIES
● This is one of the most important constraints
● e.g. the authorities may have a policy upon the matter
which the edu planner is about to tackle
● It may be the policy needs changing first
● There is likely therefore to be a set of public
expectations and political implications
● E.g. siting a school mainly is on political patronage
rather than concentration of school age going children
● In this case the planner may have little say
AVAILABILITY OF FUNDS
● In developing countries resources for allocation are scarce
● In Kenya about 30% of annual budget is spent on education
against three levels; primary, secondary and tertiary
● The questions that arise are:
● How much should be allocated to each one of these three
levels of education?
● What is the criteria on which this allocation should be?
● Why is education taking the largest share of budget?
● The amount allocated therefore affects the quality of education
directly
INNACURATE POPULATION DATA
● Population data is established thru the census
● It is therefore the responsibility of census takers to do
more than just counting people
● Many people give inaccurate statements about the ages
and number of their children
● This therefore affects the projections made by planners
● It is difficult to adequately forecast school enrolments by
age, sex
● They will find it difficult to estimate the number of
classrooms, books etc
SHORTAGE OF PHYSICAL FACILITIES
● Shortage of facilities affects planning in education
● E.g. with introduction of 844 and now CBC/CBET
and its emphasis on practical subjects e.g. art and design
there is problem of availability of workshops and art
rooms
● The problem is further compounded with lack of
learning/teaching materials, libraries etc
● This therefore brings about quality related problems
QUALIFIED PERSONNEL
● Do you think Kenya is lacking qualified
personnel?
● At independence this was a continental problem
● Today it is lack of opportunities for the qualified
personnel to find meaningful employment
● There is the issue of brain drain
● How can planners plan for such eventualities
● Trained and experienced planners are leaving the
country
TIME ELEMENT
● Time lags is a challenge
● E.g. if planners decide more teachers need to be trained
it is almost certain that several years may elapse before
the actual work of training begins
● Currently we have shortage of teachers in specific areas
● Unless planners are given ample time to plan for such
shortfalls and oversights, a crisis is likely to occur
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
● The political authority and atmosphere should allow for
the establishment of planning offices and have enough
commitment to support planning activities
● Edu. Planners must have a clear idea as to what their
responsibilities are
● Serious attention in development of clear edu policies and
priorities
● Policy makers must refrain from treating the development
of alternatives as political rather than a technical matter
● There should be mutual coordination of all those
concerned with the development of education as a whole
THE PLANNING PROCESS
● This is the process of laying out a logical structure
called a plan

● The planning process entails the following steps

Identification of the national edu. goals
● Goals are the end for which a design is made
● It should cover a wide range of priorities
● E.g. one of the goals is edu in Kenya should promote
national unity
● The edu provided therefore and all plans should unify
the population
● The question is what type of edu should we provide to
bring about national unity?
2. FORMULATING EDUCATIONAL
OBJECTIVES
● Goals are general, community-oriented and long-range
as noted earlier
● Objectives are more specific and medium range
● Objectives provide strategies for realizing the edu goals
● The planner therefore prepares the goals and objectives
and for each of them the expected outcomes must be
clearly stated
● E.g……
3. Determine the best alternative
possible way of achieving objectives
● This is done in view of:
➢ The relative costs
➢ Relative benefits
➢ Time requirement
➢ Feasibility of each objective
➢ Educational effectiveness
4. Consider conditions that would
influence achievement of planned
objectives
● At the national level what are the factors..e.g. is there a
political goodwill
● The political undertones may influence the entire
course
● The rate of inflation if also a factor
5. decision-making process itself
● Here it refers to the decision that may be taken about
the plan once it has been formulated and the choice of
method of achieving the goal and justification made
thereof
● The chief officers at national and county levels are now
free to decide on how best to administer the policy that
has been formulated
● This is the most difficult aspect of planning exercise
● For it to be achieved you must be in touch with reality
on the ground
6. Feedback or evaluation
● To be realistic all planning needs feedback from current
experience of attempts to implement plans
● We need to know whether edu plans have conformed to
objectives
● How is the implementation process proceeding
● What is the degree of success or failure of educational
plans
● These questions help the planners evaluate the entire
edu system
Levels of Educational Planning
● Refers to the levels at which educational plans are made.
● There are two main levels:
✓ Macro Planning/centralized planning
✓ Micro Planning/decentralized planning
● Macro planning:
➢ This is also called centralized planning
➢ All educational decisions are made at a central point
➢ Deals with education sector as a whole or with basic
components of the levels e.g. ECD, higher education,
teacher demand, relevance of curriculum
● The interest is usually with general overview of education needs
or the structure
● This refers to the large scale nature
● Tend to be a technocratic process and also removed from the
people from whom education services are being planned
● In Kenya, we have more of the centralized planning than local
level planning
● Input of local stakeholders is not always taken into consideration
● Even execution/ implementation of the plan does not always
involve the ordinary people affected most.
● Drawing up of education plans and blueprints is the sole preserve
of the central government
● Examples of a classic use of Macro Planning are the
various education commissions set up since
independence e.g. Ominde (1964), Gachathi (1976),
Mackay (1981), Kamunge (1988), Koech (1999),
Ndegwa, Wamalwa, Task force on implementation of
FPE
● Those involved are only a fraction of the stakeholders
in education and not the full range
● Even where they are involved, the views are not always
implemented and sometimes are disregarded especially
when they are at variance with the powers that be.
● Execution of education plans at the local levels is done by
agents of the central government e.g. County Directors of
Education
● Reasons for the non-participatory nature of education
policy is due to the desire by the government to control the
education system in away that is politically palatable to
it. E.g. Mackay (1981) recommended an education system
that was popular with the government of the day but not the
population (8.4.4.). Koech (1999) recommended an
education system popular with the people but not
implemented.
● Advantages of Macro Planning
● i) Its less expensive
● ii) It takes a short time to develop
● iii) Has full support of the Central government
Deficiencies in Macro Planning
● Complexity of planning tasks at the national level do not allow for
considerations of variations in local (physical, cultural, economic,
religious, social environments)
● It fails to reduce inequalities between provinces, regions and urban/rural
areas, group of people etc
● Influential leaders could abuse the system to direct more resources and
projects to their home areas (politicized)
● The absolute lack of participation of local communities on the design,
realization and maintenance of educational facilities means that
facilities/activities become irrelevant to the needs of local community
● Lack of sufficient knowledge on the prevailing local conditions and
constraints bring problems when it comes to onsite implementation of
the centrally/nationally defined plans and projects.
Micro Planning – Planning at the
grassroots level
● refers to planning at the local level
● Involves the policy of decentralization – decisions on new schools and their
location, teacher recruitment and deployment made at district/local level
● There is Participation of the beneficiaries, the local people, in identifying needs.
● Generating available resources in terms of
i. Material input
ii. Cooperative action
iii. Creation of more resources through supportive efforts
● Preparation of village/divisional/district plan, keeping in view of the available
resources.
● Planning is based on actual assessment of educational needs for each habitation
– carryout house to house survey on each child, his/her education status, if a
dropout-why
● Survey to include also education facilities available in the nearest vicinity.
● - It is planning at the local level
● Focuses on the particular characteristics and needs of
the population and the education system in one locality.
● Local communities have a more profound knowledge of
the characteristics and needs of the population.
● Micro-Planning puts emphasizes on:
i) Equity
ii) Cost-efficiency
iii) Quality
● Objectives of Micro-Planning
i) To prepare a need-based plan with peoples’
participation
ii) Creating a core team from within the community who
will actively participate in the planning and implement
ensuring participation of the entire community in the
programme.
iii) Ensuring enrolment and regular attendance of all
children in the School/Centre.
iv) Extending all necessary support to teachers in running
the school property.
Merits of Micro Planning
● It ensures efficiency in utilization of scarce resources
● It helps in avoiding the possible shortages and surpluses
in the ability and provision of required resources.
● It ensures equity in the distribution of required
facilities
● Ensures the provision of required manpower
● Ensures effective implementation of activities
● Micro Planning gives room for the input of those not at
the center (embraces the principle of participation,
inclusiveness and ownership of the product)
Disadvantages of Micro Planning
i) It is complex in nature as views of every stakeholder is
considered
ii) It is very expensive to develop
iii) It may take a long period of time to plan
❖ Micro-Planning-institutional planning

● Its decentralization of education planning i.e. decisions

on opening, closing, expanding schools, recruitment
and redeployment of teachers taken to local level
● Done through school-mapping commissions
(administrators, politicians, PTAs, Unions, Employers)

➢ The word “micro” – stands for “mini” or small scale.

