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DESIGN, APPLICATION
DEVELOPMENT, & ADMINISTRATION

MICHAEL MANNINO 7e
CONTENTS

Part I INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE ENVIRONMENTS 1

1 Introduction to Database Management 3

Leaming Objectives 3
Overview 3
1.1 Database Characteristics 4
1.2 Features of Database Management Systems 6
1.2.1 Database Definition 6
1.2.2 Nonprocedural Access 7
1.2.3 Application Development and Procedural Language Interface 8
1.2.4 Features to Support Database Operations 9
1.2.5 Third -Party Features 10
1.3 Development of Database Technology and Market Structure 10
1.3.1 Evolution of Database Technology 11
1.3.2 Cu rrent Market for Database Software 12
1.4 Architectures of Database Management Systems 13
1.4.1 Data Independence and the Three Schema Architecture 13
1.4.2 Parallel and Distributed Database Processing 15
1.5 Organizational Impacts of Database Technology 17
1.5.1 Interacting with Da tabases 18
1.5.2 Managing Data Resources in Organizations 19
Closing 111oughts 20
Review Concepts 21
Questions 21
Problems 23
References for Further Study 23

2 Introduction to Database Development 25

Leaming Objectives 25
Overview 25
2.1 Information Systems 26
2.1.1 Components of Information Systen15 26
2.1.2 Information Systen1s Developmen t Process 26
2.2 Goals of Database Development 28
2.2.1 Develop a Comn1on Vocabulary 28
2.2.2 Define the Meaning of Data 29
2.2.3 Ensure Data Quality 29
2.2.4 Find an Efficient In1plen1entation 30
2.3 Database Development Process 30
2.3.1 Phases of Database Development 30
2.3.2 Skills in Da tabase Development 34

vii
viii Contents

2.4 Tools for Database Development 35

2.4.1 Diagramming 35
2.4.2 Documen tation 36
2.4.3 Ana lysis 36
2.4.4 Prototyping Tools 36
2.4.5 Comn1ercial CASE Tools 37
Closing Thoughts 40
Review Concepts 41
Questions 42
Problems 43
References for Further Study 43

Part II UNDERSTANDING RELATIONAL DATABASES 45

3 The Relational Data Model 47

Leaming Objectives 47
Overview 47
3.1 Basic Elements 48
3.1.1 Tables 48
3.1.2 Connections am ong Tables 49
3.1.3 Alternative Terminology 51
3.2 Integrity Rules 51
3.2.1 Definition of the Integrity Rules 51
3.2.2 Application of the Integrity Rules 52
3.2.3 Graphical Representation of Referential Integrity 56
3.3 Delete and Update Actions for Referenced Rows 57
3.4 Operators of Relational Algebra 59
3.4.1 Restrict (Select) and Project O pera tors 59
3.4.2 Extended Cross Prod uct Operator 60
3.4.3 Join Opera tor 61
3.4.4 Outer Join Operator 63
3.4.5 U nion, Intersection, and Difference Opera tors 66
3.4.6 Sumn1arize Operator 68
3.4.7 Divide O pera tor 69
3.4.8 Sumn1ary of O perators 70
C/osing111oughts 71
Review Concepts 71
Qu estions 72
Problems 73
References for Further Study 76
Appendix 3.A: CREATE TA BLE Statements for the University Database Tables ONLINE
Appendix 3.B: SQL:2016 Syntax Summary ONLINE
Appendix 3.C: Generation of Unique Values for Primary Keys ONLINE

4 Que!)' Formulation with SQ L 77

Leaming Objectives 77
Overview 77
4.1 Background 78
4.1.1 Brief History of SQL 78
4.1.2 Scope of SQL 79
4.2 Getting Started with the SELECT Statement 80
4.2.1 Single Table Problen1s 83
4.2.2 Joining Tables 91
 Contents ix

4.2.3 Sumn1arizing Tables with GROUP BY and HAVING 93

4.2.4 Improving the Appearance of Results 97
4.3 Conceptual Evaluation Process for SELECT Statements 99
4.4 Critical Questions for Query Formul ation 104
4.5 Refining Query Formulation Skills with Examples 105
4.5.1 Joining Multiple Tables w ith the Cross Product Style 105
4.5.2 Joining Multiple Tables w ith the Join Operator Style 109
4.5.3 Self-Joins and Multiple Joins between Two Tables 112
4.5.4 Combining Joins and Grouping 114
4.5.5 Trad itiona l Set Operators in SQL 115
4.6 SQL Modification Statements 117
4.7 Query Formul ation Errors and Coding Practices 120
Closing111.oughts 124
Review Concepts 125
Questions 128
Problems 130
References for Further Study 140
Appendix 4.A: SQL:2016 Syntax Summary ONLINE
Appendix 4.B: Syntax Differences among Major DBMS Products ONLINE

Part Ill DATA MODELING 141

5 Understanding Entity Relationship Diagrams 143

Leaming Objectives 143
Overview 143
5.1 Introduction to Entity Relationship Diagrams 144
5.1.1 Basic Syn1bols 144
5.1.2 Relationship Card inality 145
5.1.3 Comparison to Relationa l Database Diagrams 147
5.2 Understanding Relationships 147
5.2.1 Identification Dependency (Weak Entity Types and Identifying Relationships) 147
5.2.2 Relationship Patterns 148
5.2.3 Equivalence between 1-M and M-N Relationships 152
5.3 Classification in the Entity Relationship Model 153
5.3.1 Generalization Hierarchies 153
5.3.2 Disjointness and Completeness Constraints 154
5.3.3 Multiple Levels of Generalization 154
5.4 Notation Summary and Diagram Rules 155
5.4.1 Notation Sumn1ary 155
5.4.2 Diagran1 Ru les 157
5.5 Comparison to Other Notations 160
5.5.1 Range of ERO Variations in Data Modeling Tools 160
5.5.2 ERO Notation in Aqua Data Stud io 161
5.5.3 ERO Notation in Oracle SQL Developer 163
5.5.4 Entity Relationship Stencil in Visio Professional 164
5.5.5 ERO Notation in Visual Paradigm 165
5.5.6 Class Diagran1 Notation of the Unified Modeling Language 165
Closing 111oughts 168
Review Concepts 169
Questions 169
Problems 171
References for Further Study 177
x Contents

6 Developing Data Models for Business Databases 179

Leaming Objectives 179
Overview 179
6.1 Analyzing Business Data Modeling Problems 180
6.1.1 Guidelines for Analyzing Business Inform ation Needs 180
6.1.2 Ana lysis of Problem Narrative for the Water Utility Da tabase 182
6.2 Refinements to an ERD 185
6.2.1 Expand ing Attributes 185
6.2.2 Splitting Compound Attributes 185
6.2.3 Expand ing Entity Types 185
6.2.4 Transforming a Wea k Entity Type into a Strong Entity Type 187
6.2.5 Add ing History 188
6.2.6 Add ing Generaliza tion Hierarchies 190
6.2.7 Surnn1ary of Transformations 191
6.3 Finalizing an ERD 192
6.3.1 Documenting an ERO 193
6.3.2 Detecting Common Design Errors 194
6.4 Converting an ERD to a Table Design 197
6.4.1 Basic Conversion Rules 197
6.4.2 Converting Optional 1-M Relationships 200
6.4.3 Converting Generalization H ierarchies 203
6.4.4 Converting 1-1 Relationshlps 205
6.4.5 Comprehensive Conversion Example 205
6.4.6 Conversion Practices in Commercial CASE Tools 205
Closing Thoughts 209
Review Concepts 210
Questions 210
Problems 212
References for Further Study 232

... .. .... .. .... ... .... .. .... ... .... .. .... ... .... .. .... .. ..... .. .... .. ..... .. .... .. .... ... .... ...... .•.... ....... ... .... ..... ..•.... ....... ....... ..... .. •.... ... ..
Part IV RELATIONAL DATABASE DESIGN 233

7 Normalization Concepts and Processes 235

Leaming Objectives 235
Overview 235
7.1 Overview of Relational Database Design 236
7.1.1 Avoidance of Modification Anon1alies 236
7.1.2 Functiona l Dependencies 236
7.1.3 Falsifica tion of FDs using San1p le Data 238
7.2 Basic Normal Forms 239
7.2.1 First Nom1al Form 240
7.2.2 Boyce-Codd Nom1al Fom1 240
7.2.3 Sin1p le Synthesis Procedure 243
7.3 Refining M-Way Relationships 246
7.3.1 Relationship Independence 246
7.3.2 Multivalued Dependencies and Fourth Nom1al Form 249
7.4 Higher Level Normal Forms 249
7.4.1 Fifth Norm al Fom1 249
7.4.2 Domain Key Nom1al Form 250
7.5 Practical Concerns about Normalization 251
7.5.1 Role of Nom1alization in the Database Development Process 251
7.5.2 Ana lyzing the Norm aliza tion Objective 253
 Contents xi

