Diablo Canyon Power Plant

Esen 408
Energy, Environment and Law

TÜRKÜ İREM BÜRHAN – 11921012

SEVRA DİLAN TAT – 119204031

EMİR İLKER SİPER - 119204053

EMRE HÜSEYİN ZORLUKOL - 119204066

ELİF ZORLU - 119204049

 Instructor: Dr. Mustafa Tolay

Table of Contents
TABLE OF FIGURES................................................................................................................................. 2
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................. 3
2. THE PURPOSE OF THE PROJECT................................................................................................ 3
3. NUCLEAR ENERGY....................................................................................................................... 4
3.1 TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS..................................................................................................................5
3.1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR ENERGY...................................................................6
4 CASE STUDY: DIABLO CANYON POWER PLANT OVERVIEW...............................................7
4.1 REACTOR TYPE AND CAPACITY OF THE DIABLO CANYON POWER PLANT..............................................7
4.2 THE LOCATIONAL INFORMATION OF THE DIABLO CANYON POWER PLANT............................................7
4.3 FUEL AND WASTE MANAGEMENT AT THE DIABLO CANYON POWER PLANT..........................................8
Gaseous Effluents:.......................................................................................................................................8
Liquid Effluents:..........................................................................................................................................8
Direct Radiation:.........................................................................................................................................9
Solid Waste:................................................................................................................................................. 9
Groundwater Tritium:..................................................................................................................................9
5 NUCLEAR ENERGY PRODUCTION IN THE US........................................................................10
5.1 THE HISTORY OF NUCLEAR POWER IN THE US...........................................................................................10
5.2 THE LATEST SITUATION IN THE US...........................................................................................................11
6 INTERNATIONAL NUCLEAR ENERGY PRODUCTION...........................................................12
America......................................................................................................................................................12
Europe....................................................................................................................................................... 12
Asia............................................................................................................................................................13
Africa.........................................................................................................................................................13
REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................... 14

Table of Figures

Figure 1 Fission Reaction in the Reactor................................................................................................6

Figure 2 Gaseous Waste Production for DCPP for 2020-2022...............................................................9
Figure 3 Liquid Waste Production for DCPP for 2020-2022..................................................................9
Figure 4 Direct Radiation Observations for DCPP for 2020-2022.........................................................9
Figure 5 Solid Waste Production in the DCPP for 2020-2022..............................................................10
Figure 6 U.S Nuclear Electricity Generation Capacity and Generation, 1957-2022............................11
 1. Introduction

The growth in the world’s population and technological developments along with their increasing
energy needs are pushing the world to generate more energy. The need for energy is rapidly increasing
while the land to spare for it decreasing in size due to urbanization. Along with these, global warming is
creating a threat to life on Earth. When all these reasons come together, the world needs clean and
efficient energy sources while the occupying minimum land possible. When we compare current energy
sources in these aspects, nuclear energy has the highest capacity factor, highest power density, and
minimum greenhouse gas emission which is indirect emission like in the wind and solar power plants.

Energy production is responsible for 42.5% of global CO 2 emission. Coal and gas powered power
plants are producing huge amounts of greenhouse gas emissions. Although world needs clean energy, the
known clean energy sources are not capable to produce the amount of energy that is needed. Wind, solar
and hydropower are dependent on the climatic and environmental factors, therefore the energy production
is not consistent and reliable.

To produce the energy needed without harming the earth, nuclear can be a solution. High efficiency,
reliability, less land occupation, and zero carbon emission make nuclear a sensible choice into transition
the clean energy.

In this paper, we will explain how nuclear energy works, what is nuclear energy’s advantages and
disadvantages, and will study a Nuclear Power Plant which is operating in California, USA. We will look
at the type of technology, the capacity, environmental structure, fuel management, and effects on the
environment.

2. The Purpose of the Project

The purpose of this project is to comprehensively investigate and analyse the operational efficiency,
environmental impact, and technological advancements within nuclear energy power plants. Through
rigorous examination and research, our aim is to elucidate the multifaceted aspects of nuclear energy
generation, highlighting its potential as a sustainable and reliable source of clean energy. By evaluating
existing infrastructures, safety measures, and exploring innovative technologies, this study endeavours to
contribute valuable insights for efficiency, and responsible utilization of nuclear power plants, paving the
way for a more sustainable and secure energy future.

3. Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy is the energy released during nuclear reactions, which involve the manipulation of
atomic nuclei. The two main types of nuclear reactions that release energy are nuclear fission and nuclear
fusion. Nuclear fission is a process where the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei,
releasing a significant amount of energy. This process occurs spontaneously in some heavy elements, such
as uranium-235 and plutonium-239, when they absorb a neutron.

Fusion reaction energy release:

3 2 4 1
1 H + 1 H → 2He + 0n+931.5 MeV

Fission reaction energy release:

1 235 236 141 92 1

0 n + 92U ⟶ U→
92 56 Ba+ 36 Kr +3 0n+176.984 MeV

Nuclear power plants work by utilizing the heat produced from nuclear reactions, specifically nuclear
fission, to generate electricity. The core of a nuclear power plant contains the reactor where controlled
nuclear fission takes place. Fuel rods made of enriched uranium or plutonium are arranged within the
reactor. When a neutron strikes the nucleus of a uranium atom, it causes it to split, releasing heat and
more neutrons, initiating a chain reaction.
 moderator

Control rods

neutron
Uranium-235
fission

fission
Figure 1 Fission Reaction in the Reactor

Moderator slowdowns the neutrons because slow neutrons have more chance to fission. Control rods
are used when reaction needs to be stopped or controlled. Moderator is usually heavy or light water and
control rods often made from boron. This explained in the figure above.

3.1 Types of Nuclear Reactors

There are several types of nuclear reactors, each designed with unique features, cooling systems, and
fuel configurations.
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR): PWRs are among the most common nuclear reactors globally.
They use enriched uranium as fuel. Water under high pressure in the primary loop absorbs heat from the
reactor core, but it doesn’t boil. This hot water is pumped to a steam generator where it heats a separate,
lower-pressure water loop, turning it into steam to power turbines and generate electricity.
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR): BWRs also use enriched uranium as fuel. Water in the reactor core
boils directly as it absorbs heat from the fission process. The resulting steam is used to directly drive
turbines for electricity generation. Unlike PWRs, the water that circulates through the core and turns into
steam is the same, not separated by a secondary loop.
Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR): These reactors use heavy water (deuterium oxide) as a
moderator and coolant. They commonly use natural uranium as fuel and heavy water to slow down
neutrons to sustain the fission process. These reactors are known for their efficient use of natural uranium,
but they are less common than PWRs and BWRs.
Fast Neutron Reactor (FNR): FNRs use fast neutrons without a moderator, allowing them to use
various fuels, including plutonium and depleted uranium. They have the potential to generate more fuel
than they consume and are designed to efficiently utilize nuclear fuel while reducing long-lived
radioactive waste.
Molten Salt Reactor (MSR): In MSR designs, the fuel is dissolved in a molten fluoride or chloride
salt, which also serves as the coolant. These reactors operate at high temperatures and can potentially be
more efficient and safer than traditional reactor designs due to passive safety features.
Gas-Cooled Reactor (GCR): GCRs use gases like carbon dioxide or helium as coolants instead of
water. They can operate at higher temperatures and are often used for research purposes or for generating
electricity.
Each type of nuclear reactor has its advantages and challenges, including considerations related to
safety, efficiency, fuel utilization, waste management, and cost. Ongoing research and development aim to
improve reactor designs, enhance safety features, and make nuclear energy more sustainable and efficient.

3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy offers several advantages:

Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Nuclear power generation produces very low greenhouse gas
emissions once the plant is operational. It helps reduce carbon dioxide emissions, contributing to
mitigating climate change.

High Energy Density: Nuclear energy has an incredibly high energy density. A small amount of
nuclear fuel can generate a large amount of electricity over an extended period, reducing the need for vast
quantities of fuel.