➢ School Mapping is an example of Micro-planning
School Mapping
➢ School mapping is a term used to describe the micro-planning of
education facilities at the local level.
➢ It is a continuous process involving logical and systematic process of
identification of sites for the establishment of educational facilities and
services based on realistic needs as advocated by the local communities.
➢ The process also involves a diagnosis of local educational situation in
relation to the national policies on and plans for education.
➢ In the preparation of a school map, the following
parameters need to be considered.
❖ Environmental Considerations
✓ Demographic factors: Consider population shortage of school
age; death/birth rates; distribution and movement of potential
(population), clientele of the educational services and facilities
being planned.
✓ Geographic factors: Location of schools/Educational Centres vis-a vis
accessibility (roads, obstacles, traffic between school and pupils homes).
✓ Economic factors: Cost-effectiveness on use of existing educational
resources and cost-benefit aspects for new educational services.
✓ Social factors: Social Groups, religious beliefs and practices, local customs.
Effects of these on Education/School. Research has shown that pastoral
groups in Kenya feel “School” leads to lack of education for survival
amongst their youth.
✓ Political factors: Education Centre/School for unity amongst ethnic groups.
Powerful politicians using schools development as political bait for votes/
personal credit.
✓ Legal factors: Schools and ownership; sponsors; land ownership etc.
✓ Ecological factors: Health/Epidemics/Diseases/Drought
✓ Technological factors: Type of tuition materials used/required vis-à-vis
level of technological development (use of radio; TV in correspondence
courses).
❖ Educational Factors
✓ Enrolment
✓ Staffing
✓ Teaching/Learning Activities
✓ Types/level of institutions
✓ Premises and Equipment
❖ Financial Factors
✓ Sources of Funding – Local/Internal; External etc.
✓ Availability of funds, sponsors, proprietors, pubic funds etc.
NOTE: As a type of micro-planning, school mapping would need to
involve consideration of educational services network and
interaction between the various decision making agents, levels/
organizational agents/units e.g. Parents/Sponsors/BOM/
Politicians/CEOs/CQASOs/MOE
SCHOOL MAPPING (LOCATION)-
● School mapping is an essential planning tool to overcome possibilities of regional
inequities arising from the investment policies of the public authorities.
● Started in France in 1963 to implement a major education reform-extending
compulsory education until age 16.
● School mapping incorporates spatial and demographic dimensions into the
educational planning process.
● It is a continuous process that involves logical and systematic process of
identification of sites, for the establishment of educational facilities
● School mapping – expert survey of the location of a school in terms of
accessibility and physical terrain
● A set of techniques and procedures used to plan the demand for school places at
the local level and to decide on the location of future schools and the means to
be allocated at the institutional level. (Govinda R 1999) UNESCO (IIEP)
● Developed various circulars, regulations, standards and procedures for guiding
decision-making process on where to locate new schools (school map).
● Currently used in countries to plan the location of primary/secondary schools.
● School mapping focuses on rationalizing physical location of school
based on the demand within and between specified catchments area.
● Focuses on optimizing the use of human, material and financial
resources
● Should be future focused.
● Should be a dynamic vision of what the educational service with their
premises, teachers and equipment should be in future to enable policy
implementation.
● Should also plan for all types of educational activities, including out of
school literacy programmes, post literacy courses (churches, mosques,
cooperatives), vocational training (educational map)
● It focuses on supply – assumes that demand for
education exists thus need to open schools for children
to enroll.
● Can also suggest a change in school calendar to allow
children to work in the field/assist parents.
● School mapping gradually evolving from simple
exercise of school location planning to a more
comprehensive exercise of planning for educational
development (micro-planning)
● Carried out by local school administrator, local planner
or DEO
Steps in School Mapping
● Diagnosing /analyze the coverage of present educational
service and condition of school network.
● Projecting the number of pupils to be enrolled in each
village
● Defining the norms and rules governing the creation of
new schools or the opening of a new class. These norms/
qualifications are:
i. Norms of maximum distance a child is expected to walk
to either primary or secondary
ii. Minimum number of pupils required to allow the
creation of new schools.
iii. Maximum number of pupils who should enroll in a class
● Planners should prepare proposals or local operational
plans i.e. number of primary schools to be opened,
number of classes and teachers, classrooms to be build
or renovated, number of classes to be closed to adhere
to the norm, redeployment of teachers.
Goals of School Mapping
● Giving basic education to all children of school age
● Extending teaching beyond compulsory education
● Providing for equality of education opportunity by a
i. Geographical leveling off
ii. Equitable distribution of human, material and
financial resources
iii. Equitable distribution of social opportunity for access
to schooling
● Making the systems more effective by improving the
ratio between costs and performance.
● Reforming structures, curricula and methods
School Mapping using GIS
● A Geographical Information System is a computer program
which
● combines two databases:
● numerical data - e.g. traditional’ education management
data on schools, teachers and students
● database files geographic data, such as the location of
schools, the boundaries of districts, the location of villages
and cities, of roads, rivers and mountains, and other
relevant geographical characteristics.
● The GIS links these two sets so that statistical data can be
presented not only as tables and graphs but also as maps,
which helps the reader to look for spatial patterns.
● Global Positioning Systems (GPSs)-used to generate
geographic data or accurately locate school locations
Kenya’s current educational plans include;
➢ Sessional papers e.g. No. 10 of 2012 on Kenya
Vision 2030, No. 5 of 2005 for education training
and research
➢ Education commission reports
➢ Free primary education – aimed at enhancing
access to all children
➢ Free day secondary education – aimed to ensure
100% transit to secondary education
➢ Basic education act 2013
METHODOLOGIES/APPROACHES TO
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING -
❖ Planning and policy analysis
➢ The basis of policy analysis lies in the recognition of the inability of human
beings to anticipate future developments accurately.
➢ Human beings operate under uncertainty in every aspect of life.
➢ As such linear extrapolation of past trends in technological change is
doomed to certain failure.
➢ For example, although nobody planned for the creation of electronic clock
makers or computer literate typists, these skills sprang up overnight in the
labour market, because there was demand for them.
METHODOLOGIES/APPROACHES TO
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING -
1. Manpower vs labour force planning
➢ Manpower planning restricts itself to high-level manpower.
➢ This restricts the exercise to a tiny segment of the working
population those with higher qualifications and university degrees.
➢ Those with lesser qualifications are excluded from the planning
exercise and are not subject to policy.
➢ Labour force is a much wider concept than manpower.
➢ It includes unemployed.
❖ From headcount to wage measuring
➢ A key set of statistics in labour market analysis is wages and salaries
of labour with different qualifications.
➢ If wage (e.g. public sectors) were higher the supply of labour would
increase without having planned for such and increase (they can
come from abroad, other occupations, or be trained on the job).
METHODOLOGIES/APPROACHES TO
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
❖ From firm employment surveys to household surveys
➢ Statistical data used in manpower planning typically come from
employment sector of the economy.
➢ Yet most work, inmost developing economies today, is in the agricultural
and informal sectors of the economy.
➢ For effective labour market analysis and policymaking, the information
must start from where the labour is located, including the unemployed.
➢ The best place to obtain this information is in the household.
❖ From technical to economic efficiency
➢ Manpower planners emphasis on technical efficiency.
➢ Labour market analysts on the other hand consider economic efficiency
e.g. it might be economically more efficient to have a ration of ten nurses
to one doctor in order to provide a given health care to the population
although from a technical view point the ration should be five nurses, to