Closing Thoughts 254

Review Concepts 254
Questions 255
Problems 256
References for Further Study 266
Appendix 7.A: Second and Third Normal Forms ONLINE

8 Physical Database Design 267

Leaming Objectives 267
Overview 267
8.1 Overview of Physical Database Design 268
8.1.1 Storage Level of Databases 268
8.1.2 Objectives and Constraints 269
8.1.3 Inputs, O utputs, and Environmen t 270
8.1.4 Difficulties 270
8.2 Inputs of Physical Database Design 271
8.2.1 Table Profiles 271
8.2.2 Application Profiles 274
8.3 File Structures 275
8.3.1 Sequential Files 275
8.3.2 Hash Files 276
8.3.3 Multi way Tree (Btrees) Files 278
8.3.4 Bitmap Indexes 282
8.3.5 Colun1nstore Indexes 285
8.3.6 Sumn1ary of File Structures 286
8.3.7 Oracle Storage Concepts and File Structures 286
8.4 Query Optimization 288
8.4.1 Translation Tasks 288
8.4.2 In1proving Optimiza tion Decisions 292
8.5 Index Selection 295
8.5.1 Problem Definition 295
8.5.2 Trade-offs and D ifficulties 296
8.5.3 Selection Rules 298
8.6 Additional Choices in Physical Database Design 301
8.6.1 Denorma lization 301
8.6.2 Record Fom1atting 302
8.6.3 Parallel Processing 303
8.6.4 Other Ways to Improve Performance 305
Closing11ioughts 306
Review Concepts 306
Qu estions 307
Problems 310
References for Further Study 318

... .. .... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... .... .. .... ... .... .. .... ... .... .. .... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... .... .. .... ... .... .. .... ... .... .. .... ... .... ..... .. .. ... ...... ..•..... .. ..
Part V APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT WITH RELATIONAL DATABASES 319

9 Advanced Query Formulation with SQL 321

Leaming Objectives 321
Overview 321
9.1 Outer Join Problems 322
9.1.1 SQLSupport for O uter Join Problems 322
9.1.2 Mixing Inner and O uter Joins 324
xii Contents

9.2 Understanding Nested Queries 328

9.2.1 Type I Nested Queries 328
9.2.2 Limited SQL Formulations for D ifference Problems 331
9.2.3 Using Type II Nested Queries for Difference Problems 334
9.2.4 Nested Queries in the FROM Clause 338
9.3 Formulating Division Problems 340
9.3.1 Review of the D ivide O perator 340
9.3.2 Sin1p le D ivision Problems 341
9.3.3 Advanced D ivision Problems 342
9.4 Null Value Considerations 345
9.4.1 Effect on Sin1p le Conditions 345
9.4.2 Effect on Compound Conditions 347
9.4.3 Effect on Aggregate Calculations and Grouping 347
9.5 Hierarchical Queries 349
9.5.1 Hierarchical Data Example 349
9.5.2 Proprietary Oracle Extensions for Hierarcllical Queries 351
9.5.3 Extensions in the SQL Standard for H ierarchical Queries 359
Closing Thoughts 362
Review Concepts 362
Questions 365
Problems 366
References for Further Study 374
Appendix 9.A: Usage of Multiple Statements in Microsoft Access ONLINE
Appendix 9.B: SQL:2016 Syntax Summary ONUNE
Appendix 9.C: Oracle Si Notation for Outer Joins ONLINE

10 Application Development with Views 375

Leaming Ob jectives 375
Overview 375
10.1 Background 376
10.1.1 Motivation 376
10.1.2 View Definition 376
10.2 Using Views for Retrieval 378
10.2.1 Using Views in SELECT Statements 379
10.2.2 Processing Queries with Viev, References 379
10.3 Updating Using Views 382
10.3.1 Single-Table U pdatable Views 382
10.3.2 Multiple-Table Updatable Views 386
10.4 Using Views in Hierarchical Forms 391
10.4.1 ffierarcllical Fom1s 391
10.4.2 Relationship beh,veen Hierarchical Fom1s and Tables 392
10.4.3 Data Requirements for Hierarchical Fom1s 393
10.5 Using Views in Reports 399
10.5.1 ffierarcllical Reports 399
10.5.2 Data Requirements for Hierarchical Reports 400
Closing Thoughts 402
Review Concepts 403
Questions 404
Problems 405
References for Further Study 414
Appendix I O.A: SQL:2016 Syntax Summary ONLINE
Appendix 10.B: Rules for Updatable Join Views in Oracle ONLINE
Appendix 10.C: Solutions for Query Formulation Errors ONLINE
 Contents xiii

11 Stored Procedures and Triggers 415

Leaming Objectives 415
Overview 415
11.1 Database Programming Languages and PUSQL 416
11.1.1 Motivation for Database Progran1ming languages 416
11.1.2 Design Issues 418
11.1.3 PL/SQL Statements 420
11.1.4 Executing PL/SQL Staten1ents in Anonyn1ous Blocks 426
11.2 Stored Procedures 428
11.2.1 PL/SQL Proced ures 428
11.2.2 PL/SQLFunctions 431
11.2.3 Using Cursors 434
11.2.4 PL/SQLPackages 437
11.3 Triggers 441
11.3.1 Motivation and Classification of Triggers 441
11.3.2 Basic Trigger Developn1ent using Oracle PL/SQL 442
11.3.3 Specialized O racle Triggers using the INSTEAD OF Event 454
11.3.4 Understanding Trigger Execution 463
Closing 111oughts 467
Review Concepts 468
Questions 469
Problems 471
References for Further Study 475
Appendix 11.A: SQL:2016 Syntax Summary ONLINE

Part VI DATA WAREHOUSE PROCESSING 477

12 Data Warehouse Concepts and Management 479

Leaming Objectives 479
Overview 479
12.1 Basic Concepts 480
12.1.1 Transaction Processing versus Business Intelligence 480
12.1.2 Cha racteristics of Data Wa rehouses 482
12.1.3 Applications of Data Warehouses 483
12.2 Management of Data Warehouse Development 484
12.2.1 Developmen t Challenges and Lea rning Effects 485
12.2.2 Architectures for Data Warehouse Deployment 487
12.2.3 Data Warehouse Maturity Concepts 490
12.2.4 Business Strategy Game for Data Warehouse Development 492
12.3 Data Warehouse Examp les 497
12.3.1 Data Warehouses in Retail 497
12.3.2 Data Warehouses in Education 498
12.3.3 Data Warehouses in Health Care 501
Closing 111oughts 504
Review Concepts 504
Questions 505
Problems 507
References for Further Study 508

13 Conceptual Design of Data Warehouses 509

Leaming Objectives 509
Overview 509
xiv Contents

13.1 Multidimensional Rep resentation of Data 510

13.1.1 Example of a Multidin1ensional Data Cube 510
13.1.2 Multidimensional Terminology 512
13.1.3 Tune-Series Da ta 513
13.1.4 Data Cube Operators 514
13.2 Relational Data Modeling Patterns for Data Warehouses 516
13.2.1 Schema Patterns 517
13.2.2 Example Table Designs for Data Warehouses 519
13.2.3 Tm1e Representation and His torical Integrity 522
13.2.4 Extensions for D imension Representation 524
13.3 Summarizability Problems and Patterns 527
13.3.1 Dimension-Fact Summarizability Problems and Patterns 527
13.3.2 Dim ension-Fact Summarizability Problems and Patterns 529
13.4 Schema Integration and Des ign Methodologies 532
13.4.1 Schen1a Integration Process 533
13.4.2 Data Warehouse Design Methodologies 536
Closing 11ioughts 538
Review Concepts 538
Questions 539
Problems 541
Practice Mini Case Study for Schema Integration 544
References for Further Study 548
Appendix 13.A: Details of the Schema Integration Problem ONLINE
Appendix 13.B: S olution for the Schema Integration Problem ONUNE

14 Data Integration Concepts and Practices 549

Leaming Objectives 549
Overview 549
14.1 Data Integration Concepts 550
14.1.1 Sources of Data 550
14.1.2 Workflow for Mainta ining a Data Warehouse 552
14.1.3 Managing the Refresh Process 554
14.2 Data Cleaning Techniques 555
14.2.1 String Parsing v,ith Regular Expressions 555
14.2.2 Correcting and Standard izing Va lues 559
14.2.3 Entity Ma tching 560
14.3 Data Integration Tools 562
14.3.1 Arch itectures and Features of Data Integra tion Tools 562
14.3.2 Talend Open Stud io 565
14.3.3 Pentaho Data Integration 568
14.3.4 O racle Data Integrator 570
14.3.5 O racle SQL Staten1ents for Data Integration 573
Closing 111.oughts 579
Review Concepts 579
Questions 581
Problems 582
References for Further Study 584
Appendix 14.A: CREAT E TABLE S tatements for Examples in Section 14.3.5 ONLINE
Appendix 14.B: CREATE TABLE Statements for End of Chapter Problems ONLINE