Nuclear energy is producing high power while occupying less land than other known clean energy
sources. Wind and solar farms have power density of 2 and 7 W /m2, nuclear energy’s power density
almost equals to 130 times of wind energy.

Reliable Power Generation: Nuclear power plants can operate continuously for long periods without
interruption, providing a stable and consistent source of electricity, regardless of weather conditions.

Long Operational Lifespan: Nuclear power plants have a long operational lifespan, typically around
40 to 60 years, with the potential for license extensions, providing sustained electricity generation.

Capacity Factor: The capacity factor is a metric used in the energy industry to measure the actual
output of a power plant compared to its maximum potential output over a specific period, usually a year.
The capacity factor for solar, wind and hydropower are respectively 10-25%, 25% and 40% which is
around 89% for nuclear energy.

Actual Energy Generated(MWh)

Capacity Factor=
Capacity ( MW ) ×Time Period (h)
Energy Security: Nuclear energy reduces dependence on imported fossil fuels, enhancing energy security
for countries with nuclear power plants by diversifying their energy sources.

Despite these advantages, nuclear energy also presents challenges, including concerns about nuclear
accidents, the management and disposal of radioactive waste, high initial construction costs, and public
perception regarding safety. Striking a balance between harnessing the benefits of nuclear energy while
addressing these challenges remains a focus of ongoing advancements in the field.

4 Case Study: Diablo Canyon Power Plant Overview

4.1 Reactor Type and Capacity of the Diablo Canyon Power Plant

According to the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the specifications of the Diablo
Canyon Power Plant (Unit 1) are as follows:

Location: Avila Beach, CA (12 miles WSW of San Luis Obispo, CA) in Region IV
Operator: Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
Operating License: Issued- 11/02/1984
License Expires: 11/02/2024
Docket Number: 05000275
Reactor Type: Pressurized Water Reactor
Licensed MWt: 3,411
Reactor Vendor/Type: Westinghouse Four-Loop
Containment Type: Dry, Ambient Pressure [1].

4.2 The Locational Information of the Diablo Canyon Power Plant

 The Diablo Canyon Power Plant is situated in Avila Beach, California. The operational region the
area it is located falls into the Region IV classification in U.S.NRC’s lists. The Region IV division
includes the states of: Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Kansas, Louisiana,
Missouri, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon,
South Dakota, Texas, Utah, U.S. Pacific Territories, Washington, and Wyoming [2].
There are 19 Nuclear Power Reactors in Region IV, along with 17 Research and Test Reactors and 26
Uranium Mining Facilities [2].

4.3 Fuel and Waste Management at the Diablo Canyon Power Plant

Going off the official “Diablo Canyon Power Plant 2022 Annual Radioactive Effluent Release
Report” the radioactive waste disposal and release data is as follows:

Gaseous Effluents:

Figure 2 Gaseous Waste Production for DCPP for 2020-2022

 Liquid Effluents:

Figure 3 Liquid Waste Production for DCPP for 2020-2022

Direct Radiation:
Due to the geology surrounding the Diablo Canyon Power Plant, there are no immediate residency
zones within its vicinity. As a cause of this “a bounding value for dose from direct radiation has been
calculated for a receptor location that is onsite and close to both the sources and the nearest site boundary
[3].

Figure 4 Direct Radiation Observations for DCPP for 2020-2022

Solid Waste:

Figure 5 Solid Waste Production in the DCPP for 2020-2022

Groundwater Tritium:

When testing the roof drains of the DCPP Auxiliary Building, the drywell of the building, and the
wells used for observing the containment structure, scientists have found measurable amounts of tritium.
This tritium likely comes from the rain washing down the gaseous tritium that's released from the plant
through its vent. Because of this, it's included in the plant's permit for releasing materials through the
vent. The amount of tritium in rainwater is also considered based on the plant's approved methods. These
methods are planned to stay in place unless there's new guidance from the industry suggesting a different
approach to handle this [2].