one doctor.
METHODOLOGIES/APPROACHES TO
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
➢ Prices (relative salaries if doctors and nurses) are absent from the typical
manpower planning exercise.
➢ In manpower planning unlike labor market analysis everything is counted in
terms of doctors and nurses’ heads.
❖ From filling long-term skill gaps to correcting labour market
distortions
➢ This is one of the most fundamental difference between manpower planning
and labour market analysis.
➢ The horizon of the manpower planner is long, it can sometimes be as long
as 20 years.
➢ The countries also made rough cost and revenue estimates.
➢ In the mid-1960s, the development of educational planning in the third
world countries began to put emphasis on manpower and social demand
approaches.
➢ African countries during the Addis Ababa conference, in 1961, deliberated
and adopted an outline plan for the development of education.
METHODOLOGIES/APPROACHES TO
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING -
❑ Tracer Studies/Graduate Survey
➢ Also called graduate or alumni survey since its target group is former
students.
➢ These studies follow a cohort of students through graduation and a
few years into the labor market.
➢ A tracer study entails a follow-up of the career path of graduates.
➢ Overall social and economic development of a country requires the
development of human resources to be able to effectively and
efficiently utilize physical and natural resources for the benefit of
man and society.
➢ In the development of human resources, the educational system
plays a crucial role.
➢ Through education and training, human resources are provided with
the necessary skills, technological know-how and values to exploit
physical and natural resources in an efficient way.
METHODOLOGIES/APPROACHES TO
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
➢ The following variables are taken into account in the analysis;
✓ Employment characteristics- Sector of employment;
occupation; income; job satisfaction; relevance of
educational training
✓ Individual characteristics; age, sex, marital status etc.
✓ Community characteristics; urban rural, religion etc.
✓ Educational background; type of school, academic
performance, type of education, etc.
✓ Family background; family size, occupation, income and
educational attainment of parents etc.
➢ The results of the tracer study could be used in;
✓ An in-depth analysis of the demand of schooling
✓ Providing curricular options and career choice
METHODOLOGIES/APPROACHES TO
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
✓ Enhancing employment through an efficient labour market;
✓ Instituting curricular reform along the path towards greater excellence and
✓ Providing a meaningful role for graduates in social and economic
development.
✓ Tracer studies have dynamic features, which allow for a flow analysis across
regions, occupations, ethnic groups etc and it therefore has greater merit
over the Manpower Requirement Approach (MRA)
✓ Data generated through tracer studies could also be used in educational
interventions to make programmes more relevant to societal needs.
❖ The main objective of this approach is:
✓ To assess accountability for resources spent in higher education
✓ To evaluate the operation of the labour market and to assess the outcomes
of education and training.
METHODOLOGIES/APPROACHES TO
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
✓ To get valuable information for the development of universities/
institutions of higher learning
✓ To evaluate the relevance of higher education
✓ To contribute to the accreditation/certification process
✓ To inform education stakeholders i.e. students, parents, lecturers
and administrators
✓ In addition a tracer study entails a follow-up of the career path
of graduates to evaluate the operation of the labour market in
terms of:
o Recruitment practices,
o Wage/salary policy,
o Working conditions
METHODOLOGIES/APPROACHES TO
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Tracer Studies seek to answer the following questions:
➢ What are the views of graduates on higher education based on their
career experiences?
➢ To what extent do graduates consider their education and training as
wastage or an opportunity?
➢ To what extent is a curriculum aiming to create new types of learning
and qualifications to prepare for a highly dynamic labour market?
➢ How broad or narrow is knowledge fostered in individual degree
programmes in comparison to the demands of the labour market?
❖ Advantages of Tracer Studies/Graduate Survey
✓ Tracer study can be marketing or evaluation tool as the success of
graduates can be advertised, as a marketing strategy to recruit new
students.
METHODOLOGIES/APPROACHES TO
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
✓ Education providers can use the information gathered to adapt
their courses to the demands of the labour market
✓ Information gathered can also be used to modify programmes to
attract the ever expanding market of prospective students
looking for personal and professional advancement
✓ Provides information on the regional spread of graduates, the
careers successes, etc
✓ Tracing of graduates help in establishing co-operation/
contacts between higher education institutions and their alumni.
❖ Disadvantages of Tracer Studies/Graduate Survey
✓ It is sometimes difficult to locate graduates and have them
complete questionnaires.
METHODOLOGIES/APPROACHES TO
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
✓ Graduate might not always be able to identify the relationship
between the knowledge acquired during study and their professional
lives
✓ Linking educational qualifications with income is difficult especially
on job training and income
✓ Research findings are valuable in as much as planners can turn the
findings into concrete reforms
2 Cost-effectiveness/cost change approach
➢ Cost-effectiveness analysis refers to the consideration of decision
alternatives in which both their costs and consequences are taken
into account in a systematic way.
➢ It is a decision oriented tool, in that it is designed to ascertain which
means of attaining particular educational goals are most efficient.
➢ For example, there are many alternative approaches for pursuing
such goals as raising reading or mathematics achievement.
METHODOLOGIES/APPROACHES TO
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
➢ The cost effective solution to this challenge is to ascertain the costs
and effects on reading or mathematics achievement of each
alternative and to choose that alternative which has the greatest
impact on raising achievement scores for any given resource outlay.
➢ Cost-effectiveness analysis is closely related to cost-benefit analysis in
that both represent economic evaluations of alternative resource use
and measure costs in the same way
➢ However, cost-benefit analysis is used to address only those types of
alternatives where the outcomes can be measured in terms of their
monetary values.
➢ The purpose of cost-effectiveness analysis in education is to ascertain
which program or combination of programs can achieve particular
objectives at the lowest cost.
METHODOLOGIES/APPROACHES TO
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
CEA consists of three steps:
✓ The costs of the alternatives must be carefully measured, e.g.
expenditure on teacher salaries, books and learning materials in each
school type
✓ The outcomes or educational effectiveness of the alterative must be
measured e.g. by standardized test scores of pupils in each school
✓ Cost and effectiveness measures are combined to calculate on cost-
effectiveness ratios e.g. by dividing the effectiveness of each alternative
by its cost to show the unit cost of achieving a particular objective, such
as 1 percent improvement in pupil achievement
NOTE:
➢ Whereas CEA take to account the quality of education (as
measured by achievement scores)
➢ CBA takes to account quantitative measures of schooling
e.g. salary or years of schooling
METHODOLOGIES/APPROACHES TO
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
➢ The cost effectiveness alternative can then be identified
for example the school that produces the greatest
improvement for a given cost or alternatively the school
where pupils achieve the required examination results at
least cost.
❖ Advantages of Cost Effectiveness Analysis (CEA)
✓ Measures of educational effectiveness can be those which
a decision-maker would normally consider, such as
improvement in student’s test scores
✓ Cost-effectiveness evaluations generally requires less time
and resources compared to CBA
METHODOLOGIES/APPROACHES TO
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
❖ Disadvantages of Cost Effectiveness Analysis
(CEA)
✓ Accurate measures of effectiveness can be just as
problematic as the measures of benefits
✓ A persons ability is not just a function of schooling
✓ Education has multiple objectives and there is no
single measure that adequately quantifies effectiveness
thus, CBA and CEA are closely related and used as
complementary not alternatives
❑ Aggregate demand approach
o Read on this .....
 EDUCATION PLANNING PROCESS/
STAGES
u 1. Need
u 7. Identification
Evaluation / u 2.
Plan Appraisal Situation
Analysis

