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Determination of some heavy metal levels in water and sediments from River
Riana in Kisii County, Kenya

Article · August 2023

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 © 2023 IJNRD | Volume 8, Issue 8 August 2023 | ISSN: 2456-4184 | IJNRD.ORG

Determination of some heavy metal levels in water

and sediments from River Riana in Kisii County,
1
Kenya.
Momanyi, T. M., 2Wanjara A.O, 1Ngodhe, S.O, 1Okeyo-Owour, J.B., 1Nyamai, D., 1Olal, O. F.
1
School of Agriculture and Environmental Studies Rongo University P.O Box 103, Rongo, KENYA
2
School of Science, Kaimosi Friends University P.O Box 385-50309, Kaimosi- Kenya

ABSTRACT
In this paper, we determined the heavy metal concentrations in water and sediments in surface water and sediments
from the River Riana in Kisii County, Kenya for the period of January to June 2021.Water and sediment samples
were collected and the concentrations of Pb, Cr, Ni, Mn. Cu and Zn analyzed. The analysis of heavy metal was carried
out using the inductively coupled- plasma atomic emission spectrometer (Shimadzu ICPE-9000) after nitric acid
digestion of both water and sediments. The data obtained was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Scientists
(SPSS version 26) and Microsoft Excel spreadsheets and significant differences were accepted at p ≤ 0.05. A
compliance study conducted for the water samples to determine the level of water pollution using the Kenya Bureau
of Standards (KEBS) and the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended limits for natural drinking water.
Similarly, the WHO sediment quality guidelines (SQGs) for fresh water sediments was used to determine the quality
of the sediment samples from the river to determine the possible toxic impacts on the aquatic ecosystem. The mean
ranges for the selected water physico-chemical parameters were determined for: pH (6.35-8.85), temperature (19.46-
22.860C); electrical conductivity (85-294µS/cm), dissolved oxygen (4.30-7.32mg/l), total dissolved solids (86-
426mg/l) and turbidity (109-251NTU). The mean concentrations of heavy metals (ppm) in surface water for Pb
(0.031-0.196), Cr (<0.001-0.009)), Ni (0.014-0.321), Mn (0.131-0.351). Cu (0.114-0.370) and Zn (0.132-0.326). The
heavy metal sediment mean concentrations (ppm) for Pb (0.041-8.74), Cr (0.001-1.31), Mn (276-692), Cu (1.35-9.74)
and Zn (6.37-15.67). The investigation revealed that water physico-chemical parameters complied with the WHO
and KEBS drinking water quality guidelines by both except for turbidity. The heavy metals Cr, Cu and Zn were
within the WHO and KEBS drinking water quality standards while the Pb and Mn concentrations in water exceeded
the recommended limits. The Ni concentrations exceeded the KEBS drinking water recommend limit. All the heavy
metals complied with WHO SQGs. The River Riana was contaminated by the investigated heavy metals with the
potential of heavy accumulation in sediments and metal toxicity the river. To mitigate against negative impacts
regular assessment of the water and sediments was proposed.
Keywords: Heavy metals, recommended limits, physico-chemical parameters, sediment quality guidelines (SQGs),
WHO and KEBS.

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Introduction
Rapid urbanization and industrialization in the last decade have triggered serious concerns for the safety of the
environment as the quest for improved livelihoods and energy have resulted in anthropogenic campaigns which have
led to the release of chemical pollutants including heavy metals into virtually all environmental matrices (Ezemonye
et al.,2019). This is because heavy metals are highly hazardous contaminants due to their persistence, toxicity and
bioaccumulation in the various segments of the environment (Gashkina et al., 2020). Elevated concentrations of
heavy metals in water and sediments may be biomagnified along the aquatic food chains eventually affecting human
health through the consumption of metal contaminated water or fish from such water (Nyingi et al., 2016). Their
presence in water even at low concentrations poses significant environmental concern. However, heavy metals have
acceptable recommended limits in water for example Pb (0.01mg/l), Ni (0.07mg/l), Cr (0.005mg/l), Mn (0.4mg/l),
Zn (3.0mg/l) and Cu (2.0mg/l). Toxicity is realized when the heavy metal levels are higher than the recommended
limits which are different for individual elements in drinking water ( Omoko et al., 2013. WHO, 2011Muiruri, 2013).
High levels of heavy metals in fresh water makes them unsuitable for human consumption, livestock watering, and
irrigation because heavy metals are highly hazardous contaminants due to their persistence, toxicity and
bioaccumulation in water, sediment, air and biota. Heavy metals are elements with densities of more than 5g/cm3,
and atomic mass higher than 20 are considered heavy metals (Edokpayi et al. 2017; Muhammad et al., 2019; Li et al.
2019). Toxic metals which pose hazardous effects include are copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), arsenic
(As), cobalt (Co), mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb) and are dangerous as the tend to bioaccumulate in food chains and can be
harmful to humans and animals (Kim and Lee, 2017;Kanamarlapudi et al., 2018; Bedassa et al., 2020). Heavy metals
are classified as essential and non-essential or toxic metals depending on their toxicity and nutritional value. Cu, Mn,
Fe, Zn, Co are needed in minute quantities for the normal function and survival of living beings (Muhammad et al.,
2019). Thus heavy metals raise serious concerns over the potential health effects on humans due to cell function loss,
cellular changes, carcinogenesis, and neurotoxicity (Muhammad et al., 2022). Among the different environmental
contaminants, heavy metals are of greater concern due to their toxicity to living organisms including marine life and
are a unique class of naturally occurring elements which are persistent and non- biodegradable; their occurrence in
waters and biota indicate the presence of natural and or anthropogenic sources (Kanamarlapudi et al., 2018; Qadir et al.,
2008).
Heavy metals cannot be broken down and are non-biodegradable, so when they enter the human body, they pose
serious hazardous impacts. They are considered toxic and dangerous when bioaccumulate into the human body and
cause biological and physiological complications. There are various mechanisms of intoxication in the human body
by heavy metals which can be acute or chronic. The toxicity of metals depend on dosage and exposure time that is
chronic or acute exposure (Muhammad et al. 2022). Toxicity may occur along the food chain when the contaminated
species or substance is consumed (Hang et al., 2004,). These toxic metals including As, Pb and Cd are hazardous
because they can cause severe health problems in minute quantiles. Health problems resulting from these metals
include stomach disease, anorexia, heart disease, hypertension and cancer (Qian et al., 2020).
Most, heavy metals are released into the environment mainly from anthropogenic activities which include metal
production, agricultural activities, transportation, mining and smelting operations, industrial and urban development
among others and fertilizers have released specific quantities of heavy metals which have poisoned the land and the
soil. (Moywaywa et al., 2022, Chaoua et al. 2019). Heavy metals such as, Cd, As, Cu, Ni and Zn are common
pollutants and come from different anthropogenic source (Yahya et al., 2018). They are also as a result of geochemical
processes such as volcanic eruptions. The continued steady growth in human population has as seen more release of
heavy metals into water bodies as humans continue participating in activities that trigger more release of the
concerned metals (Storelli et al. 2008). Heavy metals oceans due to riverine influx atmospheric deposition and
anthropogenic activities. This is because anthropogenic contribution to toxins such as heavy metals have grown in
the aquatic ecosystem and settle in the underlying sediments causing significant habitat contamination. These heavy
metals have potentially toxic effects and accumulation into biota exposed to the sediments (Muhammad et al. 2022).
More attention should be given to the monitoring of heavy metals due to their inherent bioaccumulation and
biomagnification potential and their long term persistence in the environmental compartments (Koki et al., 2011).
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Thus regular quantification of heavy metals is crucial to identify temporal variations in aquatic ecosystems
(Ezemonye et al., 2019). The analysis of heavy metal pollution can be examined by measuring metal concentrations
in water, sediments and resident organisms such as fish. Therefore measurement of heavy metals in water is very
important because it is the route through which metals are flushed from a large area of land into oceans and gives an
indication of degree of pollution because inside the water these heavy metals enter into the different environmental
domains such as water and sediments (Beyhan et al., 2010,).