15 Que!)' Formulation for Data Warehouses 585

Leaming Objectives 585
Overview 585
 Contents xv

15.1 Online Analytic Processing (OLAP) 586

15.1.1 Microsoft Multidimensiona l Expressions (MDX) 586
15.1.2 Pivot Table Tools for OLAP Queries 589
15.2 SQL Extensions for Subtotal Calculations 592
15.2.1 CUBE Operator 593
15.2.2 ROLLUP Operator 598
15.2.3 GROUPING SETS Opera tor 602
15.2.4 Variations of Subtotal Operators 604
15.3 SQL Extensions for Analytic Functions 606
15.3.1 Motivation and Processing Overview 606
15.3.2 Query Fom1uJation for Relative Performance 608
15.3.3 Query Fom1uJation for Trend Analysis 611
15.3.4 Query Fom1uJation for Ratio Comparisons 617
15.4 Summary Data Management and Optimization 621
15.4.1 Materialized Views in Oracle 621
15.4.2 Query Rewriting Principles 623
15.4.3 Storage and Optimization Technologies 628
C/osing11ioughts 631
Review Concepts 631
Questions 632
Prob/e,ns 634
References for Further Study 639

Part VII MANAGING DATABASE ENVIRONMENTS 641

16 Data and Database Administration 643

Leaming Objectives 643
Overview 643
16.1 Organizational Context for Managing Databases 644
16.1.1 Database Support for Managen1ent Decision Making 644
16.1.2 Approaches for Managing Data Resources 645
16.1.3 Responsibilities of Data Specia lists 647
16.1.4 Challenges of Big Data 648
16.2 Tools of Database Administration 649
16.2.1 Security 649
16.2.2 Integrity Constraints 653
16.2.3 Management of Triggers and Stored Procedures 657
16.2.4 Data D ictionary Manipulation 658
16.3 Processes for Database Specialists 660
16.3.1 Data Planning 661
16.3.2 Data Governance Processes and Tools 662
16.3.3 Selection and Evaluation of Database Management Systems 665
16.4 Managing Database Environments 670
16.4.1 Transaction Processing 670
16.4.2 Data Warehouse Processing 670
16.4.3 Distributed Environments 671
16.4.4 Object Databases and NoSQL Da tabases 672
C/osing111oughts 673
Review Concepts 673
Questions 675
Prob/e,ns 678
References for Further Sh,dy 679
Appendix 16.A: SQL:2016 Syntax Summary ONLINE
xvi Contents

17 Transaction Management 681

Leaming Objectives 681
Overview 681
17.1 Basics of Database Transactions 682
17.1.1 Transaction Examples 682
17.1.2 Transaction Properties 684
17.2 Concurrency Control 686
17.2.1 Objective of Concurrency Control 686
17.2.2 Interference Problems 686
17.2.3 Concurrency Control Tools 688
17.3 Recovery Management 693
17.3.1 Data Storage Devices and Fai lure Types 693
17.3.2 Recovery Tools 694
17.3.3 Recovery Processes 696
17.4 Transaction Design Issues 700
17.4.1 Transaction Boundary and Hot Spots 700
17.4.2 Isolation Levels 704
17.4.3 Tm1ing of Integrity Constraint Enforcem ent 706
17.4.4 Save Points 708
17.4.5 Relaxed Transaction Consistency Model 709
17.5 Workflow Management 709
17.5.1 Cha racteriz ing Workflows 710
17.5.2 Enabling Technologies 711
Closing Thoughts 712
Review Concepts 713
Questions 714
Problems 716
References for Further Study 723
Appendix 17.A: SQL:2016 Syntax Summary ONLINE

18 Client-Server Processing, Parallel Database Processing, and Distributed Databases 725

Leaming Objectives 725
Overview 725
18.1 Overview of Distributed Processing and Distributed Data 726
18.1.1 Motivation for C lient-Server Processing 726
18.1.2 Motivation for Pa rallel Database Processing 727
18.1.3 Motivation for Distributed Data 728
18.1.4 Motivation for C loud Based Computing 728
18.1.5 Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages 729
18.2 Client-Server Database Architectures 730
18.2.1 Design Issues 730
18.2.2 Basic Architectures 732
18.2.3 Specialized Architectures 734
18.3 Parallel Database Processing 737
18.3.1 Architectures and Design Issues 738
18.3.2 Commercial Parallel Da tabase Technology 739
18.3.3 Big Data Parallel Processing Arclutectures 741
18.4 Architectures for Distributed Database Management Systems 743
18.4.1 Component Arclutecture 743
18.4.2 Schen1a Architectures 745
18.5 Transparency for Distributed Database Processing 746
18.5.1 Motivating Example 747
18.5.2 Fragmentation Transparency 749
 Contents xvii

18.5.3 Location Transparency 749

18.5.4 Local Mapping Transparency 750
18.5.5 Transpa rency in Oracle Distributed Databases 752
18.6 Distributed Database Processing 754
18.6.1 Distribu ted Query Processing 754
18.6.2 Distribu ted Transaction Processing 756
Closing 11ioughts 759
Review Concepts 760
Questions 761
Problems 763
References for Further Study 765

19 DBMS Extensions for Object and NoSQL Databases 767

Leaming Objectives 767
O verview 767
19.1 Motivation for Object Database Management 768
19.1.1 Complex Data 768
19.1.2 Type Systen1 Misn1atch 768
19.1.3 Application Examples 769
19.2 Object Database Features in SQL:2016 770
19.2.1 User-Defined Types 771
19.2.2 Table Defirutions 773
19.2.3 Subtable Families 775
19.4.4 Manipu lating Con1plex Objects and Subtable Families 776
19.3 Object Database Features in Oracle 779
19.3.1 Defining User-Defined Types and Typed Tables in Oracle 779
19.3.2 Using Typed Tables in Oracle 782
19.3.3 Dependencies an1ong Types and Typed Tables 786
19.3.4 Other Object Features in Oracle 787
19.4 O verview of NoSQL Databas e Management 792
19.4.1 Motivation and Features 792
19.4.2 Data Models in NoSQL DBMSs 794
19.5 Database Defin ition and Manipulation w ith Couchbase Nl Q L 800
19.5.1 JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) 800
19.5.2 Couchbase NlQL Staten1ents 802
Closing111oughts 816
Review Concepts 817
Questions 818
Problems 820
References for Further Study 828
Appendix 19.A: INS ERT Statements for Nl Q L Buckets ONLINE

Bibliography 829
Indexes 833
PREFACE

MOTIVATING EXAMPLE
Paul Hong, the owner of International Ind ustrial Adhesives, Inc., is excited about
potential opporhmities in the growing global economy. He senses major opportuni-
ties in new product development, new sources of demand, and industry consolida-
tion. These opporh inities, however, involve substantial risks with major changes in his
business and industry. He senses risk from new mergers and acquisitions, new com-
petitors, increased government regulation and litigation in areas affecting his busi-
ness, and data security threats. New mergers and acquisitions may involve challenges
integrating disparate information technology and sharp increases in data and transac-
tion volumes. The success of his business has attracted new competitors focusing on
his most profitable customers and products. New environmental, financial, and health
regulations impose costly data collection efforts, reporting requirements, and compli-
ance activities. Data security breaches pose a constant threat especially with a large
competitor having a recent, major d isclosure of sensitive customer records. Despite
tremendous opportunities for growth, he remains cautious about new d irections to
manage risk effectively.
Paul Hong must make timely and appropriate information technology invest-
ments to deal with strategic acquisitions, respond to competitors, control costs of
government mandates, and thwart attacks on data assets. To manage mergers and
acquisitions, he must increase information technology capacity to process large new
volumes of transactions, manage increasing amounts of data for operations, business
intelligence, and long-term archival storage, and integrate disparate systems and data.
To match competitors, he needs more detailed and timely data about industry trends,
competitors' actions, and intellech 1al property developments. To comply with new
regulations, he must develop new data collection practices, conduct information tech-
nology audits, and hilfill other government reporting requirements for public compa-
nies. To thwart data attacks, he must review potential risks and invest in monitoring
tools. For all of these concerns, he is unsure about managing risks, choosing informa-
tion technology suppliers, and hiring competent staff.
These concerns involve significant usage of database technology as well as new
data management initiatives to ensure accountability. New developments in NoSQL
database technology, parallel processing architectures, and data lifecycle management
can provide cost effective solutions to meet challenges of big data. These technologies
can be deployed in cloud computing environments that provide economies of scale,
elimination of fixed infrastructure costs, and dynamic scalability. A data governance
organization can mitigate risks associated with the complex regulatory environment
through a system of checks and balances using data rules and policies. Mergers and
acquisitions often trigger data governance initiatives to ensure consistent data defini-
tions and integrate corporate policies involving data privacy and security.
However, the solutions to Paul Hong's concerns involve more than technology.
Utilization of appropriate information technology requires a vision for an organiza-
tion's fuh 1re, a deep tmderstanding of technology, and traditional management skills
to control risk. Paul Hong realizes that his largest challenge is to blend these skills to
develop effective solutions for International Industrial Adhesives, Inc.