u 6. u 3.
Implementation Formulation
of the plan of the Plan

u 5. Piloting u 4. Control
trial plan Plan
TYPES AND LEVELS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
AND THE PLANNING CYCLE/PROCESS
The Educational Planning Process/The Planning Cycle
➢ This refers to activities or stages used to translate an idea into a
plan or a plan into a service or a project.
➢ The stages are not rigid and each stage in the process forms a
basis for or depends on the other or must relate to the whole
plan.
❖ Stages of Educational Planning process (Cycle)
❑ 1. Need Identification
➢ This may come about as a request of a formation of inquiry
into education.
➢ It may also come incidentally through the public media or
machinery e.g. political barazas.
➢ The need is identified for change, reform or development.
TYPES AND LEVELS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
AND THE PLANNING CYCLE/PROCESS
❑ 2. Situational analysis /Field or Feasibility Study, or Research
➢ Here, there is the establishment of priorities, preferences, the limitations or
constraints of the society and resource availability.
➢ This stage helps the planners know where they are and where they want to
go.
❑ 3. Formulation of the Plan or Drafting
➢ There are various activities at this stage. These include:
✓ Consideration of general activities e.g. educational goals (national education goals).
✓ Consideration of which planning approaches to take.
✓ Setting of objectives. Objectives have to be specific, clearly stated and practical. The
objectives guide the implementation of plans, evaluation and the i.e. planning.
✓ The formulation of the plan should have the identification of resources, set up the
leadership and control systems, budgeting and general costing, set up the information
system to ensure that there is feedback and effective communication.
✓ We also do the timetabling or time scheduling according to phases of implementation.
TYPES AND LEVELS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
AND THE PLANNING CYCLE/PROCESS
❑ 4. Control Plan
➢ This is a plan indicating or containing alternative policies, methods and
approaches other than the ones in the main plan.
➢ It acts like control experiment.
➢ It is a point of reference (referral) for the planner.
❑ 5. Pilot or Trial Plan
➢ This is the implementation of the plan on a small scale to establish its viability.
➢ In an education system, the plan is tried to a few selected schools picked from
various Counties. NOTE:
✓ The trial schools must be representative of the types of schools in the entire nation. They
must also be selected from diverse environment, rural-urban, new-old, private-public etc.
➢ The purpose of the pilot plan is to reveal any practical difficulties or handicaps
in the implementation of the whole plan.
TYPES AND LEVELS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
AND THE PLANNING CYCLE/PROCESS
❑ 6. Implementation of the Plan
➢ This is an expansion of the pilot plan a larger scale to cover the
whole scope of the plan.
➢ It may be the implementation of the plan to one level of education
e.g. primary or secondary.
➢ It can be done in phases following regional patterns, e.g. rural or
urban. The success of the implementation of any plan will depend
on:
✓ Whether the plan has enough details written in simple and specific way and not
riddled with professional jargon which most implementation agents are
unfamiliar of. It must include a lot of details.
✓ There must be communication system where the flow of information is not just
vertical but horizontal as well as to ensure effective communication and
feedback.
✓ There must be an administrative system that is efficient enough to ensure co-
ordination of the efforts of implementation agents.
TYPES AND LEVELS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
AND THE PLANNING CYCLE/PROCESS
❑ 7. Evaluation or Plan Appraisal
➢ The purpose of plan evaluation is to determine the extent
to which set objectives are being achieved.
➢ It also measures the cost of achieving those objectives and
the time taken.
➢ Evaluation must be both continuous to determine
whether objectives are achieved or implementation is as
planned as is in the case of summative evaluation.
➢ Good planning uses the feedback and the knowledge
gained in the evaluation to help focus the implementation
of the plan and also in the future planning.
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

Definition of Statistics
➢ Statistics is the methodology for collecting, analyzing,
interpreting and drawing conclusions from
information.
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
Statistics for Educational Planning
➢ Statistics allow educational planners:
a) measuring access,
b) education system’s coverage of the school-age population and
c) Determining flow of learners through the education system.
1. Measuring Access to Education
➢ In measuring access to education, the educational planner is concerned
with estimating the number of places that will be provided
for pupils at various levels in the education system.
➢ Measures of access to education include:
✓ In-take/Admission rates
✓ Transition rates
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
❖ In-take/Admission rates
➢ There are two types of In-take/Admission rate thus it
is computed in two ways:
✓ Gross in-take rate
✓ Age-specific in-take rate
➢ Both in-take/Admission rates provide useful
insights or information on admission processes.
➢ However, Age-specific in-take rate provides deeper
insights.
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
❑ Gross in-take rate
➢ This rate identifies the number of children newly admitted to the
first year of school, regardless of age as a percentage of
population of children who are entitled to admission/legal
admission age.
➢ Thus, Gross in-take rate (%) =

No. of new pupils in Grade 1 regardless of age

___________________________________________ * 100
Population of legal admission age

▪ Activity 1: In County X there are 3,019,865 pupils in Grade 1 of

primary school, in 2019. Of these 354, 834 are known to be
repeating the grade. The number of children legally entitled to
gain admission to Grade 1 (6 years) is 2,543,765. Calculate the
gross in-take rate for the county.
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
Computation:
First, write down the formula :
➢ Gross in-take rate (%) =
No. of new pupils in Grade 1 regardless of age
___________________________________________ * 100
Population of legal admission age
Second, Identify required items in the formula:
1) No. of pupils in Grade 1 regardless of age = 3,019,865
2) 354, 834 are known to be repeating the grade
3) So, No. of new pupils in Grade 1 regardless of age = 2,665,031
4) Population of legal admission age = 2,543,765
Third, Fit in the identified items in the formula:
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
2,665,031
___________________ * 100 = 104.8
2,543,765

Answer: 104.8%
Interpretation:
➢ Gross in-take rates for primary education can be in excess of 100 per
cent when new Grade 1 pupils consist of children not of the
legal age of admission, they could be older or younger.
➢ One problem with the gross in-take rate is that it often
produces an illusion of a high rate of admission when this is not
really the case.
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
❑ Age-specific in-take rate
➢ This rate identifies the number of children newly admitted to the first
year of school, of specific age as a percentage of population of
children of the same specific age.
➢ Thus, Age-specific in-take rate (%) =

No. of new pupils in Grade 1 of specific age

___________________________________________ * 100
Population of same specific age

▪ Activity 2: In county X there are 975,800 six-year olds and 1,381,215

seven-year olds pupils in Grade 1 of primary school, in 2019. Of these
10% six-year olds and 7% seven-year olds pupils are known to be
repeating the grade. If the total number of six and seven-year old
pupils in the population is 2,543,765 and 1,618,207 respectively.
Calculate the respective age-specific in-take rates for the six and
seven-year old pupils in Kenyan Grade 1 primary schools.
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
Computation:
First, write down the formula :
➢ Thus, Age-specific in-take rate (%) =