These heavy metals can occur as dissolved or suspended loads on water or residue in bed sediments (Sabir et al.,
2017). Sediments in rivers do not only play important roles of influencing the pollution, they also record the history
of their pollution (Akan et al., 2010). Sediments are one of the possible media in monitoring the health of the aquatic
ecosystems. Sediments refers to particles that normally settle at the bottom of an aquatic system and are of
significance in the development of aquatic ecosystems through the replenishment of nutrients, creation of benthic
habitat and provision of spawning areas/ they are also important sinks and reservoirs for several contaminants such
as pesticides, leached chemicals and heavy metals. They are essential in the re-introduction of pollutants in the aquatic
systems when optimal conditions are provided (Õztûrk et al, 2009). Particulates may be produced through various
means, some of these ways include land disturbing activities such as road construction, mining, farming, real estate
development, water drilling, erosion and weathering. These particles may then be transported by water, wind or ice
where are eventually deposited in streams, lakes, wetlands and oceans (Lalah et al. 2008). The heavy metal sediment
recommended limits for Pb, Ni, Cr, Cu and Zn are 35mg/kg, 0.4 mg/kg, 37.5 mg/kg, 30 mg/kg and 123 mg/kg
respectively but the Mn sediment limit has not been documented (WHO, 2008). Sediments are sink of a variety of
pollutants, particularly heavy metals and may serve as an enriched source for benthic organisms. Sediments have
higher levels of heavy metals than the water which shows that sediments act as a sink for heavy metals (Wang et al.,
2003; Storelli, 2008). Other authors have detected contamination of sediments with heavy metals in various aquatic
ecosystems around the world and in Kenya (Õztûrk et al, 2009, Ambedkar et al., 2012, Kosgey et al., 2015; Wasike
et al., 2019; Moywaywa et al., 2022. Heavy metal distribution and bioavailability in both sediments and the overlying
water column have to be considered to obtain a better understanding of the interactions between the organisms and
the environment (Nzeve et al., 2014). Thus this study sought to determine the concentrations of some heavy metal
in surface water and sediments and the levels of some selected physico-chemical water quality characteristics for
water from River Riana in Kisii County, Kenya. The results obtained from this study contribute to effective
monitoring and conservation of the river ecosystem sustainable human health.

Materials and Methods

Study area

The section of the river Riana in

Kisii Counties between at an altitude
of 1500m to 1800m above sea level
The study The sampling sites were
S1 (Nyamataro Bridge), S2
(Nyagwekoa Bridge) and S3 (Riana
Bridge) whose geographical
coordinates were S1 (S00°39.622’,
E34°45.043`), S2 (S00°39.503`,
E034°43.101`), S3 (S00°39.496`,
E34°40.097`) respectively (Figure
1).

Fig 1: Location of the sampling sites

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Sample Collection
Water and sediment samples were collected monthly for a period of six months between January 2021 and June of
2021 from the River Riana in Kisii County of Kenya. Sample collection was done to include the dry months of
January to March and wet months of April to June respectively. Three sampling sites were selected based on the
degree of human activities in the adjacent area and the feasibility of obtaining desired samples. During each sampling
period samples were collected in the morning, mid-day and in the evening, thus triplicate samples from each site of
the river were collected. Water and sediment samples were collected according to the method described (Ambedkar
et al., 2012). The water samples were collected by grab sampling method using 1L polyethylene bottles that were
pre-conditioned with 5% nitric acid and rinsed thoroughly with distilled deionized water. At each sampling site, the
polyethylene sampling bottles were rinsed at least three times before sampling. The pre-cleaned polyethylene
sampling bottles were immersed about 10cm below the water surface. The samples were acidified with concentrated
nitric acid, placed in an ice-bath and transported to the laboratory for analysis. The samples were filtered through a
0.42µm micropore membrane filter and kept at 4oC until analysis. Triplicate submerged sediment samples at least
30cm below the water level were collected using a grab sampler and stored in plastic bags. All the samples were
stored in the cool box at 40C for transportation to the laboratory. The samples were packed in polyethylene bags and
stored below -200C before processing for heavy metal analysis. Sediments were treated consequently digested as
described by Kosgey et al., (2015). The concentrations heavy metals in water and sediments were determined in
triplicates using the Inductively Coupled Plasma Emission spectrometer-Shimadzu ICPE-9000 (Omoko et al. 2015).
The mean concentrations and ranges of heavy metals for the study period in water were summarized in Table 2 and
3.

Determination of heavy metals in water samples

Digestion of water samples for metal analysis was done in triplicates using concentrated nitric acid (AG) as reported
by Zhuang (2007). 5ml of concentrated nitric acid was added to 50ml of the water sample in 100ml beaker and then
heated on a hot plate (100 oC) to boil until the volume reduced to 20ml. Another 50ml of concentrated nitric acid was
added and then heated for 10 minutes and allowed to cool. About 5ml of concentrated nitric acid was used to rinse
the sides of the beaker and the solution filtered using 0.42µm filter paper into a 50ml volumetric flask and topped up
to the mark using distilled water. A blank solution was similarly prepared.
Digestion and determination of heavy metals in sediments
The sediment preparation and digestion was done according to the method described [29]. Sediment samples were
dried in an oven at 80o C for 24 hours, ground using mortar and pestle to increase the surface area for extraction of
the heavy metals from the sediment samples. The ground samples were sieved using a sieve of mesh size 72nm.
Accurately weighed 0.5g of each dried sample was placed in a clean Kjedahl flask to which 10ml of the aqua-raga
solution (a mixture of concentrated HNO3 with HCl in the ratio of 1:3) was added. The samples were digested using
an electric digester with a glass fume exhaust for a period of 2-3 hours. The solutions were filtered using the normal
filter paper (0.42µm Whatman filter paper). Each of the resulting filtrate was diluted to 100ml using distilled water
in acid-cleaned volumetric flasks.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics, using Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS version 26) and Microsoft Excel
spreadsheets

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Results and Discussion

Physico- chemical parameters
The physical, chemical and biological contents determine the quality of water. Water quality guidelines provide basic
information about the water quality parameters and ecological relevant toxicology threshold values to predict specific
water uses (Bedassa, 2020). The means and ranges obtained for some physico-chemical water quality paramours
(Table 1) for the River Riana, during the study period were discussed.