xviii
 Prerace xix

IN TRODUCTION
This textbook provides a foundation to understand database technology supporting enter-
prise computing concerns such as those faced by Paul Hong. As a new student of database
management, you first need to understand fundamental concepts of database manage-
ment and the relational data model. Then you need to master skills in query formulation,
database design, and database application development. This textbook provides tools to
help you understand relational databases and acquire skills to solve basic and advanced
problems in query formulation, data modeling, normalization, data requirements for busi-
ness applications, and customization of database applications.
After establishing these skills, you are ready to study the organizational context,
role of database specialists, and the processing environments in which databases are
used . Students will learn about decision-making needs, accountability requirements,
organization structures, business architectures, and roles of database specialists asso-
ciated with databases and database technology. For environments, this textbook pres-
ents fundamental database technologies in each processing environment and relates
these technologies to new advances in electronic commerce and b usiness intelligence.
You will learn vocabulary, architectures, and design issues of database technology
that provide a background for advanced study of enterprise information systems, elec-
tronic commerce applications, and business intelligence.

WHAT'S NEW IN THE SEVEN TH ED ITION

The seventh edition makes substantial revisions to the sixth edition while preserving
the proven pedagogy developed in the first sixth ed itions. Experience gained from
instruction of university students and online learners along with feedback from adopt-
ers of the earlier editions has Jed to the development of new material and refinements
to existing material. A five-course specialization developed for the Coursera platform
in 2016 provided the impetus for substantial new material in the seventh edition about
data warehouses.
The most significant changes in the seventh ed ition are a substantial expan-
sion of data warehouse material and new coverage of NoSQL database technology
and features. Many organizations focus on business intelligence to gain competitive
advantage, manage risks, and connect with customers. Data warehouse technology
and practices provide a foundation for business intelligence in many organizations.
The seventh ed ition expands, updates, and reorganizes data warehouse material from
two to four chapters. The seventh ed ition contains substantial new material about
management of data warehouse development, data warehouses in major industries,
the schema integration process, a mini case study about data warehouse design, SQL
statements for data integration, data integration tools, SQL extensions for analytic que-
ries, the Microsoft Multidimensional Expressions language, pivot table tools, and a
business strategy game for managing development of data warehouses. Besides new
material, the seventh edition substantially updates existing material in the sixth edi-
tion such as indicating the market decline of data warehouse appliances.
Organizations continue to face challenging demands from big data applications
involving batch processing of large volumes of semi-structured data and online
processing of intense levels of transactions. NoSQL database technology provides a
foundation to deal with these big data applications in a growing number of organi-
zations. The seventh edition contains substantial new material on NoSQL database
technology about column-oriented storage, big data parallel processing architectures,
and in-memory transaction processing. Both NoSQL DBMSs and enterprise relational
DBMSs support these technologies. To understand explosive growth in NoSQL data-
base DBMSs, the seventh edition provides an overview about features and data mod-
els in NoSQL DBMSs as well as detailed coverage of the JavaScript Object Notation
(JSON) and the Nl QL query language in Couchbase Server, a leading NoSQL DBMS.
xx Pre race

Besides the expanded coverage of data warehouses and NoSQL database technol-
ogy, the seventh edition provides numerous refinements to existing material based on
classroom experience. Chapters 4 to 11 contain new examples in response to difficul-
ties students had with textbook gaps. The seventh edition makes substantial revisions
to coverage of data modeling tools, query formulation guidelines, normalization pro-
cesses, and trigger coding guidelines. In addition, refinements and updates to most
chapters have improved the presentation and currency of the material.
For database application development, the seventh edition covers SQL:2016, an
evolutionary change from previous SQL standard versions (SQL:1999 to SQL:2011).
The seventh edition explains the scope of SQL:2016, the difficulty of conformance with
the standard, and new elements of the standard. Numerous refinements of details
about database application development extend the proven coverage of the first sixth
editions: query formulation guidelines, query formulation errors, count method for
division problems, query formulation steps for hierarchal forms and reports, common
errors in queries for forms, trigger formulation guidelines, and transaction design
guidelines.
For database administration and processing environments, the seventh edition
provides expanded coverage of NoSQL technology. The most significant new topics
are columnstore indexes, in-memory transaction processing, and parallel processing
architectures for big data applications.
In addition to new material and refinements to existing material, the seventh edi-
tion extends chapter supplements. The seventh edition contains new end-of-chapter
questions and problems in most chapters. New material in the textbook's website
includes detailed tutorials about Microsoft Access 2016, Visio Professional 2010, and
Aqua Data Studio, assignments for first and second database courses, and sample
exams. The software tutorials for Microsoft Access, Visio Professional, and Aqua Data
Studio support concepts presented in textbook chapters 4, 5, 6, 9, and 10.
To make room for new material, the seventh edition eliminates two chapters from
the sixth edition. The seventh edition contains two chapters of new material about data
warehouses. New material about NoSQL technology replaces outdated material about
object-oriented databases. To remove bloat, the seventh edition eliminates chapters
covering a form-based approach for database design and a case study about data-
base design. The course website contains these chapters for continuity with the sixth
edition.

COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGES
This textbook provides outstanding features unmatched in competing textbooks. The
unique features include detailed SQL coverage for both Microsoft Access and Oracle,
problem-solving guidelines to aid acquisition of key skills, carefully designed sample
databases and examples, advanced topic coverage, integrated Jab material, prominent
data modeling tools, extensive data warehouse details, and substantial NoSQL cover-
age. These features provide a complete package for both introductory and advanced
database courses. The following list describes each feature in more detail while Table
P-1 summarizes competitive advantages by chapter.
• SQL Coverage: The breadth and depth of the SQL coverage in this text is
unmatched by competing textbooks. Table P-2 summarizes SQL coverage by
chapter. Parts 2 and 5 provide thorough coverage of the CREATE TABLE,
SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, DELETE, CREATE VIEW, and CREATE TRIGGER
statements. Part 6 provides extensive coverage of SQL statements for data
warehouses. The chapters in parts 2 to 6 provide numerous examples of basic,
intermediate, and advanced problems. The chapters in Part 7 cover statements
useful for database administrators as well as statements used in specific
processing environments.
 Preface xxi

• Access and Oracle Coverage: The chapters in Parts 2 and 5 provide detailed
coverage of both Microsoft Access and Oracle SQL. Each example for the
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, and CREATE VIEW statements is shown
for both DBMSs. Significant coverage of advanced Oracle 12c SQL feah1res
appears in Chapters 8, 9, 11, 14, 15, 17, and 19. In addition, the chapters in Parts
2 and 5 cover SQL:2016 syntax to support instruction with other prominent
database management systems.
• Problem-Solving Guidelines: Students need more than explanations of concepts
and examples to solve problems. Sh1dents need guidelines to help structure
their thinking process to tackle problems in a systematic manner. The guidelines
provide mental models to help sh1dents apply the concepts to solve basic
and advanced problems. Table P-3 summarizes the unique problem-solving
guidelines by chapter.
• Sa1nple Databases and Exa,nples: To provide consistency and continuity, Parts 2
to 5 use two sample databases in chapter bodies and problems. The University
database is used in the chapter examples, while the Order Entry database is used
in the end-of-chapter problems. Numerous examples and problems with these
databases depict the fundamental skills of query formulation and application
data requirements. Revised versions of the databases provide separation between
basic and advanced examples. The website contains CREATE TABLE statements,
sample data, data manipulation statements, and Access database files for both
databases.
Chapters in Parts 3, 4, 6, and 7 use additional databases to broaden exposure to more
diverse business situations. Students need exposure to a variety of business sih1ations
to acquire database design skills and understand concepts important to database spe-
cialists. The supplementary databases cover water utility operations, patient visits,
academic paper reviews, personal financial tracking, airline reservations, placement
office operations, automobile insurance, store sales tracking, and real estate sales. In
addition, Chapter 12 on data warehouse concepts presents data warehouses in retail,
education, and health care.
• Optional Integrated Labs: Database management is best taught when concepts are
closely linked to the practice of designing, implementing, and using databases
with a commercial DBMS. To help students apply the concepts described in
the textbook, optional supplementary Jab materials are available on the text's
website. The website contains Jabs for five Microsoft Access versions (2003,
2007, 2010, 2013, and 2016) as well as practice databases and exercises. The
Microsoft Access Jabs integrate a detailed coverage of Access with the application
development concepts covered in Parts 2 and 5.
• Data Modeling Tools: The sixth edition expands coverage of commercial data
modeling tools for database development. Students will find details about Aqua
Data Shtdio, Oracle SQL Developer, and Visual Paradigm.
• Data Warehouse Coverage: The four data warehouse chapters (12 to 15) along
with the database administration chapter provide details for an entire
course on data warehouses in a business intelligence curriculum. No other
competing textbook provides the breadth and depth of coverage about data
warehouses. Chapter 12 presents data warehouse concepts and management
with unique details about management of the data warehouse development
process. Chapter 13 contains data warehouse design background with unique
details about the schema integration process. Chapter 14 presents data
integration concepts and tools with extensive coverage of data integration
tools. Chapter 15 presents query formulation for data warehouses w ith
extensive coverage of pivot table tools and SQL statement extensions. The
course website contains assignments for pivot table tools, query formulation,
data integration, schema integration, and materialized view processing to
augment chapter coverage.
xxii Preface

