SPECIAL SENSES DR. ENOW DERICK T.
, MD
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CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL AFRICA (CUCA)
BSN 111: LIFE SCIENCES
By
ENOW DERICK T., MD
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The Senses
General senses
Temperature- thermoreceptors (heat)
Touch (tactile)
Pressure- mechanoreceptors (movement)
Pain- mechanoreceptors
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The Senses
Special senses
Smell- chemoreceptors (chemicals)
Taste- chemoreceptors
Sight- photoreceptors (light)
Hearing- mechanoreceptors
Equilibrium- (balance) mechanoreceptors 7
The Eye and Vision
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The Eye and Vision
70 percent of all sensory receptors are
in the eyes
Each eye has over 1 million nerve fibers
Protection for the eye:
Most of the eye is enclosed in a bony orbit
made up of the lacrimal (medial), ethmoid (posterior),
sphenoid (lateral), frontal (superior), and zygomatic
and maxilla (inferior)
A cushion of fat surrounds most of the eye
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Accessory Structures of the Eye
1. Eyelids- brush
particles out of
eye or cover eye
2. Eyelashes-
trap particles
and keep them
out of the eye
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Accessory Structures of the Eye
3. Ciliary glands
–
modified
sweat glands
between the
eyelashes- secrete
acidic sweat to kill
bacteria, lubricate
eyelashes
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Accessory Structures of the Eye
4. Conjunctiva:
Membrane that lines the eyelids
Connects to the surface of the eye- forms a
seal
Secretes mucus to lubricate the eye
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CONJUNCTIVITIS
- Inflammation of the conjunctiva
- Caused by bacterial or viral infection
- Highly contagious
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Accessory Structures of the Eye
5. Lacrimal apparatus
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Accessory Structures of the Eye: Lacrimal Apparatus
Lacrimal gland – produces lacrimal fluid
Lacrimal canals – drains lacrimal fluid from
eyes
Lacrimal sac – provides passage of lacrimal
fluid towards nasal cavity
Nasolacrimal duct – empties lacrimal fluid
into the nasal cavity
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Function of the Lacrimal Apparatus
Properties of lacrimal fluid
Dilute salt solution (tears)
Contains antibodies (fight antigens- foreign
substance) and lysozyme (enzyme that
destroys bacteria)
Protects, moistens, and lubricates the
eye
Empties into the nasal cavity
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Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Muscles attach to the outer surface of the eye
Produce eye movements
Maintain the shape of the eyeball and hold it
to the orbit
There are 4 straight (rectus) muscle and 2
oblique muscle
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Extrinsic Eye Muscles
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When Extrinsic Eye Muscles Contract
Superior oblique- eyes look out and down
Superior rectus- eyes looks up
Lateral rectus- eyes look outward
Medial rectus- eyes look inward
Inferior rectus- eyes looks down
Inferior oblique- eyes look in and up
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Intrinsic Eye Muscles
Ciliary muscle and the iris (circular and
radial muscles)
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Structure of the Eye
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Structure of the Eye
The wall is composed of three tunics
Fibrous tunic –
outside layer
Choroid –
middle
layer
Sensory
tunic –
inside
layer
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The Fibrous Tunic
Sclera:
White connective tissue layer
Seen anteriorly as the “white of the eye”
Semi-transparent
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The Fibrous Tunic
Cornea:
Transparent, central anterior portion
Allows for light to pass through (refracts, or
bends, light slightly)
Repairs itself easily
The only human tissue that can be
transplanted without fear of rejection
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Choroid Layer
Blood-rich nutritive tunic
Pigment prevents light from scattering
(opaque- blocks light from getting in,
has melanin)
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Choroid Layer
Modified interiorly into two structures
Cilliary body – smooth muscle (contracts
to adjust the shape of the lens)
Iris- pigmented layer that gives eye color
(contracts to adjust the size of the pupil-
regulates entry of light into the eye)
Pupil – rounded opening in the iris
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Sensory Tunic (Retina)
Contains receptor cells (photoreceptors)
Rods
Cones
Signals leave the retina toward the brain
through the optic nerve
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Sensory Tunic (Retina)
Signals pass from photoreceptors via a
two-neuron chain
Bipolar neurons and Ganglion cells
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VISUAL PIGMENTS
Rhodopsin- visual purple, in high concentration in RODS
-Composed of opsin and retinal (a derivative of
vitamin A) proteins
-When light hits the protein it “bleaches”- turns yellow
and then colorless. It straightens out and breaks down
into opsin and retinal.
There are three different other opsins beside rhodopsin,
with absorption for yellowish-green (photopsin I), green
(photopsin II), and bluish-violet (photopsin III) light.