Table 1: Monthly average levels and ranges of water physico-chemical parameters in River Riana

Sampling months±
January February March April May June
Physio-chemical
parameter
pH 7.42±0.28 7.66±1.11 7.56±0.016 7.50±0.11 7.43±0.055 6.92±0.13
Range (6.45-8.35) (6.66-8.45) (6.80-7.880) (7.35-7.60) (7.35-7.48) (6.88-7.10)

Temperature (oC) 21.23±1.30 21.22±1.67 22.74±0.914 23.28±0.002 22.31±0.458 22.71±1.31

Range (19.46-22.54) (19.65-23.56) (21.85-24.00) (21.55-24.95) (22.50-22.86) (20.68-23.45)
EC (µS/cm) 172±49.5 171.33±60.33 171.33±22.16 177.00±77.98 177.00±92.32 153.00±93.088
Range (117-237) (120-256) (116-265) (107-286) (113-294) (85-280)

DO (mg/l) 6.14±1.00 5.84± 0.73 5.88±1.18 5.37±0.70 6.19±0.53 5.77±1.05

Range (5.21-7.53) (4.32-6.87) (5.66-7.32) (4.44- 6.12) (5.77- 6.85) (4.30-6.78)
TDS (mg/l) 184.62±98.23 193. 4±25.05 121.67±10.84 138.39±84.39 122.02±0.421 235.0±131.31
Range (114-325) (128-323) (86-324) (87-234) (127-128) (137- 422)
Turbidity (NTU) 132.00±13.67 143.67±35.30 205.00 ±33.56 219.67±1.81 160.00±35.26 179.00±0.050
Range (120-154) (117-190) (172-251) (217-220) (122-207) (109-223)

Turbidity

The turbidity determined level in the River Riana was in the range 109 to 251 NTU and the monthly mean
concentrations in the river for all the months of the study period exceeded the recommended limit of < 1NTU and 25
NTU by WHO (2011) and KEBS (2015) respectively Thus water from the Rian River was unsuitable for domestic
uses and human consumption. High turbidity (100 NTU and above) reduces light penetration into water column which
have direct negative effect on photosynthesis. Other organisms high in aquatic food chain which depend on
photosynthetic plants for survival also suffer some negative effects resulting from insufficient food. The
consequences may be migration of motile or mass mortality and in severe cases extinction. The clarity of water is
determined by its turbidity values (Ndimele and Kumolu-Johnson. 2012). The mean turbidity values obtained in this
study were higher than those observed by Mwamburi (2013) in Lake Victoria 6.9 NTU to 56.1 NTU. Comparable to
current study by Nzeve (2015) observed turbidity in the range of 6.13NTU to 169.67NTU for water samples from
Masinga Dam. Similarly, comparable results to this study were obtained by Mwamburi (2013) who recorded turbidity
values in the range in 30 NTU to 120 NTU for water samples from Lake Naivasha. Ouma and Mwamburi (2014)
obtained mean turbidity value of 43.3NTU for water samples obtained from in Lake Baringo and the high turbidity
contributed to a reduction of both light penetration and the aesthetic value of water in the river and this could affect
aquatic organisms such as fish and algae. The observed turbidity in the study area was attributed to surface run-offs
from adjacent farms, solid waste dumping in open dumps adjacent to the river, commercial activities in the
surrounding urban areas and sewage contamination. Edokpayi et al., (2016) recorded higher turbidity values than the
present study for surface water for in Mvudi River, South Africa and which exceeded the WHO (2011) recommended
value of <1NTU. Previous studies have noted that higher levels of turbidity are associated with disease causing
bacteria (Patil, 2012).

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Electrical conductivity (EC)

Conductivity of the water is the ability to conduct electricity and it is directly related to the concentrations of ions in
the water (Kinuthia et al. 2020); it indicates the amount of dissolved ions on water and it is a measure of the dissolved
ionic components in water hence the electrical balance of water (Yilmaz, 2018; Oyem et al., 2014). The EC
determined level in the River Riana was in the range 85 to 294 µS/cm and its monthly mean concentrations in the
river for all the months of the study period were lower than the recommended limit of 1500 µS/cm and 2500 µS/cm
respectively (WHO, 2011; KEBS, 2015). Studies on the physico-chemical parameters recorded EC for wastewater
from open drainage channels in Nairobi, Kenya in the range 770 to 1074 µS/cm for the four sites which were below
the WHO (2011) recommended limit (Kinuthia et al., 2020, Mbui et al. (2016). Kosgey et al., (2013) recorded EC
for the Athi River in the range155 to 206 µS/cm which was also below the WHO (2011) recommended limit of 1500
µS/cm for drinking water. Ondiere et al., (2017) recorded EC values in the range 141µS/cm to 8120 µS/cm for Lake
Elmentaita which was higher than the WHO recommended limit in some sites. Edokpayi et al., (2016) recorded lower
EC levels of surface water in Mvudi River, South Africa in the range 10.5 µS/cm to 16.1 µS/cm which complied with
WHO (2011) recommended limit for that river. Both EC and turbidity are important parameters used in measuring
the quality of water post-treatment (Kinuthia et al., 2020).

pH

Speciation and bioavailability of heavy metals in the aquatic ecosystems are strongly dependent on pH. Low pH
values <5 usually increase the toxicity of metals. The average pH values determined in the study varied between 6.92
and 7.66 (Table1) which was within the WHO and KEBS recommended limit for drinking water 6.5 to 8.5 (KEBS,
2015). The determined pH level in the River Riana was in the range 6.45 to 8.45 units and the monthly mean pH of
the river for all the months of the study period were within the recommended range 6.5 to 8.5 by the WHO (2011)
and 6.5 to 9.5 by USEPA (2006) respectively. Thus the water from the river was suitable for portable uses and human
consumption with respect to pH. Other authors have investigated pH of other water bodies while investigating heavy
metal concentration in aquatic ecosystems. Bedassa (2020) determined the pH of Lake Hawassa, Ethiopia and recoded
a pH range from 8.64 to 8.75 and exposed that it exceeded WHO recommended limits. Studies by Edokpayi et al.,
(2016) recorded pH levels of surface water in Mvudi River, South Africa in the range 7.2 to 7.7 units where the pH
complied with WHO and DWAF recommended limits in the range of 6.5 to 9.5 units. Chebet et al., (2020) recorded
water quality physico-chemical water quality parameters for River Molo, Kenya with pH in the range 7.90 to 9.66;
which was above the WHO recommended value for drinking water. Other authors have reported pH for wastewater
from open drainage channels in Nairobi, Kenya in the range7.28 to 8.78 units which exceeded WHO recommended
limit of 6.0 to 8,5 but was within the KEBS limit of 6.0 to 9.5 units (Kinuthia et al., 2020).