• NoSQL Coverage: Major organizations have strong demand for ind ividuals with
background about NoSQL technology and systems. The seventh edition supports
this need with substantial material about features in NoSQL DBMSs as well as
detailed coverage of a major NoSQL DBMS. Numerous examples and problems
provide opportunity for students to obtain a foundation of skills for data
modeling and query formulation using a NoSQL DBMS.
Due to the nature of NoSQL technology, the textbook d istributes coverage across sev-
eral chapters. Chapters 8, 17, and 18 present important technologies (column-oriented
storage, in-memory transaction processing, big data parallel processing architectures,
and BASE principle for distributed transaction processing) used in both NoSQL and
enterprise relational DBMSs. Chapter 19 contains extensive details about features and
data models used in NoSQL DBMSs. To provide practice-oriented coverage of NoSQL
technology, Chapter 19 covers the Java Script Object Notation GSON) and the Couch-
base NlQL query language to manipulate JSON databases.
• Current and Cutting-Edge Topics: This textbook covers many topics omitted
in competing textbooks: advanced query formulation, updatable views,
development and management of stored procedures and triggers, hierarchical
query formulation, business strategy game for managing data warehouse

... .. .... .. .... ... .... .. .... ... ... ....... ... .... .. .... ... .... .. .... .. ..... .. .... .. .... .. ..... ...... ...... ..•.... ... .... ...... ...... ....... ....... ..... ....... ... ..
TABLE P-1
Summary of Competitive Unique Features
Advantages by Chapter 2 Conceptual introduction to the database development process
3 Visual representation of relational algebra operators
4 Query formulation guidelines; Errors in query formulation. Oracle, Access. and SQL:2016 SQL
coverage
5 Emphasis on ERD notation. business rules, and diagram rules; Overview about data modeling
notation in prominent commercial data modeling tools
6 Strategies for analyzing business Information needs; Data modeling transformations;
Detection of common design errors
7 Normalization guidelines and procedures
8 Index selection rules; SQL tuning guidelines. Integrated coverage of query optimization. file
structures. and index selection
9 Query formulation guidelines; Oracle 12c, Access. and SQL:2016 coverage; Advanced topic
coverage of nested queries, division problems. difference problems. null value handling, and
hierarchical queries
10 Rules for updatable views; Data requirement steps for forms and reports; Common query
formulation errors for hierarchical forms
11 Integrated coverage of database programming languages. stored procedures, and triggers;
Trigger formulation guidelines; Common trigger coding errors
12 Management of data warehouse development Business strategy game for data warehouse
maturity; Examples of data warehouses in major industries
13 Building blocks for conceptual data warehouse design; Schema integration process
14 Data integration concepts, techniques, and tools; Supplementary material for data integration
tool usage
15 Overview of Microsoft MDX and pivot table tools; Detailed coverage of SQL statement
extensions for data warehouse queries
16 Guidelines to control trigger complexity, coding practices. and database dependencies; Data
governance processes; Selection and evaluation process for a DBMS
17 Transaction design guidelines; Mini case study about transaction design
18 Integrated coverage of client-server processing. parallel database processing, and distributed
databases integrated with impact of cloud computing
19 Obj ect-relational features in SQL:2016 and Oracle 12c; NoSQL DBMS features; Query
formulation using JSON documents and Couchbase N1QL
 Preface xx iii

development, schema integration process, parallel database architectures, data

integration tools, SQL extensions for data warehouses, in-memory transaction
processing, object-relational features in SQL:2016 and Oracle 12c, and transaction

TABLE P-2
[ Chapter SOL Statement Coverage I
SOL Statement Coverage by
3 CREATE TABLE Chapter

4 SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE: Access and Oracle coverage

9 SELECT (nested queries. outer joins, null value handling, hierarchical queries); Access and
Oracle coverage
10 CREATE VIEW: retrieval and manipulation statements using views
11 CREATE PROCEDURE (Oracle). CREATE TRIGGER (Oracle and SOL:2016)
13 CREATE DIMENSION (Oracle)
14 MERGE (SOL:2016 and Oracle); Multiple table INSERT (Oracle)
15 SELECT statement extensions for subtotal computations and analytic functions (Oracle and
SQL:2016); CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW (Oracle) and query rewriting
16 GRANT, REVOKE. CREATE ROLE. CREATE ASSERTION. CHECK clause of the CREATE TABLE
statement, CREATE DOMAIN
17 COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SET TRANSACTION, SET CONSTRAINTS, SAVEPOINT
19 CREATE TYPE. CREATE TABLE (typed tables and subtables), SELECT extensions (object
identifiers, path expressions, dereference operator); SQL:2016 and Oracle coverage:
Couchbase NlQL INSERT and SELECT statements for JSON databases

TABLE P-3
I Chapter Problem-Sol~i~g Guidelin'e s Problem-Solving Guidelines
3 Visual representations of relationships and relational algebra operators by Chapter

4 Conceptual evaluation process; Query formulation questions; Query formulation errors

5 Diagram rules
6 Guidelines for analyzing business information needs: Design transformations; Detection of
common design errors; Conversion rules
7 Guidelines for identifying functional dependencies: Usage of sample data to falsify functional
dependencies; Simple synthesis procedure
8 Index selection rules; SOL tuning guidelines
9 Difference problem formulation guidelines; Nested query evaluation; Count method for division
problem formulation; Hierarchical query formulation guidelines
10 Rules for updatable queries: Steps for analyzing data requirements in forms and reports
11 Trigger execution procedure: Trigger formulation guidelines
12 Drivers of difficulties in data warehouse projects; Learning curve concepts; Architectures for
data warehouse deployment; Architecture selection guidelines
13 Schema patterns with example data warehouse designs; Summarlzability patterns: Steps of the
schema integration process
14 Factors influencing refresh process objective; Features of data integration tools
15 Mapping of GROUPING SETS operator to CUBE and ROLLUP operators: Factors influencing
analytic function extensions: Extension of SELECT statement processing for analytic functions;
Comparison of traditional views and materialized views; Processing for materialized Views:
Matching requirements for query rewriting
16 Guidelines to manage stored procedures and triggers; Data planning process; DBMS selection
process; Core processes and risk matrix in the Microsoft Data Governance Framework
17 Transaction timeline; Transaction design guidelines
18 Progression of transparency levels for distributed databases
19 Comparison between relational and object-relational representations; Multiple representations
of JSON documents (fully nested, partially nested, and flat)
xxiv Preface

design principles. These topics enable motivated students to obtain a deeper

understanding of database management.
• Co1nplete Package for Courses: Depending on the course criteria, some students
may need to purchase as many as four books for an introductory database
course: a textbook covering principles, laboratory books covering details of
a DBMS, a supplemental SQL book, and a casebook with realistic practice
problems. This textbook and supplemental material provide a complete,
integrated, and less expensive resource for students.

TEXT AUDIENCE
This book supports two database courses at the undergraduate or graduate level. At
the undergraduate level, students should have a concentration (major or minor) or
active interest in information systems. For two-year institutions, the instructor may
want to skip advanced topics and place more emphasis on the optional Access Jab
book. Undergraduate students should have a first course covering general information
systems concepts, spreadsheets, word processing, and possibly a brief introduction to
databases.
At the graduate level, this book is suitable in either MBA or Master of Science (in
information systems) programs. The advanced material in this book should be espe-
cially suitable for Master of Science students.
Except for Chapter 11, a previous course in computer programming can be use-
ful background but is not mandatory. The other chapters reference some computer
programming concepts, but writing code is not covered. For a complete mastery of
Chapter 11, computer programming background is essential. However, the basic con-
cepts and trigger details in Chapter 11 can be covered even if students do not have a
computer programming background.