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Neurons of the Retina and Vision
Rods:
Most are found towards the edges of the
retina
Allow dim light vision and peripheral vision
(more sensitive to light, do not respond in
bright light)
Perception is all in gray tones
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ROD CELLS
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Neurons of the Retina and Vision
Cones:
Allow for detailed color vision
Densest in the center of the retina
Fovea centralis – area of the retina with
only cones
Respond best in bright light
No photoreceptor cells are at the
optic disk, or blind spot
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Cone Sensitivity
There are three types
of cones
Different cones are
sensitive to different
wavelengths -
red- long -
green- medium -
blue- short
Color blindness is the
result of lack of one
or more cone type
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How do we see?
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COLORBLINDNESS
•Comes from a lack of one
- An inherited trait that or more types of color
is transferred on the receptors.
sex chromosomes (23rd •Most are green or red or
pair)- sex-linked trait both and that is due to a
- Occurs more often in lack of red receptors.
males •Another possibility is to
- Can not be cured or have the color receptors
corrected missing entirely, which
would result in black and
white vision.
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Lens
Biconvex crystal-
like structure
Held in place by
a suspensory
ligament
attached to the
ciliary body
Refracts light
greatly
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Internal Eye Chamber Fluids
Aqueous humor Refracts light
slightly
Watery fluid found in
chamber between the
lens and cornea
Similar to blood plasma
Helps maintain
intraocular pressure
Provides nutrients for
the lens and cornea
Reabsorbed into
venous blood through
the canal of Schlemm 39
Internal Eye Chamber Fluids
Vitreous humor
Refracts light
Gel-like substance behind the lens slightly
Keeps the eye from collapsing Holds lens and
retina in place
Lasts a lifetime and is not replaced
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Lens Accommodation
Light must be focused to a
point on the retina for
optimal vision
The eye is set for distance
vision
(over 20 ft away)
20/20 vision- at 20 feet,
you see what a normal eye
would see at 20 feet
(20/100- at 20, normal
person would see at 100)
The lens must change
shape to focus for closer
objects 41
MYOPIA
Nearsightedness, or myopia is the difficulty of
seeing objects at a distance.
Myopia occurs when the
eyeball is slightly longer
than usual from front to
back. This causes light
rays to focus at a point
in front of the retina,
rather than directly on
its surface.
Concave lenses are
used to correct the
problem.
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HYPEROPIA
Hyperopia, or
farsightedness, is
when light
entering the eye
focuses behind the
retina.
Hyperoptic eyes
are shorter than
normal.
Hyperopia is
treated using a
convex lens. 43
Images Formed on the Retina
If the image is focused at the spot where the
optic disk is located, nothing will be seen.
This is known as the blind spot. There are
no photoreceptors there, as nerves and blood
vessels pass through this point.
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Visual Pathway
Photoreceptors of the
retina
Optic nerve
Optic nerve crosses at
the optic chiasma
Optic tracts
Thalamus (axons form
optic radiation)
Visual cortex of the
occipital lobe
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Eye Reflexes
Internal muscles are controlled by the
autonomic nervous system
Bright light causes pupils to constrict
through action of radial (iris) and ciliary
muscles
Viewing close objects causes
accommodation
External muscles control eye movement
to follow objects- voluntary, controlled at
the frontal eye field
Viewing close objects causes 46
EYE PATHOLOGIES
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The Ear
Houses two senses
Hearing (interpreted in the auditory
cortex of the temporal lobe)
Equilibrium (balance) (interpreted in the
cerebellum)
Receptors are mechanoreceptors
Different organs house receptors for
each sense
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Anatomy of the Ear
The ear is divided into three areas
Outer
(external)
ear
Middle
ear
Inner
ear
(Add C. “INNER
EAR” to notes)
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The External Ear
Involved in
hearing only
Structures of
the external ear
Pinna (auricle)-
collects sound
External
auditory canal-
channels
sound inward
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The External Auditory Canal
Narrow chamber in the temporal bone-
through the external auditory meatus
Lined with skin
Ceruminous (wax) glands are present
Ends at the tympanic membrane
(eardrum)
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The Middle Ear or Tympanic Cavity
Air-filled cavity within the temporal bone
Only involved in the sense of hearing
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The Middle Ear or Tympanic Cavity
Two tubes are associated with the inner
ear
The opening from the auditory canal is
covered by the tympanic membrane
(eardrum)
The auditory tube connecting the middle ear
with the throat (also know as the eustacian
tube)
Allows for equalizing pressure during yawning
or swallowing
This tube is otherwise collapsed
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Bones of the Tympanic Cavity
Three bones
span the cavity
Malleus
(hammer)
Incus (anvil)
Stapes (stirrip)