Temperature
The observed temperature in the River Riana was in the range 19.46 to 24.45 oC while the monthly mean
concentrations in the river for all the months of the study period were within the WHO and KEBS recommended
limits respectively. Temperature is an important water parameter and microbial degradative activities in the waste
water are dependent on temperature, pH, presence of organic matter and types of microbes. Elevated temperatures in
waste water tends support increased biodegradative reactions in presence of organic substances (Kinuthia et al., 2020,
Chebet 2020). The monthly temperature range recorded in the current study (19.45-24.45 oC) was within the mean
monthly temperature range 21.03 to 30.50 oC recorded for Masinga Dam (Nzeve et al. 2015) which was within the
acceptable limit for warm water fish species in Masinga reservoir. Equally, Mutuku et al., (2014) recorded
temperature for rivers within the Lake Victoria basin in the range 21.4 0C to 26.5 oC) which was also within the WHO
acceptable limits for drinking water. Chebet et al., (2020) recorded water temperature for River Molo, Kenya with
temperature in the range 14.02oC to 31.5oC temperature which complied with the WHO recommended values for
drinking water. Thus water from the River Riana was within the WHO acceptable limit for drinking water.

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Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

DO in surface water comes from air or is produced in photosynthetic phytoplanktons and other plants within a water
body and is essential for almost all aquatic life and its concentration in a water body provides a broad indication of
water quality. DO in natural water is strongly influenced by water temperature. Studies by Bedassa (2020) determined
the DO variations of Lake Hawassa, Ethiopia and recoded DO in the range 5.20mg/l to 8.43mg/l which was within
the range of recommended limits by WHO and USEPA. The quality of freshwater for fish should not allow
accumulation of pollutants especially heavy metals in fish to such an extent that they are potentially harmful
(Alabaster and Llyod, 2013). Mutuku et al., (2014) recorded DO in the range 0.7mg/l to 10.2mg/l for rivers within
the Lake Victoria basin.

Total dissolved solids (TDS)

TDS in water depends upon the dissolved concentrations of magnesium, calcium, sodium, potassium and bicarbonate,
carbonate, chloride, sulphate and nitrate ions (Muhammad and Ahmad, 2020) The determined TDS level in the River
Riana was in the range 86 to 433 mg/l and the monthly mean concentrations in the river for all the months of the
study period were lower than the recommended limit of 1000 and 1500 mg/l respectively (WHO, 2011; KEBS, 2015).
Other authors have investigated TDS in aquatic ecosystems including Ondiere et al., (2017) who recorded higher
TDS in the range of 70 to 4210mg/l for Lake Elmentaita which exceeded the results obtained in the present study and
above the WHO (2011) and KEBS (2015) recommended values in some sites of the study area. Chebet et al., (2020)
recorded close TDS results for River Molo, Kenya in the range 69mg/l to 822mg/l which were within the KEBS
recommended values for drinking water in some sites. Drinking water is significantly affected if its TDS value is
equal or greater than1000mg/l (WHO, 2011). Analogous studies in TDS in various tropical water bodies have been
reported. Kosgey (2013) recorded TDS in the range109 mg/l to 136mg/l for the Athi River. Parallel studies by Masime
et al., (2022) determined higher TDS values than the current study in the range of 43mg/l to 1085 for rivers within
the Athi River Basin area in Kenya. Mutuku et al., (2014) recorded TDS in the range 1.0mg/l to 244mg/l for rivers
within the Lake Victoria Basin. Chebet et al., (2020) recorded higher TDS comparable with the present study in the
range 69mg/l to 822mg/l for River Molo; which was above the WHO (2011) recommended value of 250mgl for
drinking water. Mbuthia (2015) recorded TDS values range 369.5±1.04 mg/l to 375±1.07 mg/l which exceeded
those from the current study but lower the recommended limits. TDS is not a health hazard although high levels may
indicate hard water which may lead to scale build up in pipes and aesthetic problems such as salty and bitter taste in
water (Mbui et al., 2016). The observed TDS were attributed to sewage contamination, runoff leachate from urban
centres and agricultural wastes into the River Riana. It has been further indicated that TDS refers to the sum total of
all components dissolved in water which include K+, Na+, Mg2+, SO42-, Cl-, PO43- and H2SiO42- (WHO, 2011).

Heavy metals in water

The results of the heavy metal concentrations reported during this study and the heavy metal monthly means and
ranges. In water (Table 2)

Table 2
Mean heavy metal monthly concentration and ranges (ppm) in River Riana water.
Sampling months

Heavy January February March April May June

metals
concentrat
ions
(ppm)
Pb 0.073±0.026 0.063±0.000 0.067±0.016 0.070±0.017 0.043±0.055 0.035±0.013
Range (0.035-0.106) (0.041-0.195) (0.068-0.089) (0.048-0.089) (0.031-052) (0.018-0.050)
Cr 0.008±0.001 0.007±0.002 0.006±0.001 0.004±0.002 0.003±0.002 0.003±0.002
Range (0.007-0.008) (0.004-0.009) (0.004-0.007) (<0.001-0.008) (<0.001-0.006) (0.001-0.003)

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Ni 0.050±0.006 0.128±0.135 0.102±0.019 0.014±0.000 0.025±0.006 0.022±0.006

Range (0.031-0.112) (0.026-0.320) (0.024-0.254) (0.014-0.041) (0.017-0.056) (0.014-0.018)
Mn 0.238±0.041 0.251±0.040 0.287±0.055 0.163±0.024 0.161±0.013 0.158±0.025
Range (0.176-0.277) (0.211-0.300) (0.210-0.351) (0.131-0.190) (0.156-0.184) (0.122-0.189)
Cu 0.198±0.078 0.252±0.089 0.217±0.078 0.188±0.051 0.159±0.002 0.186±0.070
Range (0.114-0.315) (0.205-0.370) (0.119-0.321) (0.125-0.251) (0.073-0.288) (0.130-0.226)
Zn 0.242±0.082 0.258±0.050 0.257±0.030 0.199±0.066 0.168±0.080 0.166±0.050
Range (0.132-0.326) (0.147-0.262) (0.179-0.309) 0.084-0.226 0.104-0.212 0.084-0.236

Lead (Pb) concentrations in water (ppm)