ORGANIZATION
As the title suggests, Database Design, Application Developn1ent, and Ad1nin.istration
emphasizes three sets of skills. Before acquiring these skills, students need a foun-
dation about basic concepts. Part 1 provides conceptual background for subsequent
detailed study of database design, database application development, and database
administration. The chapters in Part 1 present the principles of database management
and a conceptual overview of the database development process.
Part 2 provides foundational knowledge about the relational data model. Chapter
3 covers table definition, integrity rules, and operators to retrieve useful information
from relational databases. Chapter 4 presents guidelines for query formulation and
numerous examples of SQL statements.
Parts 3 and 4 emphasize practical skills and design guidelines for the database
development process. Students desiring a career as a database specialist should be
able to perform each step of the database development process. Students should learn
skills of data modeling, schema conversion, normalization, and physical database de-
sign. The Part 3 chapters (Chapters 5 and 6) cover data modeling using the Entity
Relationship Model. Chapter 5 covers the structure of entity relationship diagrams,
while Chapter 6 presents usage of entity relationship diagrams to analyze business
information needs. The Part 4 chapters (Chapters 7 and 8) cover table design principles
and practice for logical and physical design. Chapter 7 covers motivation, function-
al dependencies, normal forms, and practical considerations of data normalization.
Chapter 8 contains broad coverage of physical database design including objectives,
inputs, file structures, query optimization principles, and important design choices.
Part 5 provides a foundation for building database applications by helping stu-
dents acquire skills in advanced query formulation, specification of data requirements
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
the utār in the cemetery the procession returns with tumultuous shouts of
joy and much jingling of anklets.28

Sometimes bhuvas are summoned for two or three nights preceding the day
of the utār ceremony, and a ceremony known as Dānklān-beswān or the
installation of the dānklā29 is performed. (A dānklā30 is a special spirit
instrument in the shape of a small kettle-drum producing, when beaten by a
stick, a most discordant, and, by long association, a melancholy, gruesome
and ghastly sound—K. B. Fazlullah).

Many sects have special deities of their own, attended upon by a bhuva of
the same order.31 The bhuva holds a high position in the society of his
caste-fellows. He believes himself to be possessed by the devi or mātā
whose attendant he is, and declares, while possessed by her, the will of the
mātā, replying for her to such questions as may be put to him.32 The devis
are supposed to appear in specially favoured bhuvas and to endow them
with prophetic powers.33

The following is a list of some of the inferior local deities of Gujarat and
Kathiawar:—

(1) Suro-pūro.—This is generally the spirit of some brave ancestor who

died a heroic death, and is worshipped by his descendants as a family-god
at his birthplace as well as at the scene of his death, where a pillar (pālio) is
erected to his memory.34

(2) Vachhro, otherwise known by the name of Dādā (sire).—This is said to

have been a Rajput, killed in rescuing the cowherds of some Chārans, who
invoked his aid, from a party of free-booters.35 He is considered to be the
family-god of the Ahirs of Solanki descent, and is the sole village-deity in
Okha and Baradi Districts.36 Other places dedicated to this god are Padānā,
Aniālā, Taluka Mengani,37 Khajurdi, Khirasarā and Anida.38 He is
represented by a stone horse, and Chārans perform priestly duties in front of
him.39 Submission to, and vows in honour of, this god, are believed to cure
rabid-dog-bites.40
(3) Sarmālio commands worship in Gondal, Khokhāri and many other
places. Newly-married couples of many castes loosen the knots tied in their
marriage-scarves as a mark of respect for him.41 Persons bitten by a snake
wear round their necks a piece of thread dedicated to this god.40

(4) Shitalā is a goddess known for the cure of small-pox.—Persons attacked

by this disease observe vows in her honour. Kālāvad and Syādlā are places
dedicated to her.40

(5) Ganāgor.—Virgins who are anxious to secure suitable husbands and

comfortable establishments worship this goddess and observe vows in her
honour.40

(6) Todāliā.—She has neither an idol nor a temple set up in her honour, but
is represented by a heap of stones lying on the village boundary—Pādal or
Jāmpā. All marriage processions, before entering the village (Sānkā) or
passing by the heap, pay homage to this deity and offer a cocoanut, failure
to do which is believed to arouse her wrath. She does not command daily
adoration, but on occasions the attendant, who is a Chumvāliā Koli, and
who appropriates all the presents to this deity, burns frankincense of gugal
(balsamodendron) and lights a lamp before her.42

(7) Buttāya also is represented by a heap of stones on a hillock in the

vicinity of Sānkā. Her worshipper is a Talabdia Koli. A long season of
drought leads to her propitiation by feasting Brāhmans, for which purpose
four pounds of corn are taken in her name from each threshing floor in the
village.42

(8) Surdhan.—This seems to have been some brave Kshatriya warrior who
died on a battlefield. A temple is erected to his memory, containing an
image of Shiva. The attending priest is an Atit.42

(9) Ghogho.—This is a cobra-god worshipped in the village of Bikhijada

having a Bajana (tumbler) for his attending priest.42
(10) Pir.—This is a Musalman saint, in whose honour no tomb is erected,
the special site alone being worshipped by a devotee.42

(11) Raneki is represented by a heap of stones, and is attended upon by

chamārs (tanners). Her favourite resort is near the Dhedvādā (i.e., a quarter
inhabited by sweepers). A childless Girasia is said to have observed a vow
in her honour for a son, and a son being born to him, he dedicated certain
lands to her; but they are no longer in the possession of the attendants.43

(12) Hanuman.—On a mound of earth there is an old worn-out image of

this god. People sometimes light a lamp there, offer cocoanuts and plaster
the image with red-lead and oil. A sādhu of the Māragi sect, a Koli by birth,
acts as pujari.43

(13) Shaktā (or shakti).—This is a Girasia goddess attended upon by a

Chumvāliā Koli. On the Navarātra days, as well as on the following day,
Girasias worship this goddess, and if necessary observe vows in her
name.43

(14) Harsidh.—Gāndhavi in Bardā and Ujjain are the places dedicated to

this goddess. There is a tradition connected with her that her image stood in
a place of worship facing the sea on Mount Koyalo in Gandhavi. She was
believed to sink or swallow all the vessels that sailed by. A Bania named
Jagadusā, knowing this, propitiated her by the performance of religious
austerities. On being asked what boon he wanted from her, he requested her
to descend from her mountain-seat. She agreed on the Bania promising to
offer a living victim for every footstep she took in descending. Thus he
sacrificed one victim after another until the number of victims he had
brought was exhausted. He then first offered his four or five children, then
his wife and lastly himself. In reward for his self-devotion the goddess
faced towards Miani and no mishaps are believed to take place in the
village.44

(15) Hinglaj.—This goddess has a place of worship a hundred and fifty

miles from Karachi in Sind, to which her devotees and believers make
pilgrimage.44
In the village of Jāsdān, in Kathiawar, there is an ancient shrine of Kālu-Pīr
in whose memory there are two sepulchres covered with costly fabrics, and
a large flag floats over the building. Both Hindus and Musalmans believe45
in this saint, and offer cocoanuts, sweetmeats and money to his soul. A part
of the offering being passed through the smoke of frankincense, burning in
a brazier near the saint’s grave in the shrine, the rest is returned to the
offerer. Every morning and evening a big kettle-drum is beaten in the Pīr’s
honour.46

Other minor deities are Shikotār, believed by sailors to be able to protect

them from the dangers of the deep;47 Charmathvati, the goddess of the
Rabarīs;48 Macho, the god of the shepherds;48 Meldi, in whom Vaghries
(bird-catchers) believe;49 Pithād, the favourite god of Dheds;50 Dhavdi,
who is worshipped by a hajām (barber);51 Khodiar;52 Géla,52 Dādamo,52
Kshetrapāl,52 Chāvad,53 Mongal,53 Avad,53 Pālan,53 Vir Vaital,54 Jālio,54
Gadio,54 Paino,54 Parolio,54 Sevalio,54 Andhario,54 Fulio,54 Bhoravo,54
Ragantio,54 Chod,55 Gātrad,55 Mammai and Verai.56 There are frequent
additions to the number, as any new disease or unusual and untoward
incident may bring a new spirit into existence. The installation of such
deities is not a costly concern,57 and thus there is no serious check on their
recognition.

The sun, the beneficent night-dispelling, light-bestowing great luminary, is

believed to be the visible manifestation of the Almighty God,58 and inspires
the human mind with a feeling of grateful reverence which finds expression
in titles like Savitā, Life-Producer, the nourisher and generator of all life
and activity59.