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Bones of the Tympanic Cavity
Vibrations from
eardrum move
the malleus
These bones
transfer sound
to the inner ear
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Inner Ear or Bony Labyrinth
Also known as
osseous labyrinth-
twisted bony
tubes
Includes sense
organs
for hearing and
balance
Filled with
perilymph 58
Inner Ear or Bony Labyrinth
http://www.neurophys.wisc.edu/h&b/auditory/animation/animationmain.html
Vibrations of the stapes push and pull
on the membranous oval window, moving
the perilymph through the cochlea. The
round window is a membrane at the
opposite end to relieve pressure. 59
Inner Ear or Bony Labryinth
A maze of bony chambers within the
temporal bone
Cochlea
Upper chamber
is the scala
vestibuli
Lower chamber
is the scala
tympani
Vestibule
Semicircular
canals 60
Organ of Corti
Located within the cochlea
Receptors = hair cells on the basilar membrane
Scala vestibuli
Scala tympani 61
Organ of Corti
Gel-like tectorial membrane is capable of
bending hair cells (endolymph in the
membranous labyrinth of the cochlear duct
flows over it and pushes on the membrane)
Scala vestibuli
Scala tympani 62
Organs of Hearing
Organ of Corti
Cochlear nerve attached to hair cells
transmits nerve impulses to auditory cortex
on temporal lobe
Scala vestibuli
Scala tympani 63
Mechanisms of Hearing
Vibrations from
sound waves
move tectorial
membrane (pass
through the
endolymph fluid
filling the
membranous
labyrinth in the
cochlear duct)
Hair cells are bent
by the membrane 64
Mechanisms of Hearing
An action potential
starts in the cochlear
nerve
The signal is
transmitted to the
midbrain (for
auditory reflexes
and then directed to
the auditory cortex
of the temporal
lobe)
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Mechanisms of Hearing
Continued stimulation can lead
to adaptation (over
stimulation to the brain
makes it stop interpreting
the sounds)
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Organs of Equilibrium
Receptor cells are in two structures
Vestibule
Semicircular canals
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Organs of Equilibrium
Equilibrium has two functional parts
Static equilibrium- in the vestibule
Dynamic equilibrium- in the semicircular
canals
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Static Equilibrium
Maculae –
receptors in
the vestibule
Report on
the position
of the head
Send
information
via the
vestibular
nerve
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Static Equilibrium
Anatomy of
the maculae
Hair cells are
embedded in
the otolithic
membrane
Otoliths (tiny
stones) float in
a gel around
the hair cells
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Function of Maculae
Movements cause otoliths to bend
the hair cells (gravity moves the
“rocks” over and pulls the hairs)
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Dynamic Equilibrium
Whole structure is the
ampulla
Crista ampullaris –
receptors in the
semicircular canals
Tuft of hair cells
Cupula (gelatinous cap)
covers the hair cells
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Dynamic Equilibrium
Action of angular head
movements
The cupula stimulates the hair
cells
Movement of endolymph
pushes the
cupula over
and pulls the
hairs
An impulse is
sent via the
vestibular nerve
to the cerebellum 74
DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM STRUCTURES
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Chemical Senses – Taste and
Smell
Both senses use chemoreceptors
Stimulated by chemicals in solution
Taste has four types of receptors
Smell can differentiate a large range of
chemicals
Both senses complement each other
and respond to many of the same
stimuli
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Olfaction – The Sense of Smell
Olfactory receptors are in the roof of the nasal
cavity
Neurons with long cilia
Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus for
detection
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Olfaction – The Sense of Smell
Impulses are transmitted via the olfactory nerve
Interpretation of smells is made in the cortex
(olfactory area of temporal lobe)
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The Sense of Taste
Taste buds
house the
receptor
organs
Location of
taste buds
Most are on
the tongue
Soft palate
Cheeks
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The Tongue and Taste
The tongue is covered
with projections called
papillae
Filiform papillae – sharp
with no taste buds
Fungifiorm papillae –
rounded with taste buds
Circumvallate papillae –
large papillae with taste
buds
Taste buds are found on
the sides of papillae 84
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Structure of Taste Buds
Gustatory cells are the receptors
Have gustatory hairs (long microvilli)
Hairs are stimulated by chemicals dissolved
in saliva
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Structure of Taste Buds
Impulses are carried to
the gustatory complex
(pareital lobe) by
several cranial nerves
because taste buds are
found in different areas
Facial nerve
Glossopharyngeal nerve
Vagus nerve
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Taste Sensations
Sweet receptors
Sugars
Saccharine
Some amino acids
Sour receptors
Acids
Bitter receptors
Alkaloids
Salty receptors
Metal ions
Umami
Glutamate, aspartate
(MSG, meats) 90
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Developmental Aspects of the
Special Senses
Formed early in embryonic development
Eyes are outgrowths of the brain
All special senses are functional at birth
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