The monthly Pb concentration in the River Riana were in the range of (0.018-0.195ppm) and the Pb mean monthly
concentrations for all the months of the study period was higher the recommended limit of 0.01mg/l recommended
limit (WHO, 2011; KEBS, 2015). The determined Pb concentration equally exceeded 0.05mg/l recommended limit
(USEPA, 2006) except during the month of June 2021 when the Pb concentration was in the range (0.018-0.050ppm).
The observed Pb concentration exceeded Pb concentration (0.0003- 0.019 mg/l) and (0.001-0.013 mg/l) in water from
Avsar Dam Lake in Turkey and Nzhelele River, South Africa respectively ( Õztûrk et al., 2009; Edokpayi et al., 2017).
Reported Pb concentrations in water bodies in Kenya include Pb range from (0.57±0.09- 3.36±1.15 mg/l) and (0.004-
0.047mg/l) for water from river Kuywa Bungoma and Athi-Galana-Sabaki tributaries respectively (Wasike et al.,
2019; Muiruri et al. 2013); Pb mean concentration of 0.1mg/l for water samples from Nairobi River (Mbui et al.,
2016) and were all higher than the recommended limit of 0.01mg (WHO, 2011; KEBS. 2015). Higher Pb amounts in
the range 0.025mg/l to 0.563 mg/l for five Rift Valley lakes Ochieng et al., 2007) have been reported. The Pb
concentration in the water was attributed to surface runoff from garages and motor washing points, batteries, electrical
pigments, glass and paints (Fifield and Hainess, 2000) application of agrochemicals including pesticides, insecticides
and fertilizers, sewage contamination, urban and industrial wastes (Awofolu, 2005). Thus the water from the River
Riana was unsuitable for domestic use and human consumption. The mean variation of Pb concentration at different
sites along the river throughout the study period showed that Pb concentration increased from S2<S1<S3 (fig 2).

0.094

0.056

0.038

site 1 site 2 site 3

Lead concentration in water (mg/l)

Fig 2: Mean lead concentration in water at different sites

Chromium (Cr) concentrations in water (ppm)

The Cr concentration in the River Riana ranged between <0.001 to 0.008ppm while the Cr monthly average
concentrations for all the months of the study period was lower than the recommended limit of 0.05mg/l by (WHO,
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2011; KEBS, 2015). Thus, water from the River Riana was thus suitable for domestic uses and human consumption
with regard to Cr level in the river. The contamination of the river with Cr was attributed to sewage pollution,
contamination with fossil fuels, pesticides, fertilizers and discharges from untreated urban and industrial wastes
(Awofolu et al., 2005). The observed Cr concentration closely related Cr concentration in the range of (0.001- 0.012
mg/l) in water from Avsar Dam Lake in Turkey but was exceeded by Cr level (0.045-0.0.346 mg/l) observed in
Nzhelele River, South Africa (Õztûrk et al., 2009; Edokpayi et al., 2017). The current study was in agreement with
other studies including Cr concentration (0.02 mg/l) in Nairobi River (Mbui et al., 2016); Masinga Dam with Cr
concentration (0.006±0.004 mg/l) at Riakanau site (Nzeve et al., 2015). The present study compared closely with Cr
concentrations in the range (ND- 0.068mg/l) in the Athi-Galana-Sabaki tributaries, Kenya (Muiruri et al. 2013). The
observed Cr concentration in the river water was attributed pesticides and fungicides, solid wastes, wood
preservatives, pigments and fertilizers (Muiruri et al. 2013; Nzeve et al., 2015, Fifield and Hainess, 2000). The
variation of mean Cr concentration at different sites along the river throughout the study period showed that Ct
concentration increased from S2<S3<S1 (fig 3).

0.007

0.004

0.003

site 1 site 2 site 3

Chromium concentration in water (mg/l)

Fig. 3. Mean chromium concentration in River Riana at different sites

Nickel (Ni) concentration in water (ppm)

The range of Ni concentration (0.014-0.254ppm) in the River Riana and its monthly average concentrations in water
for all the months of the study period exceeded the recommended limit of 0.07mg/l (WHO, 2011) except for February
2021 with a mean concentration (0.063±0.00mg/l). However, the monthly Ni mean for all the months were lower
than KEBS recommended limit of 0.2mg/l (2015). Thus the water from the River Riana was safe from domestic uses
and human consumption according to the KEBS standards. Related studies in Lake Hayq, Ethiopia recorded Ni mean
concentration (0.018mg/l), lower than the permissible limit of 0.07mg/l for Ni in drinking water. (Tibebe et al., 2019).
Lower Ni concentration ranging from (0.0004- 0.014mg/l) in water from Avsar Dam Lake, Turkey (Õztûrk et al.
2009) and higher Ni concentrations (0.201-1.77mg/l) for River Tyume in South Africa (Awofolu, 2005) have been
reported. Related studies in Kenya have reported dissolved Ni concentrations (nd-54.1 µ/l) in water from Winam
Gulf; (Lalah et al., 2008); Ni concentrations ranging from (0.007-0.062mg/l) in water for Athi-Galana- Sabaki
tributaries (Muiruri et al. 2013); Ni concentration (<15-77µg/l) in water for River Thika (Moywaywa et al., 2022).
The presence of Ni was attributed to solid wastes fertilizers, battery and electrical pigments, paints, alloys and

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catalysts (Fifield and Hainess, 2000) The variation of mean Ni concentration at different sites along the river
throughout the study period showed that Ni concentration increased from S1<S2<S3 (fig 4).

0.131

0.024 0.024

site 1 site 2 site 3

Nickel concentration in water (mg/l)

Figure 4. Mean nickel in water at different sites during study period

Manganese (Mn) concentration in water (ppm)

The Mn concentration results (Table 2) obtained during the study period ranged between (0.014-0.277ppm) where
the Mn monthly mean concentrations for all the months of the study period were lower than the recommended limit
of 0.4mg/l (WHO, 2011) but exceeded the KEBS recommended limit of 0.10 mg/l (KEBS, 2015). Thus, water from
the River Riana was unsuitable for domestic uses and human consumption with regard to the Mn level in this water.
The contamination of the river with Mn was attributed to sewage pollution, fossil fuels, pesticides, fertilizers,
untreated urban and industrial wastes (Awofolu et al., 2005). In related studies recorded Mn mean level (0.08±
0.006ml/l) in water samples from river Gudillam, Tamilnadu India (Ambedkar et al. 2012). A number of authors have
reported Mn concentration in water bodies in Kenya including Masinga Dam (0.006±0.005mg/l) by (Nzeve et al.,
2015); higher Mn concentrations (0.533-1.087mg/l) in water samples from Athi-Galana- Sabaki tributaries (Muiruri
et al. 2013). Winam Gulf, Lake Victoria in the range 0.05 mg/l to 3.276mg/l (Lalah et al, .2008); Lake Kanyaboli,
Kenya (0.185-0.376mg/l) by (Ochieng et al, 2008); Rift Valley Lakes in the range of ( 0.50-0.282mg/l) by (Nyingi
et al., 2016) and River Thika (53-653µg/l) by (Moywaywa et al., 2022). The elevated Mn concentrations were
attributed to industrial effluents and solid wastes containing pigments and batteries, sewage contamination and agro-
chemicals such as fertilizers, The variation of mean Mn concentration at different sites along the river throughout the
study period exposed that Mn concentration increased from S2<S3<S1 (fig 5).