He is the chief rain-sender60; there is a couplet used in Gujarat illustrative

of this belief. It runs:—“Oblations are cast into the Fire: the smoke carries
the prayers to the sun; the Divine Luminary, propitiated, responds in
sending down gentle showers.” “The sacred smoke, rising from the
sacrificial offerings, ascends through the ethereal regions to the Sun. He
transforms it into the rain-giving clouds, the rains produce food, and food
produces the powers of generation and multiplication and plenty. Thus, the
sun, as the propagator of animal life, is believed to be the highest deity.60”

It is pretty generally believed that vows in honour of the sun are highly
efficacious in curing eye-diseases and strengthening the eyesight. Mr.
Damodar Karsonji Pandya quotes from the Bhagvadgītā the saying of
Krishna:

प्रभास्मि शशिसूर्ययोः

“I am the very light of the sun and the moon.61” Being the embodiment or
the fountain of light, the sun imparts his lustre either to the bodies or to the
eyes of his devotees. It is said that a Rajput woman of Gomātā in Gondal
and a Brahman of Rajkot were cured of white leprosy by vows in honour of
the sun.62 Similar vows are made to this day for the cure of the same
disease. Persons in Kathiawar suffering from ophthalmic disorders, venereal
affections, leucoderma and white leprosy are known to observe vows in
honour of the sun.63

The Parmār Rajputs believe in the efficacy of vows in honour of the sun
deity of Māndavrāj, in curing hydrophobia.64

Women believe that a vow or a vrat made to the sun is the sure means of
attaining their desires. Chiefly their vows are made with the object of
securing a son. On the fulfilment of this desire, in gratitude to the Great
Luminary, the child is often called after him, and given such a name as
Suraj-Rām, Bhānu-Shankar, Ravi-Shankar, Adit-Rām.65

Many cradles are received as presents at the temple of Māndavrāj,

indicating that the barren women who had made vows to the deity have
been satisfied in their desire for a son, the vows being fulfilled by the
present of such toy-cradles to the sun. In the case of rich donors, these
cradles are made of precious metal.66

At Mandvara, in the Muli District of Kathiawar, the Parmār Rajputs, as well

as the Kāthis, bow to the image of the sun, on their marriage-day, in
company with their newly-married brides.66 After the birth of a son to a
Rajputani, the hair on the boy’s head is shaved for the first time in the
presence of the Māndavrāj deity,67 and a suit of rich clothes is presented to
the image by the maternal uncle of the child.68

The sun is सर्वसाक्षी the observer of all things and nothing can escape his
notice.69 His eye is believed to possess the lustre of the three Vedic lores,
viz., Rigveda, Yajurveda and Sāmaveda, and is therefore known by the
name of वेदत्रयी. The attestation of a document in his name as Sūrya-
Nārāyana-Sākshi is believed to be ample security for the sincerity and good
faith of the parties.70 Oaths in the name of the sun are considered so
binding that persons swearing in his name are held to be pledged to the
strictest truth.71

Virgin girls observe a vrat, or vow, called the ‘tili-vrat’ in the sun’s honour,
for attaining अखंड सौभाग्य—eternal exemption from widowhood. In
making this vrat, or vow, the votary, having bathed and worshipped the sun,
sprinkles wet red-lac drops before him.72

According to Forbes’s Rāsmālā, the sun revealed to the Kāthis the plan of
regaining their lost kingdom, and thus commanded their devout worship
and reverence. The temple named Suraj-deval, near Thān, was set up by the
Kāthis in recognition of this favour. In it both the visible resplendent disc of
the sun and his image are adored.73

People whose horoscopes declare them to have been born under the Sūrya-
dashā, or solar influence, have from time to time to observe vows
prescribed by Hindu astrology.74

Cultivators are said to observe vows in honour of the sun for the safety of
their cattle.75

The following are some of the standard books on sun-worship:—

(1) Aditya-hridaya—literally, the Heart of the Sun. It treats of the glory of

the sun and the mode of worshipping him.
(2) Brihadāranyakopanishad and Mandula-Brahmans—portions of
Yajurveda recited by Vedic Brahmans with a view to tender symbolic as
well as mental prayers to the sun.

(3) Bibhrād—the fourth chapter of the Rudri.

(4) A passage in Brāhman—a portion of the Vedas, beginning with the

words स्वयंभूरसि Thou art self-existent—is entirely devoted to Sun-
worship.76

(5) Sūrya-Purāna—A treatise relating a number of stories in glorification of

the sun.

(6) Sūrya-kavacha.77

(7) Sūrya-gīta.

(8) Sūrya-Sahasranama—a list of one thousand names of Sūrya.78

It is customary among Hindus to cleanse their teeth every morning with a

wooden stick, known as dātan79 and then to offer salutations to the sun in
the form of a verse which means: “Oh God, the dātans are torn asunder and
the sins disappear. Oh the penetrator of the innermost parts, forgive us our
sins. Do good unto the benevolent and unto our neighbours.” This prayer is
common in the mouths of the vulgar laity.80

Better educated people recite a shloka, which runs: “Bow unto Savitri, the
sun, the observer of this world and its quarters, the eye of the universe, the
inspirer of all energy, the holder of a three-fold personality (being an
embodiment of the forms of the three gods of the Hindu Trinity, Brahma,
Vishnu and Maheshvar)—the embodiment of the three Vedas, the giver of
happiness and the abode of God.81

After his toilet a high-caste Hindu should take a bath and offer morning
prayers and arghyas to the sun.82 The Trikāla-Sandhyā is enjoined by the
Shāstras on every Brahman, i.e., every Brahman should perform the
Sandhyā thrice during the day: in the morning, at mid-day and in the
evening. The Sandhyā is the prayer a Brahman offers, sitting in divine
meditation, when he offers three arghyas to the sun and recites the Gāyatrī
mantra 108 times.83

The arghya is an offering of water in a spoon half filled with barley seeds,
sesamum seeds, sandal ointment, rice, and white flowers. In offering the
arghya the right foot is folded below the left, the spoon is lifted to the
forehead and is emptied towards the sun after reciting the Gāyatrī mantra.84
If water is not available for offering the arghyas, sand may serve the
purpose. But the sun must not be deprived of his arghyas.85

The Gāyatrī is the most sacred mantra in honour of the sun, containing, as it
does, the highest laudations of him.85 A Brahman ought to recite this
mantra 324 times every day. Otherwise he incurs a sin as great as the
slaughter of a cow.86 Accordingly a Rudrākshmālā, or a rosary of 108
Rudrāksh beads, is used in connecting the number of Gāyatrīs recited.87 It
is exclusively the right of the twice-born to recite the Gāyatrī. None else is
authorised to recite or even to hear a word of it. Neither females nor
Shūdras ought to catch an echo of even a single syllable of the Gāyatrī
mantra88.

A ceremony, called Sūryopasthān, in which a man has to stand facing the

sun with his hands stretched upwards at an angle towards the sun, is
performed as a part of the sandhyā.89
Of the days of the week, Ravivar, or Sunday is the most suitable for Sun
worship90. Persons wishing to secure wealth, good-health and a happy
progeny, especially people suffering from disorders caused by heat and
from diseases of the eyes, barren women, and men anxious for victory on
the battlefield, weekly observe vows in honour of the sun, and the day on
which the vow is to be kept is Sunday.91 It is left to the devotee to fix the
number of Sundays on which he will observe the vrat, and he may choose
to observe all the Sundays of the year.92 On such days the devotees undergo
ceremonial purifications by means of baths and the putting on of clean
garments, occupy a reserved clean seat, light a ghi-lamp and recite the
Aditya-hridaya-pātha, which is the prescribed mantra for Sun worship.93
Then follows the Nyāsa, (न्यास) in the recitation of which the devotee has to
make certain gestures (or to perform physical ceremonials). First the tips of
all the four fingers are made to touch the thumb as is done in counting.
Then the tips of the fingers are made to touch the palm of the other hand.
Then one hand is laid over the other. Then the fingers are made to touch the
heart, the head, the eyes, and the hair in regular order. The right hand is then
put round the head and made to smite the left.93 An ashtadala or eight-
cornered figure is drawn in gulal, (red powder) and frankincense, red
ointment and red flowers are offered to the sun.94 Durvā grass is also
commonly used in the process of Sun-worship.95
Sometimes a hexangular figure is drawn instead of the ashtadal, a copper
disc is placed over it and the sun is worshipped by Panchopachar or the
five-fold ceremonials.96 Of all ceremonials a namaskār is especially dear to
the sun.97 It is said:—

नमस्कारप्रियो भानुर्जलधाराप्रियः शिवः ।

परोपकारप्रियो विष्णुर्ब्राह्मणो भोजनप्रियः ॥

A namaskār or bow is dear to the sun; a stream of water (pouring water in a

small stream over Shiva’s idol) is dear to Shiva: benevolence to Vishnu and
a good dinner to a Brahman.97

In observing vows in the sun’s honour on Sundays, the following special

foods are prescribed in particular months:98—

(1) In Kārtika, the first month, the devotee is to take only three leaves of the
Tulsi or the holy basil plant.