5 Nuclear Energy Production in the US

5.1 The history of nuclear power in the US

After World War II, the Atomic Energy Commission was established to find peaceful uses for the
nuclear materials used in Japan. Over 70 years later, the U.S. operates 104 nuclear reactors, supplying
nearly 20% of its energy needs.
Shortly after the war, the U.S. Navy started to generate electricity using nuclear power. In 1957, the
Shipping port Atomic Power Station in Pennsylvania became the country's first commercial nuclear
power plant as part of President Dwight Eisenhower's Atoms for Peace program. This plant provided
power to Pittsburgh for 25 years before shutting down in 1982.
The success of Shipping port led to more research and new power plant construction. Just in the
1980s, the U.S. added 46 new nuclear reactors. By 1989, these reactors were producing about 19% of the
nation's electricity, making nuclear power the second-largest energy source after coal.
However, after the 1980s, the construction of new nuclear plants slowed down. Safety concerns grew
after incidents like the one at Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania in 1979 and the Chornobyl disaster in
Ukraine in 1986.
Yet, the U.S. nuclear industry has shown that nuclear energy can be safe and reliable. Currently, 104
nuclear reactors operate across 31 states, contributing roughly 19% of the country's electricity, with most
of it being clean energy. This makes nuclear power the third-largest energy source in the U.S., after coal
and gas.
While the U.S. doesn't generate the largest percentage of its energy from nuclear power compared to
other countries, it does have the most nuclear power plants and remains a significant global leader in this
industry. The U.S. accounts for about 30% of global nuclear power generation.
Despite concerns following the Fukushima Daiichi accident in Japan, the U.S. plans to commission at
least four new nuclear units by the end of the decade. These include two units at Southern Co.’s Vogtle
plant in Georgia and two at South Carolina Electric & Gas and Santee Cooper’s V.C. Summer plant,
which are the first to receive NRC approval in over 30 years.
 Figure 6 U.S Nuclear Electricity Generation Capacity and Generation, 1957-2022

5.2 The Latest Situation in the US

The United States has 54 nuclear power plants that produce electricity. This method of generating
power began in the country in 1958. As of August 1, 2023, there are 93 nuclear reactors operational across
28 states within these plants. The average age of these reactors is around 42 years. The Nine Mile Point
Unit 1 in New York is the oldest among them, having started its operations in December 1969. On the
other hand, the most recent addition is Unit 3 at the Alvin W. Vogtle Electric Generating Plant in Georgia,
which began its commercial operations on July 31, 2023. This marks the first new reactor since the
commissioning of Watts Bar 2 in 2016.
The peak number of operational nuclear reactors in the U.S. was 112, with a combined capacity to
generate 99,624 megawatts of electricity. However, this number decreased to 104 by 1998 and remained
consistent until 2013. By 2022, the count dropped further to 92 operational reactors. In terms of electricity
generation capacity, the U.S. reached its highest in 2012, producing about 102,000 megawatts. Yet, by
2022, this figure declined to 94,765 megawatts. Even though there's been a decline in the number of
reactors since 2012, modifications made to individual plants, known as uprates, have ensured that the
existing reactors operate at high capacities. This consistent performance has allowed nuclear power to
contribute between 19% to 20% of the total U.S. electricity production from 1990 to 2021. Additionally,
some reactors have enhanced their annual electricity output by minimizing the duration they're offline for
refuelling.
Once nuclear reactors complete their operational lifecycle, they undergo decommissioning, which
means they're retired from generating electricity and are safely shut down. According to the U.S. Nuclear
Regulatory Commission, there are currently 22 commercial nuclear power reactors at 18 different sites in
the U.S. that are in various stages of this decommissioning process.

6 International Nuclear Energy Production

To reduce the use of fossil fuels and reach zero carbon emissions, many countries are focusing on
increasing their renewable energy sources. As part of this effort, there's a push to construct more nuclear
power plants worldwide. This also applies to our country, where the Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant is being
developed. Below, you'll find details about leading countries in nuclear energy use across different
continents.