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0.243
0.230

0.167

site 1 site 2 site 3

Manganese concentration in water (mg/l)

Fig 5. Mean manganese concentrations in water at different sites

Copper (Cu) concentration in water (ppm)

The Cu concentration results during this study ranged from (0.073- 0.370 ppm) and the monthly mean Cu
concentrations for all the months of the study period which were lower than the recommended limits (Table 2) of
2.0mg/l and 1.0 respectively (WHO,2011; KEBS. 2015). The water from the River Riana was thus suitable for
domestic uses and human consumption with regard to the Cu level in this water. However this level was lower than
the Cu level (0.025-0.0.066 mg/l) observed in Nzhelele River, South Africa (Edokpayi et al., 2017).Similar studies
reported lower mean Cu concentration (0.50± 0.025ml/l) in water samples of for river Gadilam, Tamilnadu India
(Ambedkar et al. 2012). Authors in Kenya have reported similar Cu levels of 2.228 ppm in Nyakomisaro stream and
Cu concentrations in the range of (1.10±0.12-1.92±0.14mg/l) in River Kuywa, Bungoma (Omoko et al., 2013; Wasike
et al.,2020). Other studies recorded results with very close Cu concentration values in the range of (<10-343µg/l) for
water in River Thika (Moywaywa et al., 2022), but lower Cu concentrations were reported in Masinga Dam at various
sites including Riakanau (0.003±0.002 mg/l), Kathini (0.006±0.003 mg/l), Tumutumu (0.018±0.007 mg/l) and
Manyatta (0.019±0.003 mg/l) by (Nzeve et al., 2015). The observed Cu levels in present study were attributed to
surface runoffs with agrochemicals including fertilizers and pesticides, sewage discharge, urban solid waste
containing pigments, alloys and paints (Ambedkar et al. 2012; Fifield and Hainess, 2000). Thus there is need for
regular assessment and monitoring of the River Riana water to ascertain its quality and to assure both ecosystem and
human health. The variation of mean Cu concentration at different sites along the river throughout the study period
showed that Cu concentration increased from S2<S3<S1 (fig 6).

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0.273

0.159
0.144

site 1 site 2 site 3

Copper concentration in water (mg/l)

Fig 6. Copper (Cu) mean concentrations in water at different sites

Zinc (Zn) concentration in water (ppm)

The Zn concentration were presented in Table 2 with the Zn concentration ranged between (0.084-0.370 ppm ) and
the Zn monthly average concentrations for all the months of the study period were lower than the recommended limits
of 3.0mg/l and 5.0mg/l (WHO, 2011; KEBS, 2015). Thus, the water from the River Riana was suitable for domestic
uses and human consumption with regard to the Zn level in the water. Similar studies by other authors have recorded
lower mean Zn concentrations in water samples 0.10± 0.002ml/l for river Gadilam, Tamilnadu India (Ambedkar et
al. 2012). However, related studies have recorded Zn concentration in the range (0.042-0.131mg/l) in Nzhelele River,
South Africa lower than the current study (Edokpayi et al., 2017).. Similar studies in Kenya aquatic ecosystems
include Lake Kanyaboli (0.185-0.376mg/l) in Kenya (Ochieng et al., 2008) and Winam Gulf (0.025-0.2195mg/l) in
Lake Victoria (Lalah et al., 2008). Lower Zn concentrations have also been reported in Nyakomisaro stream through
Kisii town (0.141ppm) in Kenya (Omoko et al., 2013). Lake Baringo (0.01-0.31µ/ml) in Kenya (Nyingi et al., 2016)
and in water from River Thika (<22-325µg/l) in Kenya (Moywaywa et al., 2022). In related studies lower Zn
concentrations were reported in Masinga Dam: (0.108±0.018 mg/l) at Riakamau (0.092±0.013 mg/l) at Kathini,
(0.132±0.019 mg/l) at Tumutumu and (0.111±0.018 mg/l) at Mathauta sites (Nzeve et al., 2015). It has been noted
that water contaminated with Zn could be toxic to other aquatic fauna and poisonous to human consumers (Kisamo,
2003). The Zinc concentration observed was attributed to batteries, alloys, paints, pigments, sewage and urban
effluents. The variations mean Zn concentration at different sites along the river throughout the study period showed
that Zn concentration increased from S2<S3<S1 as shown in figure 7.

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0.265
0.231

0.127

site 1 site 2 site 3

Zinc concentration in water (mg/l)

Fig 7. Mean Zinc Concentration in Water at different sites

Heavy metals in sediments

Currently, Kenya does not have sediment quality guidelines (SQGs) for heavy metal concentrations in freshwater
sediments and therefore WHO (2008) SQGs for freshwater sediment were employed in this study. The determined
heavy metal sediment concentration results during the study period were provided in Table 3. The WHO (2008)
sediment heavy metal recommended limits for were: Pb (35mg/kg), Ni (65mg/kg), Cr (37.5 mg/kg), Zn (123 mg/kg)
and Cu (30 mg/kg). Mn sediment limit concentration is not provided by WHO (2011). However, higher accumulation
Mn could be directly detrimental to the health of the aquatic ecosystems and indirectly to man and sediments could

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be a contributing source of heavy metals in water hence constant assessment and monitoring was recommended
(Awofolu et al., 2005).

Lead (Pb) concentration in sediments (ppm)

The determined range in Pb concentration (0.041- 9.74 ppm) in sediments (Table 3) during this study and its monthly
Pb average concentrations for all the months of the study period were lower than the WHO recommended sediment
guideline of 35mg/kg (WHO, 2008). In related studies by other authors recorded Pb concentrations (1.775-
4.157mg/kg) in sediments for Mvudi River in South Africa (Edokpayi et al., 2016) and also Pb concentrations in the
range (0.248-2.71 mg/kg) was observed in Nzhelele River, South Africa (Edokpayi et al., 2017). Closely related to
the current study, Pb concentration in the range (0.64- 6.35 mg/l) in sediments was determined for Avsar Dam Lake
in Turkey (Õztûrk et al., 2009). Other studies have reported sediment Pb concentration for Masinga Dam, Kenya in

Table 3

Heavy metals levels in sediments (ppm) during the study period

Sampling months

Heavy
metals January February March April May June
concentratio
ns (ppm)
Pb 1.69±3.27 1.08±1.23 5.74±3.02 1.48±0.319 1.342±0.509 1.334±1.02
Range (1.45-3.27) (0.041-2.63) (1.26-8.74) (1.00-1.76) (0.973-206) (0.662-2.500)