No. of new pupils in Grade 1 of specific age

___________________________________________ * 100
Population of same specific age
Second, Identify required items in the formula:
1) No. of new pupils in Grade 1 of specific age
Note: -There are two specific ages: the six and seven-year old pupils
- There are 975,800 six-year olds and 1,381,215 seven-year olds pupils
in Grade 1
- Of these 10% six-year olds and 7% seven-year olds pupils are known
to be
repeating the grade
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
➢ 10% six-year olds Repeating Grade 1 = 10% * 975,800 =
97,580
❖ No. of new pupils in Grade 1 of six-year olds = 975,800 -
97,580 = 878,220
➢ 7% seven-year olds Repeating Grade 1 = 7% * 1,381,215 =
96,685.05 = 96,686
❖ No. of new pupils in Grade 1 of seven-year olds =
1,381,215 - 96,686 = 1,284,529
2) Population of same specific age
➢ Six-year olds population is 2,543,765, and
➢ Seven-year olds population is 1,618,207
➢ Third, Fit in the identified items in the formula:
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
➢ Age-specific in-take rate (%) for the six-year olds =
878,220
_______________________ * 100
2,543,765
Answer: 34.5%
➢ Age-specific in-take rate (%) for the seven-year olds =
1,284,529
_____________________ * 100
1,618,207
Answer: 79.4%
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
Interpretation:
➢ The Age-specific in-take rate provides a clearer picture of
how different age groups gain access to the first level of
education.
➢ This is because it identifies the number of newly admitted
children of a specific age as a percentage of the total
number of children of the same age in the population.
➢ Age-specific in-take rate calculated for different age groups
over several years in succession, gives a fairly precise and
detailed picture of the conditions of admission of any given
cohort. A cohort refers to any group of children
born in the same year.
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
❖ Transition rates
➢ For pupils in the last year of a given level of education (primary,
secondary and tertiary), access to the next level of education can depend
on a variety of conditions which may differ from country to country, for
example:
✓ Access to the next level of education may be automatic;
✓ It may be dependent on students achieving a particular level of
performance in certain examinations;
✓ It may be competitive, with the number of places offered being
dependent on the number of places available;
✓ It may be subject to regional, ethnic or quotas that is allocations.
➢ In all cases, the planner needs to be able to measure the transition
of pupils from one level to another under the prevailing conditions.
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
➢ For example, one might wish to calculate:
✓ The transition rate from primary to secondary education,
✓ From lower to upper secondary,
✓ From secondary to higher education;
✓ From different areas;
✓ From different socio-economic backgrounds or by gender and so on.
➢ The transition rate calculates the number of new pupils entering a
given level of education as a percentage of the pupils who
were, the year before, that is at the end of the previous level.
➢ As with in-take rates, only new pupils entering the next level of
education are given consideration; repeaters at this level are eliminated.
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
➢ Thus, Transition rate (%) =
No. of new pupils/students in Year 1 of secondary/tertiary level in year
t
___________________________________________________ * 100
No. of pupils in final grade of primary in year t-1

Activity 3: In Kenya there were 1,876,900 students in Form 1,

in all the secondary schools in 2017. Of these, 113,506 students
are known to be repeating the class. If the number of students
in the final year of primary school/education in 2016 was
1,987,894. Calculate the rate of transition from primary to
secondary school/education for 2016.
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
Computation:
First, write down the formula :
➢ Transition rate (%) =
No. of new students in Year 1 of secondary/tertiary level in year t
_________________________________________________________ *
100
No. of pupils in final grade of primary in year t-1
Second, Identify required items in the formula:
1) No. of students in Year 1 of secondary/tertiary level in year t = 1,876,900
2) 113,506 are known to be repeating the class
3) So, No. of new pupils in Form 1 in year t = 1,763,394
4) No. of pupils in final grade of primary in year t-1 = 1,987,894
Third, Fit in the identified items in the formula:
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
1,763,394
___________________ * 100 = 88.7
1,987,894
Answer: 88.7%

Measuring the education system’s coverage of the school-age

population
➢ In measuring the education system’s coverage of the school-age
population, the educational planner is concerned with estimating
the capacity of the system to admit, in a given cycle.
➢ Measures of capacity of the education system to admit, in a given cycle
include:
✓ Gross enrolment rates
✓ Net enrolment rates
✓ Age-specific enrolment rates
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
❖ Gross enrolment rates
➢ It is abbreviated as GER (Gross Enrolment Rate)
➢ Gross enrolment rate measures the capacity of the
system to admit, in a given cycle, children of a
corresponding school age.
➢ The gross enrolment rate is the number of pupils in a
given educational cycle expressed as a percentage
of ‘the population of related school age’.
➢ The population of related school age is defined by the
legal age of admission to the cycle in question and
by its duration in years.
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
➢ Thus,
➢ The Gross Enrolment Rate (GER) for a given cycle of education (%) =

No. of all pupils enrolled in the cycle regardless of age

________________________________________________ *
100
Population of related school age

Activity 4: Table below records the enrolment in primary

education in Kenya by sex and place of residence in 1995 together
with related population figures. Use the data provided to
calculate separate gross enrolments for (a) Boys, (b) Girls, (c)
Tana River County and (d) Kiambu County.
 STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Enrolment in primary education, together with
related school age population figures (6-13), broken
down by sex and place of residence, Kenya, 2018

Enrolment Population 6-13

Tana River Kiambu Tana River Kiambu
County County County County

Boys 32,574 79,342 144,769 147,798

Girls 15,262 79,269 124,058 157,377

STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
Computation:
First, write down the formula :
➢ Gross enrolment rate for Primary education (%) =
No. of all pupils enrolled in the Primary regardless of age
________________________________________________ * 100
Population of related school age
Second, Identify required items in the formula:
1) No. of all pupils enrolled in the Primary regardless of age
2) Population of related school age
3) Remember the question requires GER for different Categories;
Thus compute GER for each.
Third, Fit in the identified items in the formula for each category:
 WORKING SHEET: GER = No. of all pupils enrolled / Pop. of related school age * 100

1. GER Tana River County Boys: 2. GER Tana River County Girls:
= 32,574 / 144,769 *100 = 15,262 / 124,058 *100
= 22.5% = 12.3%

3. GER Kiambu County Boys: 4. GER Kiambu County Girls:

= 79,342 / 147,798 *100 = 79,269 / 157,377 *100
= 53.7% = 50.4%

5. GER Both Counties Boys: 6. GER Both Counties Girls:

= 32,574 + 79,342 = 111,916 = 15,262 + 79,269 = 94,531
= 144,769 + 147,798 = 292,567 = 124,058 + 157,377 = 281,435
= 111,916 / 292,567 * 100 = 94,531 / 281,435 * 100
= 38.3% = 33.6%

7. GER Tana River County: 8. GER Kiambu County:

= 32,574 +15,262 = 47,836 = 79,342 +79,269 = 158,611
= 144,769 + 124,058 = 268,827 = 147,798 + 157,377 = 305,175
= 47,836/268,827 * 100 = 158,611 /305,175 * 100
= 17.8% = 52.0%
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
Interpretation:
➢ The Gross Enrolment Rate (GER) ignores the ages of the children actually
in that cycle.
➢ Nevertheless, the indicator can provide some useful insights when age-
related data is not available.

❖ Net Enrolment Rates

➢ It is abbreviated as NER (Net Enrolment Rate)
➢ Net enrolment rate measures the capacity of the system to admit, in
a given cycle, children of a corresponding school age.
➢ The difference between the net and gross enrolment rate is that in the net
enrolment rate computation, the ages of the pupils to be
counted in the cycle are specified, whereas in the gross net enrolment
rate all children in the cycle are counted, regardless of age.
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
➢ Thus,
➢ The Net Enrolment Rate (NER) for a given cycle of education (%) =

No. of pupils of specified age in the cycle

________________________________________________ *
100
Population of related school age

Activity 5: In Kenya, there were 9,950,746 pupils in Class 1-8 in

2014. Of these 6,882,526 were in the 6-13 age group. This can be
compared with 11,089,892 pupils in the 6-13 age group in the
population. Assuming that the legal age of admission to the first
level of education was 6 years. Calculate (a) Net Enrolment Rate
(b) Gross Enrolment Rate then (c) Interpret.
 STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
Computation:
First, write down the required formula :

Net Enrolment Rate (NER) = Gross Enrolment Rate (GER) =

No. of pupils specified age in the cycle No. of all pupils enrolled in the cy
_______________________________ * 100 _____________________________
Population of related school age Population of related school age
Second, Identify required items in each of the individual formula
then Third, fit in the identified items in the formula for each:
(a) Net Enrolment Rate (NER) =
No. of pupils specified age in the cycle = 6,882,526
Population of related school age = 11,089,892
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
So, Net Enrolment Rate (NER) = 6,882,526
______________ * 100 = 62.1%
11,089,892
Answer: Net Enrolment Rate (NER) = 62.1%