America
The United States operates 93 nuclear reactors that can produce a combined 95.8 GWe of electricity.
In 2022, nuclear power supplied 18.2% of the U.S.'s total electricity. Out of the four AP1000 reactors
planned for construction, two have been called off. One reason for fewer new plants in the U.S. is that
current nuclear plants are running better than before, thanks to improved maintenance. This means they're
producing more energy without needing new plants. In 2016, after a 20-year gap, a new nuclear reactor
started operating in the U.S. However, the total number of active reactors has declined recently, dropping
from a peak of 104 in 2012. Several factors contribute to this, including the availability of cheap natural
gas, changing market dynamics, generous support for renewable energy, and political factors leading to
some reactors shutting down earlier than expected.
Canada has 19 nuclear reactors in operation, with a combined capacity of 13.6 GWe. In 2022, nuclear
power contributed 13.6% to Canada's overall electricity production. Almost all of Canada's reactors
(except one) are located in Ontario. The four units at Darlington and units 1-6 at Bruce are currently being
updated to extend their lifespans by 30-35 years. A similar refurbishment strategy allowed Ontario to
eliminate coal usage in 2014, making its energy mix one of the cleanest globally.

Europe
France is home to 56 operational nuclear reactors, collectively capable of producing 61.4 GWe of
electricity. These reactors played a pivotal role in generating 62.5% of the nation's total electricity in
2022. Initially, in 2014, there was a government plan to reduce the proportion of electricity generated by
nuclear power to 50% by the year 2025. However, this target faced delays, moving the goalpost to 2035,
until eventually being discarded in 2023.
Russia possesses 37 functioning nuclear reactors, boasting a net capacity of 27.7 GWe. In the energy
mix of 2022, nuclear sources contributed to 19.6% of Russia's electricity needs. Demonstrating ambitious
plans, the Russian government mandated, in 2016, the construction of 11 additional nuclear reactors by
2030. By the start of 2023, the nation had three reactors in the construction phase with a collective
capacity of 2.7 GWe. Beyond its borders, Russia's prowess in the nuclear sector extends to exporting
reactors and collaborating on new projects in countries such as Belarus, China, Hungary, and others.

Asia
China stands as a significant player with 55 operational nuclear reactors, boasting a net capacity of
53.3 GWe. These reactors contributed to 5.0% of China's electricity generation in 2022. Furthermore,
China's dominance in the nuclear sector is underscored by its commitment to constructing an additional
25 reactors as of October 2023. In a notable achievement in 2018, China became the pioneer nation to
launch two distinct reactor designs: the AP1000 and the EPR. Additionally, China is actively exporting its
indigenous Hualong One reactor design to other countries.
Japan's nuclear landscape features 33 operational reactors with an aggregate capacity of 31.7 GWe.
Following the devastating Fukushima incident in 2011, Japan undertook significant safety reviews,
resulting in reactor shutdowns. However, by October 2023, 11 reactors had been restarted, with another
16 awaiting clearance. Reflecting on historical data, nuclear power previously met 30% of Japan's
electricity demands; however, by 2022, this figure dwindled to 6.1%.

Africa
Within Africa, South Africa leads with its two operational nuclear reactors, having a combined net
capacity of 1.9 GWe. In 2022, these reactors were responsible for producing 4.9% of the nation's total
electricity output. Despite aspirations to amplify its nuclear capacity, South Africa grapples with
substantial financial constraints.
Furthermore, on the global nuclear stage, countries like Bangladesh, Turkey, and the UAE are
venturing into the realm of nuclear energy by embarking on the construction of their inaugural nuclear
power facilities.
References

[1] “Diablo Canyon Power Plant, unit 1,” NRC Web, https://www.nrc.gov/info-finder/reactors/diab1.html
(accessed Dec. 27, 2023).
[2] “Region IV jurisdiction,” NRC Web,
https://www.nrc.gov/info-finder/region-state/region4.html#AreaCovered (accessed Dec. 27, 2023).
[3] D. Cortina, “Diablo Canyon Units 1 and 2 2022 Annual Radioactive Effluent Release Report ,” Avila
Beach, Avila Beach, May. 1, 20238
[4] https://nuclear.duke-energy.com/2012/07/31/a-brief-history-of-nuclear-power-in-the-u-s
[5] https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/nuclear/us-nuclear-industry.php
[6] https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-
world-today.aspx