Cr 0.005±0.002 0.46±0.055 0.006±0.078 0.065±0.078 0.606±0.852 0.084±0.118

Range (0.002-0.007) (0.007-0.129) (0.003-0.177) (0.001-0.176) (0.004-1.81) (0.003-0.242)
Ni 3.94±0.943 4.47±1.74 3.45±1.157 3.51±0.978 6.19±1.78 8.918±1.455
Range (2.45-4.59) (1.48-5.48) (1.45-4.36) (2.13-4.33) (3.78-6.44) (1.780-9.740)

Mn 413±141.41 405.3±160.61 368.32±153.68 478.00±166.36 467±105.85 452.0±140.04

Range (383-610) (268-630) (245—585) (206-693) (329-586) (256-574)
Cu 466±1.25 4.98±1.10 5.44±2.711 13.75±1.89 5.117±2.289 6.173±3.950
Range (4.33-6.34) (4.77-5.94) (2.46-9.02) (1.35-5.45) (3.34-8.30) (3.330-9.740)

Zn 13.88±3,371 10.45±3.12 10.083±3.84 6.52±2.04 12.303±1.75 10.118±1.27

Range (8.46-15.67) (6.37-14.4) (6.42-15.5) (3.56-8.56) (9.76-14.45) (9.02-11.90)

the range (11.14-14.47 mg/kg), which exceeded results from the current study, but lower than the WHO recommended
limit (Nzeve et al., 2014). Similarly, lower Pb sediment concentration in the range (32-177µg/l) was reported in River
Thika (Moywaywa et al., 2022) than the current study. Higher Pb concentrations in sediments than the current study
have been reported in Kenyan aquatic systems including Rift Valley Lakes in the range (10.92-38.98 mg/kg); Lake
Kanyaboli (11.42-153.90 mg/kg) and of Winam Gulf in Lake Victoria (3.09-66.05 mg/kg) (Ochieng et al.,
2007;Ochieng et al., 2008; Tole and Shitsama, 2013). The presence of Pb level in sediments was attributed to
atmospheric deposition, solid wastes containing battery wastes, paints and pigments, pesticides and insecticides,
industrial effluents, fossil fuels from transportation vehicles. The variation of Pb mean concentration in sediments at

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different sites along the river throughout the study period showed that Pb concentration increased from S2<S1<S3
(fig 8)

2.587

1.526

0.804

site 1 site 2 site 3

Lead concentration in sediments (ppm)

Fig 8. Variation in mean lead (Pb) concentration in sediments at different sites

Chromium (Cr) concentration in sediments (ppm)

The results (Table 3) indicated the determined range Cr concentration in sediments were in the range (0.001- 1.81
ppm) and its monthly Cr average concentrations for all the months of the study period were also lower than the WHO
(2008) recommended sediment limit of 37.5mg/kg. However, sediments have the capacity to accumulate more heavy
metals with time and mobilize them back to water and food chain (WHO, 2011). Thus the need for constant
monitoring and assessment of sediments from this river was proposed to ensure ecosystem safety. Compared to the
present study, very high sediment Cr mean concentration (9500 ppm) has been reported in the Wadi Hanifah, Saudi
Arabia (Abdel-Baki et al., 2011). Relatively higher Cr concentration in the range (9.41-19.9 mg/l) sediments than the
current study determined for Avsar Dam Lake in Turkey (Ozturk et al., 2009). In similar studies sediment Cr
concentrations in the range (44.23- 149.52mg/kg) for Mvudi River in South Africa were recorded (Edokpayi et al.
2016) and also sediment Cr level in the range (7.804-51.288mg/kg) in Nzhelele River, South Africa was recorded
(Edokpayi et al., 2017). Similarly, higher mean Cr concentrations (44.23-49.62mg/kg) in sediment samples than the
recommended limit for Masinga Dam in Kenya have been reported (Nzeve et al., 2014). Comparable to this study
lower Cr sediment concentration (2.92-5.36µg/g) dry weight was recorded for heavy metal inputs into Winam Gulf,
Kenya (Lalah et al., 2008). Other authors have reported lower Cr sediment concentrations (0-25.89mg/kg) than the
WHO recommended limit for rivers in Lake Victoria Basin have been reported (Ondiere et al., 2017). The observed
Cr concentration in sediments in this study was attributed to pigments, fertilizers and industrial wastes containing
textile wastes into the river (Fifield and Hainess, 2000). The variation of Cr mean concentration in sediments at

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different sampling sites along the river during the study period showed that Cr concentration increased from
S2<S1<S3 (fig 9).

0.151

0.006 0.004

site 1 site 2 site 3

Chromium concentration in sediments (ppm)

Fig 9: Mean chromium (Cr) concentration in sediments at different sites

Nickel (Ni) concentration in sediments (ppm)
The results (Table 3) specify the determined Ni concentration range (1.45-9.74 ppm) in sediments where its monthly
Ni mean concentrations of the study period were lower than the WHO (2008) sediment recommended limit
(65mg/kg). Although the Ni sediment concentration was lower than the recommended limit, sediments have the
capacity to accumulate heavy metals gradually and mobilize them in the water and food chains (WHO, 2011), hence
the need for continuous assessment the river sediments for heavy metals to ensure River Riana ecosystem safety.
Other authors have reported lower sediments Ni concentrations from Athi River with a peak of 0.01912 ppm, lower
than the current study (Kosgey et al., 2015). Relatively higher sediments Ni concentration (10.8- 39.4 mg/l) in
sediments than the current study was determined for Avsar Dam Lake, Turkey (Õztûrk et al., 2009). Parallel studies
recorded relatively lower Ni concentration in sediment at Winam Gulf where sediment Ni concentration in the range
(4.33-42.99 µg/g) was recorded meaning that sediments were not Ni polluted (Lalah et al., 2008). Similar results with
lower sediment Ni concentration (68-172µg/l) was reported in River Thika (Moywaywa et al., 2022). Nickel can
cause allergic reactions and certain Ni compounds may be carcinogenic. Nevertheless, Ni related health effects such
as renal, cardiovascular, reproductive and immunological effects have been reported in man (Salnikow and Denkhans,
2002). The presence of Ni in sediments in this study was attributed to fertilizers, pesticides, paints batteries and
electrical pigments catalysts and solid wastes (Fifield and Hainess, 2000). The mean variations of Ni mean

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concentration in sediments at different sites along the river throughout the study period showed that Ni concentration
increased from S2<S1<S3 (fig 10).