(b) Gross Enrolment Rate (GER) =

No. of all pupils enrolled in the cycle = 9,950,746
Population of related school age = 11,089,892
So, Gross Enrolment Rate (GER) = 9,950,746
______________ * 100 = 89.7%
11,089,892
Answer: Gross Enrolment Rate (GER) = 89.7%
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
(c) Interpretation:
➢ The gross enrolment rate gives a false impression of high
enrolment, and the net enrolment rate provides a more accurate
guide, since it takes pupils’ ages into account.
➢ However, in countries where practically all children enter school
at the legal age of admission, and where repeaters are scarce, the
number of enrolled pupils who are outside the official age group
is likely to be very small.
➢ In such cases, gross and net enrolment rates are likely to be very
close to each other.
➢ The difference between the gross and net enrolment
rates may be used as an indicator of the proportion of
pupils in a cycle who are outside the legal age group.
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
NOTE:
➢ Where a country places total reliance on gross enrolment rates to study
enrolment, it is very difficult to determine the extent to which it has
achieved universal primary education.
➢ The Net Enrolment Rate is a more reliable measure of
‘universal primary schooling’ which means that all members of the
population of primary school age ought to be at school, and an
indicator for monitoring progress towards this objective.
❖ Age-specific enrolment rates
➢ Age-specific enrolment rates measures the capacity of the system
to admit, in a given cycle, children of a corresponding school
age.
➢ The chief characteristic of the age-specific enrolment rate is that – in
contrast to the other two rates (GER and NER) – it is not associated
with any particular educational cycle.
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
➢ Thus, it places an emphasis on the percentage of young people of
a given age or age group enrolled in the education system,
regardless of the level or cycle concerned.
➢ The difference between the resulting figure and 100 per cent
indicates the percentage of young people of a given age group
who do not receive any form of education.
➢ This rate is a particularly useful indicator in diagnosing
enrolment.
➢ However, calculation of this rate depends on information being
available on the age distribution of pupils throughout the school
system, and this is not always the case.
➢ Wherever applicable, calculation of the rate is relatively
straightforward,
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
➢ Thus,
Age – specific Enrolment Rate (%):

= No. of pupils of given age in education regardless of the cycle

______________________________________________________ *
100
Population of same age

Activity 6: Of a total population of 43,968 twelve-year olds it was

noted that there were 24,616 in primary education and 2,753 in
(Form 1 and 2) that is lower secondary education in Kenya in
1999. Assuming that the education system provided no other
form of education for this age group, calculate the age-specific
enrolment rate for twelve-year olds in the country.
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
Computation:
First, write down the required formula :
Age – specific Enrolment Rate (%):

= No. of pupils of given age in education regardless of the cycle

______________________________________________________ *
100
Population of same age
Second, Identify required items in the formula:
➢ No. of pupils of given age in education regardless of the cycle =
(24,616 + 2,753) = 27,369
➢ Population of same age = 43,968
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
Third, Fit in the identified items in the formula:
Age – specific Enrolment Rate (%):

= 27,369
______________ * 100
43,968

Answer: Age – specific Enrolment Rate = 62.2%

STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
Measuring the flow of pupils through the education system
➢ In order to trace the flow of pupils through an education system, it is
helpful to ask the following question at the beginning of each school
year:
What has happened to the pupils enrolled in a particular grade in
the previous year?
➢ Three possible and mutually exclusive things may have happened to
them:
✓ They may have been PROMOTED to the next higher grade;
✓ They may have REPEATED their grade;
✓ They may have DROPPED OUT (i.e. no longer attend school, or have
moved to another school system or have died)
➢ Consider the table below:
 STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
Enrolment and repeaters in Grades 1 and 2 of primary
education, Country Z, 1998 and 1999
Grade 1 Grade 2
1998 Enrolment: 1,250,000 960,000
of which 280,000 150,000
repeaters
from last year

1999 Enrolment: 1,310,000 910,500

of which 295,000 100,500

repeaters
from last year
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
➢ From the table above, it is observed that in 1999 in Grade 1, there
were 295,000 repeaters among the 1,310,000 students
enrolled.
➢ In Grade 2 in the same year, the total enrolment had fallen to
910,500 of which 100,500 were repeaters and 810,000 were
pupils promoted from Grade 1 (910,500 minus 100,500).
➢ The number of dropouts at the end of 1998 can be deduced by
adding together the 295,000 repeaters from 1998 who are
still in Grade 1 in 1999 and the 810,000 students promoted
from Grade 1 to Grade 2 in 1999 and subtracting this total
(1,105,000) from the total 1998 enrolment of 1,250,000 –
giving us 145,000 dropouts at the end of 1998.
➢ In other words the number of dropouts is determined as a ‘residue’.
 STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING

Promoted pupils in Grade 2 in 1999

810,000

Repeating pupils still in Grade 1 in 1999

Enrolment in Grade 1 in 1998 295,000
1,250,000

Dropouts at the end of 1998

145,000
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
❖ Promotion rate:
= No. of pupils promoted to grade g + 1 in year t + 1
______________________________________________ * 100
Total number of pupils in grade g in year t
➢ From table above:

➢ Promotion rate in Grade 1 in year 1998 = 910,500 – 100,500

_________________ * 100 =
64.8%
1,250,000

Promotion rate = 64.8%

STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
❖ Repetition rate:
No. of pupils repeaters in grade g in year t + 1
= _______________________________________ *
100
Total number of pupils in grade g in year t
➢ From table above:
Repetition rate in Grade 1 in year 1998 = 295,000
_________________ * 100 =
23.6%
1,250,000

Repetition rate = 23.6%

STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
❖ Drop-out rate:

= No. of pupils dropping out from grade g in year t

______________________________________________ * 100
Total number of pupils in grade g in year t
➢ From table above:
Drop-out rate in Grade 1 in year 1998 = 1,250,000 - (810,000 + 295,000)
________________________ *
100 =
1,250,000

Drop-out rate = 11.6%

STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
Activity 7: Using the table above as your working
data, calculate:
(a) The rate of promotion for grades 1-8 for 1998/99;
(b) The rate of repetition for grades 1-8 for 1998/99;
(c) The rate of dropout for grades 1-8 for 1998/99.
Enrolment in public Primary education in Country X by grade for 1998/99 and 1999/2000 with repeaters for
1999/2000

YEAR Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8

1998/1999 945,650 913, 912 906,847 1,044,943 1,007,377 882,832 920,376 892,073
Enrolment

1999/2000 1,085,523 856,664 870,415 889,045 988,999 897,309 775,069 738,708

Enrolment

of which 163,018 119,057 108,822 135,455 137,370 73,275 63,506 40,143

repeaters
coming
from
1998/1999
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
❖ Graduation rate:
= Number of Graduates from the last grade of school level in year t

_________________________________________________________
_ * 100
Number of new entrants in the last grade of school level, in year t

➢ Using Data in table above for activity 7:

➢ Graduation rate = 851,524

___________
xxxxxx???
STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
❖ Average Years Per Graduate:
xxxxxxxxxxxx
CURRENT POLICIES ,ISSUES AND
PROBLEMS IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
o This section mainly covers the contemporary issues in
education
EQUITY
o It’s the degree/value of fairness or justice extended to all
o Equity is the concept or idea of fairness or justice in economics,
particularly in terms of taxation and welfare economics. It has
been studied in experimental economics as inequity aversion.
o Fairness in distribution or access to educational opportunities,
resources and outcomes to the mutually exclusive groups/
categories of the society e.g. age, sex, social class, income levels,
occupation, special needs etc.
o It values the deliberate elimination of all forms of discrimination
whether direct or indirect
o It calls for development of clear indicators, both quantitative and
especially qualitative for ensuring deliberate eradication of any
form of existing disparities.
o It justifies the short –term use of affirmative action
programmes as a viable strategy for correcting gross
disparities and injustices; Affirmative action- short term
strategy for correcting gross disparities
o Each school-going child is exposed to the same kind of education
regardless of geographical or socio-economic background
o is the efforts to equitably distribute opportunities in education.
These opportunities are:
Enrolment:
o Equity in enrolment refers to a situation where each
school-age child is given an equal opportunity or
chance of not only entering a school system but also
ensuring her/his success.
o In Kenya, there is a large provincial difference in terms
of equity in enrolment e.g. Central Province 100%,
North Eastern and Coast-30%
Distribution of Qualified Teachers:
o Qualified teachers is an important index of quality of
education
o There is a high positive correlation between qualified
teachers and performance
o Schools with professionally qualified teachers perform
or have a high chance of performing better in national
examinations than those without qualified teachers
o What criteria can we use to ensure equitable
distribution of qualified teachers to bridge the gap
between schools
Distribution of other resources:
o Involves both monetary and physical
o Significance difference is observed in our national
documents e.g. statistical abstracts, Development Plans
e.t.c
o There are high disparities in provision of classrooms,
laboratories, libraries, chairs, desks etc

o One way of measuring equity is checking on the Gender

Parity Index
o =value for girls/boys
Types of Equity
o Horizontal equity – equal treatment of equals
o Horizontal equity means treating the same those who are
the same in a relevant respect (such as having the same
'need').
o Horizontal equity is the idea that people with a similar
ability to pay taxes should pay the same or similar
amounts.
o It is related to the concept of tax neutrality or the idea
that the tax system should not discriminate between
similar things or people, or unduly distort behavior.
Vertical equity – unequal treatment of unequal
o Vertical equity means treating differently those who are
different in relevant respects (such as having different
'need'),
o Vertical equity is the idea that people with a greater
ability to pay taxes should pay more. If they pay more
strictly in proportion to their income, this is known as
a proportional tax; if they pay disproportionately
more then this is a progressive tax, more associated
with redistribution.
 Intergenerational equity – lies between the first
two. Ensures that inequality in one generation does not continue
o Intergenerational equity is a value concept, which focuses on the
rights of future generations
o Each generation has the right to inherit the same diversity in
natural and cultural resources enjoyed by previous generations
and to equitable access to the use and benefits of these resources.
o At the same time, the present generation is a custodian of the
planet for future generations, obliged to conserve this legacy so
that future generations may also enjoy these same rights. In this
way, intergenerational equity extends the scope of social justice
into the future
Relevance:
o Applicability of what is learnt to a particular environment and life
situation.
o It implies that learning has a purpose, that of responsibility to
actual needs, interests and problems of the participant and their
communities
o It encompasses the content of education and the process of
acquiring it
o Its vital for empowering the individual for intelligent, appropriate
and dynamic responses to the challenges in life
o It has serious implications for the process of curriculum needs to
be sensitive to local conditions, while at the same time responding
to shared universal issues of human concern
o In education, relevance enhances quality
3. Efficiency
o Efficiency: Relationship between inputs and outputs
o It refers to the production of maximum output from
minimum input
o Educational planners are concerned with how fruitful an
education system is.
o How resources are utilized in our education system.eg. Human
resources, physical resources, monetary resources students etc. All
these are inputs to educational system
o Outputs: results-productivity of the education system e.g.
how many students are graduating from secondary schools,
university etc
o What is the value of the output
o Outcomes: It’s the external effect of the output. The
ability of people to be socially and economically
productive. Productivity of the graduates
Equity efficiency tradeoff/conflict

o Its is rare to get situations where resources could be allocated so as

to increase both efficiency and equity
o Tradeoff occurs where the geographical area that needs more
resources on the ground of equity are not necessarily those in
which social returns are high e.g. should we invest in Nairobi or in
North Eastern
o Poor rural areas have fewer and lower quality schools than urban
areas, but estimates of social rates of returns suggest that returns
are high in urban
o If we just want equity, we invest in rural. If we want efficiency, we
invest in urban. If we want both, then it will depend on the
relative priority we attach to either.
o How often do our policy makers consider this?
4. Access
o Addresses the open-ended nature of education,
which is recognized as a basic right of every
child
o It assumes availability of opportunities at all levels an
sectors of education for all those who are eligible and
meet the criteria
o It embraces the concept of inclusiveness for al
potential learners both horizontally and vertically
o Increased access demands careful planning to ensure
that quality is not compromised
5. Participation:
o School participation indicators provide information on the
volume and characteristics of who is participating in the formal
school system at a given point in time.
o Participation measures include indicators describing
characteristics of the student body, counts of pupils, and
indicators quantifying pupil numbers relative to the size of the
overall population of the respective age group.
o School Participation Rate is a measure of the absorption of the institution of the school
age population. SPR is the primary indicator used to seeing people access to educational
facilities, especially for school-age population. Higher Learning levels greater number of
people the opportunity to get an education. However, increasing the APS can not always be
interpreted as an increase in the equal opportunity to education.

Formula:

SPR (7-12) = {( Number of population aged 7-12 years who are still in school :Total
population aged 7 ─ 12 years) X 100}
o Attendance ratios and enrollment ratios both
communicate information about the number of pupils
participating in the school system as a proportion of the
size of the overall population. A key difference between
attendance and enrollment ratios is that attendance ratios
are typically gathered through household survey counts
of the proportion of children reported to have
participated in school at any point over a particular time
period; enrollment ratios are calculated based on school
census counts of the number of pupils officially enrolled
in school, in combination with demographic estimates of
the school age population.
o Get me the difference between:

o Attendance ratio and enrolment ratio

6. Educated Unemployed-
o Condition where those who have gone through the formal education system, especially up
to at least secondary level are actively looking for jobs which they cannot find at the
prevailing wages.
o Causes:
o Limited capital to use in production-Low level industrial growth
o Fast growing population than the rate of economic growth. The rate of population
growth higher than the rate at which jobs are being created
o The Diploma Disease: Avoid the an education system that is geared towards passing
exams and getting certificates to secure formal employment
o The defective educational system, with its theoretical bias, lack of aptitude and technical
qualifications for various types of work among job seekers
o Mismatch between the skills requirements of the labour market and the qualification of
the labour supply
o Lack of work experience
o Globalization & Free trade
o Technology
o Restrictive labour laws
Solutions:

o Relevance: need to restructure the curriculum to be

responsive to employment needs. Curriculum should instill
skills, knowledge and attitudes which would make
educational outputs able to engage in a productive economic
activity.
o Self-Reliance: Curriculum should foster a sense of self-
reliance in form of capability to perform daily tasks of living
in a local setting and initiating self-employment projects that
attracts private direct returns.
o Vocational Education: An education whose main purpose is
to shape the learner towards available employment
POLICIES:
o A course of action/plan through which a govt.
or institution handles or addresses a public
problem or that influences decisions within the
organization
o Functions of Policies
o 1. Policies control how resources are allocated;
o 2. Policies are used to establish rules and regulations to
guide institutions actions;
o 3. Policies create reporting systems that establish
institutional accountability for actions
1. User Charges (fees) Ability and willingness to pay

o - These are voluntary payments based on direct,

measurable consumptions of public goods or services.
o - These are the direct financial levies met by the
beneficiary of education
o - It takes the form of fees paid by learners for teaching
services and the facilities they use within the institution
o - Opposite of user charges is the general taxes which
are compulsory payment for public services
o - They are as a result of Rapid increase in government
expenditure
o Either charges on tuition (fees) or other charges e.g.
boarding fee charges.
o - Free education means excess demand for school places
o - Thoben (1983) ‘Rule of Thumb’ – excess demand
should be countered by raise in price than additional
revenue – expand the service.
o Advantages
o i) It relieves the financial burden on part of the
Government.
o ii) It enhances freedom of investment in education
o Disadvantage
o - It can lock out the poor and hence promote social and
economic inequalities.
Deferred cost recovery – e.g. students loan (e.g. Kenya,
Nigeria, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Israel)

o - Loan provided by government agencies, commercial

banks or other financial institutions.
o - Pay after graduating with an interest
o - In some countries student receive loans for both
tuition and living expenses but in other countries tuition
is free
o - Interest on loan is usually below market rates
Advantages

o i. Education is a profitable primary investment yet many cannot afford to

finance it out of their pockets family resources.
o ii. Student loans provide money when its needed
o iii. Loan is repaid in future when the graduate is enjoying the financial
benefits of higher lifetime earning
o iv. System is more equitable than public subsidy since loan system involves a
transfer of income from the average taxpayer to those who in the future are
likely to enjoy higher than average income as a result of their education
o v. Advocated for developing countries because it ensures efficiency and equity
o vi. Enables even poor students to access education –
increase private demand for education.
o vii. It makes students to take their studies more seriously and hence graduate
on time – increase efficiency.
o viii. It can free the government from heavy financial allocation to education
when the loans scheme becomes self-financing/ revolving.
Disadvantages of Loan System

o i.