4.590

3.847

3.112

site 1 site 2 site 3

Nickel concentration in sediments (ppm)

Fig 10: Mean Nickel (Ni) in sediments at different sites

Manganese (Mn) concentration in sediments (ppm)

The results (Table 3) indicate the determined mean sediment Mn concentration range (206-693 ppm). Manganese
sediment limit is not documented in larger amounts (WHO, 2011). Compared to other studies, this was lower than
the Mn sediments concentrations range (279-1638 mg/kg) for Mvudi River in South Africa (Edokpayi et al., 2016).
Related studies in Kenya exposed high Mn sediment concentration that was very close to the current study in Masinga
Dam in the range (259.12-642.34 mg/kg (Nzeve et al., 2014). Parallel studies have recorded similar high Mn
concentrations in Winam Gulf, Lake Victoria in the range (133-723.7mg/kg) by (Lalah et al., 2008). The high
concentrations of Mn in sediments in the study area was attributed to application of agrochemicals including
fertilizers, sewage contamination natural geology, urban solid waste dumping on the river banks at specific points.
There is need for periodic assessment of the river ecosystem including pollution of sediments with heavy metal
because sediments have the capacity to accumulate heavy metals and gradually mobilize them in the water and food
chains (WHO, 2011). Thus the need for periodic assessment of the river for heavy metals. The variation of Mn mean
concentration in sediments at different sites along the river throughout the study period showed that Mn concentration
increased from S2<S1<S3 (fig10). Very high Mn concentration at Riana market (site S3) was attributed to fertilizers
and sewage contamination from Suneka Sewage Treatment works

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613.000

386.833
293.500

site 1 site 2 site 3

Manganese concentration in sediments (ppm)

Fig 11: Variation in mean manganese (Mn) concentration in sediments at different sites

Copper (Cu) concentrations in sediments ppm

The determined range (Table 2) for sediments Cu concentration (1.35-9.74 ppm) in during the period study and the
monthly Cu average concentrations for all the months of the study period were lower than the WHO recommended
sediment limit of 65mg/kg (WHO, 2008). Similar studies recorded Cu concentrations (13.22- 1027mg/kg) in
sediments for Mvudi River in South Africa (Edokpayi et al., 2016). Relatively higher Cu sediments concentrations
(18.8- 38.4 mg/l) than the current study was determined for Avsar Dam Lake, Turkey (Õztûrk et al., 2009).
Comparable results of mean Cu sediment concentrations (1.46-20.85 mg/kg) in surface sediments have been reported
for the five Rift Valley Lakes in Kenya (Ochieng et al., 2007). Winam Gulf of Lake Victoria, Kenya (3.90-150.2
mg/kg) has been reported (Lalah et al., 2008); similarly in River Thika lower sediment Cu concentration (51-115µg/l)
was recorded by (Moywaywa et al., 2022); in Lake Elmentaita in Kenya sediment Cu concentration (2.93±0.66-
134.07±27.05mg/kg) was reported by (Ondiere et al., 2017); also in Masinga Dam Cu level (11.38±2.77-23.38±6.54
mg/kg) in water was determined (Nzeve et al. 2014). Whereas the Cu sediment concentration was lower than the
recommended sediments limit in the present study, sediments have the capacity to accumulate heavy metals including
Cu and mobilize them in the water and food chains (WHO, 2011). The presence of Cu in sediments in this study was
attributed to batteries and electrical pigments, fertilizers, pesticides, paints catalysts and solid wastes (Fifield and
Hainess, 2000). The variation of Cu mean concentration in sediments at different sites along the river throughout the
study period showed that Cu concentration increased from S1<S3<S2 (fig11). Relatively high Cu concentration in

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sediment at Nyamataro Bridge (site S1) was mainly attributed to anthropogenic activities including solid wastes and
pesticides.

7.215

4.500

3.087

site 1 site 2 site 3

Copper concentration in sediments (ppm)

Fig 12: Mean copper (Cu) concentration in sediments at different sites

Zinc (Zn) concentrations in sediments ppm

The Table 3 expresses the determined mean Zn concentrations in the range (3.56-16.67 ppm) during this study and
its mean monthly concentrations were lower than the WHO recommended sediment limit of 123mg/kg (WHO, 2008).
Similar studies recorded Zn concentrations (4.481- 39.58mg/kg) in sediments for Mvudi River in South Africa
(Edokpayi et al., 2016) and also sediment Zn level in the range (2.605-202 mg/kg) in Nzhelele River, South Africa
was recorded (Edokpayi et al., 2017). Higher sediment Zn concentrations in the range (60.04±25.633-75.84± 27.684
mg/kg) was reported for Masinga reservoir (Nzeve et al., 2014). Other studies recorded higher sediment Zn levels in
the range (23.39- 350.80 mg/kg) in some sites for Winam Gulf in Lake Victoria, Kenya (Tole and Shitsama, 2013),.
Similar parallel studies reported lower Zn concentration (153-432µg/l) in sediments in River Thika (Moywaywa et
al., 2022).The sources of Zn concentrations could be from a number of alloys including brass and bronze batteries,
pesticides. Fertilizers, batteries, glass, electrical pigments and plastics (Akan et al., 2010; Fifield and Hainess, 2000).
While the Zn sediment concentration was lower than the recommended limit in this study, sediments have the capacity
to accumulate heavy metals gradually and mobilize them in the water and food chains (WHO, 2011). Thus the need
for sustainable assessment and monitoring of the river to maintain ecosystem and human health was suggested. The
variation of Zn mean concentration in sediments at different sites along the river throughout the study period showed
that Zn concentration increased from S2<S1<S3 (fig 13). The high Zn concentration at Riana market (site S3) was
attributed to fertilizers and sewage contamination from Suneka Sewage Treatment works

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12.260
10.968

8.275

site 1 site 2 site 3

Zink concentration in sediments (ppm)

Fig 13: Mean Zinc (Zn) concentration in sediments at different sites

Conclusions and Recommendations

The study revealed presence of the investigated heavy metals in both water and sediments in River Riana. The
monthly mean concentrations of heavy metals Cu and Zn were within the WHO and KEBS drinking water
recommended limits. The mean monthly concentration for heavy metals Cr, Ni met the KEBS drinking water criteria
in all the months of the study period. The Mn monthly average values never exceeded WHO drinking water criteria
in all the months of the study period for water samples obtained from the River. The average monthly concentrations
for the heavy metals in surface water for the River decreased in the order: Mn>Zn>Cu>Pb>Ni.>Cr. All the
investigated heavy metals met the WHO sediment quality guidelines for the River. Thus contamination of both water
and sediments was a strong indication of anthropogenic activities hence the study recommended regular monitoring
and assessment of the river water and sediments to ensure sustainable environmental and human health.

5.0 Acknowledgement
Our acknowledgement goes to Rongo University for providing part of the research facilities and the Kericho
Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) for providing most of the instruments used and for
allowing us to use their laboratories and equipment in heavy metal analysis, Many thanks to NACOSTI and the Kisii

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County Commissioner for providing permission to carry out sample collection from the River Riana and the Icons
Research institute in Kisii for providing IT support during our research.
Competing interests
Authors declare that there are no known conflicts of interest associated with the work reported in this this paper.

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