o Most students unwilling to borrow

o ii. Loan discourage low income students
o iii. Administrative problems involved in recovery of loans/loan
repayment
o iv. Likely to have defaulters – Kenya pay once you get a job – likely to
wipe out any potential savings of public funds
o v. Loan schemes do not exist in many countries
o vi. Loan repayment period makes it difficult to provide a significant
source of funds for higher education – thus a study in Latin *** showed
that it can take 10-20 years before a revolving fund could become self
sustaining.
3.Structural Adjustment Programmes

o Ø It is a term used by the IMF to refer to the changes it

recommends for developing countries
o Ø They are pockets of policies administered by IMF
and World Bank with the purpose of improving macro-
economic planning of poor economically performing
countries. e.g. privatization, rationalization
o Ø These includes internal changes (privatization) as
well as external changes
o Ø It came up due to universality of Third World debt
o Ø Currently, SAPs have been replaced by “Poverty
Reduction”
o Developing countries are being encouraged to draw “Poverty
Reduction Strategy Papers” (PRSPs)
o Contents of the PRSP are similar to SAPs
o SAPs are also used to refer to loans from the IMF given to
nations with certain conditions
o Nations are demanded to follow these conditions for approval
of the loan
o SAPs have far reaching negative effects e.g. in Kenya they led
to introduction of cost sharing policy, budget rationalization.
o These conditions are technically known
as “Conditionalities”
o Some of the conditions are:
o i) Cutting social expenditures
o ii) Focusing economic output on direct export
o iii) Devaluing currencies against the dollar
o iv) Lifting import and export restrictions
o v) Balancing budget and not overspending
o vi) Removing price control and state subsidies
o vii) Privatization or divestiture of all or part of the
state-owned corporations /enterprises
o viii) Enhancing the rights of foreign investors vis-à-vis
(in relation to) national law
o Effects of SAPs
o i) Commercializing the sovereignty (independence,
power, dominion) of national economies
o ii) Lowered wages-cause reduced local purchasing
power
o iii) Privatization of public enterprises reduces state
capacity
o iv) Food trade policies- growth of urban poverty and
slums
o Adjusting Education and Training to Market Economy
o - This refers to making education and training meet the
market demand.
o - The need to adjust education and training to market
economy is necessitated by high rate of unemployment,
irrelevance of education and curricular that results to
low quality graduates.
o - The argument is that for education and training to
meet the needs of the nation what is offered should be
relevant to the world.
Wastage
o It’s the human and material resources spent
or wasted on pupils who have to repeat a
grade or who drop out of school before
completing a cycle.
o Resources have been allocated-but still wastage is
there
o It denotes the inefficiency of a school system
o It also refers to wasted opportunities for those
children to develop their knowledge, skills, attitudes
and values they need to live productive lives and
continue learning
Remedies to improve or reduce wastage:

o Introduce automatic or semi-automatic promotion

between grades
o No educational advantage to be derived from making
low achievers repeats grades.
o Change examination procedures or reduce the number
of examinations taken.
o Formulate evaluation to be considered for promotion
o Improve (review) curriculum to improve quality and
make it more relevant to pupils interests and
surroundings
o Improve basic teaching equipments
Unemployment:
o Unemployment is the condition of not having a job,
often referred to as being "out of work.
o Unemployment (standard definition) includes all
persons who during a specified reference period (e.g.
one week) were:
o (i) without work, i.e. were not in paid employment or
self-employment;
o (ii) currently available for work, i.e. were available for
paid employment or self-employment during the
reference period; and
o Types / Kinds of unemployment/Classification by cause
o i) Frictional Unemployment: Is the irreducible minimum
amount of unemployment caused by the labour turnover
when new people enter the labour force and look for jobs
and existing workers change jobs
o Unemployment associated with normal turnover of labour. E.g
people leaving jobs to look for others, young people looking for
jobs
o People leave jobs for many reasons and they take time to find new
jobs
o Ø Occurs when even with plenty of jobs available, it takes
sometime for people to search and find new employment
o Cyclical Unemployment / Demand Deficient
unemployment: Cyclical Unemployment is associated
with an economic recession or a sharp economic
slowdown. When there is economic recession, there
are rising levels of unemployment.
o It occurs due to a fall in the level of national output in the
economy causing firms to lay-off workers to reduce costs
and protect profits. This is a process known as labour-
shedding.
o Can occur due to structural changes in the economy e.g. as
economic growth occur, the patterns of demand and
supplies changes constantly
Structural Unemployment:

o Occurs when changes in the regional, occupational and

industrial structure of the demand for labour do not match the
changes in the structure of the supply of labour
o Structural unemployment exists when there are unfilled job vacancies
due to a mismatch between the skills of the registered unemployed and
those required by employers. People made redundant in one sector of
the economy cannot immediately take up jobs in other parts as they do
not have the relevant skills.
o Some regions, occupations and industries may suffer a decline in the
demand for what they produce while others may enjoy an increase in
demand e.g. mechanization of tea picking, introduction of computers to
replace some jobs
o Natural forces and social policies that discourage movement among
regions or occupations may cause structural unemployment
Real-Wage unemployment/ classical unemployment:

o Real wage unemployment occurs when wages are forced above

the normal market level. Trade unions are seen as the institutions
causing this type of unemployment. This leads to excess supply
of labour that results to reduced demand

o v) Hidden Unemployment: Those who are qualified to

take up jobs but due to long periods of unemployment
have given up and are no longer looking for jobs. They are
not in the government records of unemployment
o Poverty Trap- those who are qualified and have skills but due to
their poverty levels, they do not have opportunity to look for jobs
or even to apply for them
Effects of unemployment

o i) Reduced standards of living due to poor or no

income
o ii) Rural urban migration-unemployment accelerates
exodus of educated youth fro rural to urban areas-poor
or low economic development in rural areas
o iii) Strain on resources e.g in urban areas
o iv) Rise in crime rates
Solutions to unemployment

o i) Reform the economy-Develop the rural areas,

improve on agriculture CDF, Youth funds to boost
their entrepreneurship
o ii) Review the curriculum to make it relevant to the needs of
the market
o iii) Strengthen/introduce out-of school education e.g.
polytechns, community education, on-the-job training
o iv) Strengthen National Youth Service- trainees can make a
disciplined contribution to the national development
o v) Proper planning- planners should be given a wider role in
making reliable plan, forecasts without political interference
Possible solutions to success in education planning

o 1. Political authority and atmosphere should allow for the establishment

of planning offices. It should also be committed to support planning
activities.
o 2. Education planners should have a clear idea as to what their
responsibilities are i.e. TOR.
o 3. Need to develop clear educational policies and priorities so that
educational planners are clear of what they are planning for.
o 4. Policy makers must refrain from treating the development of
alternatives as political rather than a technical matter.
o 5. Education administration must actively support changes implied in
educational planning
o 6. There should be mutual co-ordination of all those concerned with
the development of education as a whole.