(2) In Mārgashīrsha, the devotee may only lick a few pieces of candied
sugar.

(3) In Pausha, the devotee may chew three stalks of green darbha grass.
(4) In Māgha, a few seeds of sesamum and sugar mixed together may be
swallowed.

(5) In Phālguna, a consecrated draught of curds and sugar may be drunk.

(6) In Chaitra, people should break their fasts with a little ghi and molasses.

(7) In Vaishākha, the only satisfaction allowed to those observing the vrat is
to lick their own palms three times.

(8) In Jyeshtha, the fast is observed simply on three anjalis or palmfuls of

pure water.

(9) In Ashādha, three chillies may be eaten.

(10) In Shrāvana, only cow-urine and molasses are tasted.

(11) In Bhādrapada, cow-dung and sugar are partaken of.

(12) In Āshvina, the application of chandan (sandal wood) either in the

form of an ointment or of powder.

Only a few very pious and enthusiastic devotees observe all Sundays in the
above manner. In average cases, the devotee allows himself rice, ghi, sugar,
milk, i.e., white food, the restriction being only as to colour.98

People observing vows in honour of the sun take food only once during the
day, and that too in bājas or dishes made of khākhara (or palāsh) leaves.
This is considered one of the conditions of worship, there being some
mysterious relation between Sūrya and the khākhara.99

If the Pushya Nakshatra happens to fall on a Sunday, the worship of the sun
on that day is believed to be most efficacious in fulfilling the desires of the
devotees.100

Of the days of the month, the seventh day of both the bright and the dark
halves of each month101 and the Amāvāsyā day, i.e., the last day of a Hindu
calendar month,102 are set apart for Sun-worship. The ceremonies of the
worship are the same as those on Sundays. In fact, in almost all the
observances in connection with the sun the same ceremonials are to be gone
through. Very often a Brahman recites the pātha directing his hosts or
hostesses to perform certain ceremonial gestures. On the last of the number
of days which the devotee has decided to observe, the vrat is celebrated and
Brahmans are feasted. This celebration of the vrat is known as
vratujavavun.103

The special occasions for Sun-worship are the Sankrānti days and the solar
eclipses.

In each year there are twelve Sankrānti days on which the sun moves from
one sign of the zodiac to another. Sun-worship is performed on all these
Sankrāntis, but Makara-Sankrānti, which falls on the 12th or 13th of
January, is considered the most important.104 The Uttarāyana-parvan falls
on this day, i.e., the sun now crosses to his northern course from his
southern, and the time of that Parvan is considered so holy that a person
dying then directly attains salvation.105 On this day, many Hindus go on a
pilgrimage to holy places, offer prayers and sacrifices to the sun, and give
alms to Brahmans in the shape of sesamum seeds, gold, garments and
cows.106 Much secret, as well as open, charity is dispensed,107 grass and
cotton-seeds are given to cows, and lāpsi108 and loaves to dogs.107 Sweet
balls of sesamum seeds and molasses are eaten as a prasād and given to
Brahmans, and dainties such as lāpsi are partaken of by Hindu households,
in company with a Brahman or two, who are given dakshinā after the
meals.109

On solar eclipse days, most of the Hindu sects bathe and offer prayers to
God. During the eclipse the sun is believed to be combating with the demon
Rāhu, prayers being offered for the sun’s success. When the sun has freed
himself from the grasp of the demon and sheds his full lustre on the earth,
the people take ceremonial baths, offer prayers to God with a concentrated
mind, and well-to-do people give in alms as much as they can afford of all
kinds of grain.110
The Chāturmās-vrat, very common in Kathiawar, is a favourite one with
Hindus. The devotee, in performing this vrat, abstains from food on those
days during the monsoons on which, owing to cloudy weather, the sun is
not visible. Even if the sun is concealed by the clouds for days together, the
devout votary keeps fasting till he sees the deity again.111

Barren women, women whose children die, and especially those who lose
their male children, women whose husbands suffer from diseases caused by
heat, lepers, and persons suffering from ophthalmic ailments observe the
vow of the sun in the following manner.112 The vows are kept on Sundays
and Amāvāsyā days, and the number of such days is determined by the
devotee in accordance with the behests of a learned Brahman. The woman
observes a fast on such days, bathes herself at noon when the sun reaches
the zenith, and dresses herself in clean garments. Facing the sun, she dips
twelve red karan flowers in red or white sandal ointment and recites the
twelve names of Sūrya as she presents one flower after another to the sun
with a bow.113 On each day of the vrat, she takes food only once, in the
shape of lāpsi, in bajas of khākharā or palāsh leaves; white food in the form
of rice, or rice cooked in milk is sometimes allowed. She keeps a ghi-lamp
burning day and night, offers frankincense, and sleeps at night on a bed
made on the floor.114

People who are declared by the Brahmans to be under the evil influence
(dashā) of Sūrya, observe vows in the sun’s honour and go through the
prescribed rites on Sundays. Such persons take special kinds of food and
engage the services of priests to recite holy texts in honour of the sun. If all
goes well on Sunday, Brahmans, Sādhus and other pious persons are
entertained at a feast. This feast is known as vrat-ujavavun. Some persons
have the sun’s image (an ashtadal) engraved on a copper or a golden plate
for daily or weekly worship.115

On the twelfth day after the delivery of a child, the sun is worshipped and
the homa sacrifice is performed.116

If at a wedding the sun happens to be in an unfavourable position according

to the bridegroom’s horoscope, an image of the sun is drawn on gold-leaf
and given away in charity. Charity in any other form is also common on
such an occasion.116

A Nāgar bride performs sun-worship for the seven days preceding her
wedding.117

In Hindu funeral ceremonies three arghyas are offered to the sun, and the
following mantra is chanted118:—

आदित्यो भास्करो भानू रविः सूर्यो दिवाकरः ।

षण्नाम स्मरे न्नित्यं महापातकनाशानम्‌॥

It means—one should ever recite the six names of the Sun, Aditya, Bhāskar,
Bhānu, Ravi, Surya, Divākar, which destroy sin.

The sun is also worshipped on the thirteenth day after the death of a person,
when arghyas are offered, and two earthen pots, containing a handful of
raw khichedi—rice and pulse—and covered with yellow pieces of cotton
are placed outside the house. This ceremony is called gadāso bharvo.118

Rajahs of the solar race always worship the rising sun. They also keep a
golden image of the sun in their palaces, and engage learned Brahmans to
recite verses in his honour. On Sundays they take only one meal and that of
simple rice (for white food is most acceptable to the sun).119

Circumambulations round images and other holy objects are considered

meritorious and to cause the destruction of sin.120 The subject has been
dwelt on at length in the Dharma-sindhu-grantha, Vratarāja, and
Shodashopachāra among the Dharma-Shāstras of the Hindus.121

The object round which turns are taken is either the image of a god, such as
of Ganpati, Mahādev or Vishnu122 or the portrait of a guru, or his
footmarks engraved or impressed upon some substance, or the agni-kunda
(the fire-pit),123 or the holy cow124, or some sacred tree or plant, such as
the Vad (banyan tree), the Pipal (ficus religiosa),125 the Shami (prosopis
spicegera), the Amba (mango tree), the Asopalava tree (Polyalthea
longifolia),126 or the Tulsi (sweet basil) plant.

It is said to have been a custom of the Brahmans in ancient times to

complete their daily rites before sunrise every morning, and then to take
turns round temples and holy objects. The practice is much less common
now than formerly.127 Still, visitors to a temple or an idol, usually are
careful to go round it a few times at least (generally five or seven). The
usual procedure at such a time is to strike gongs or ring bells after the turns,
to cast a glance at the shikhar or the pinnacle of the temple, and then to
return.128

Women observing the chāturmās-vrat, or the monsoon vow, lasting from

the eleventh day of the bright half of Ashādh (the ninth month) to the
eleventh day of the bright half of Kārtik (the first month) first worship the
object, round which they wish to take turns, with panchāmrit (a mixture of
milk, curds, sugar, ghi and honey). The number of turns may be either 5, 7,
21 or 108. At each turn they keep entwining a fine cotton thread and place a
pendā129 or a bantāsā130 or a betel-leaf or an almond, a cocoanut, a fig or
some other fruit before the image or the object walked round. These
offerings are claimed by the priest who superintends the ceremony.131
When a sacred tree is circumambulated, water is poured out at the foot of
the tree at each turn.132

During the month of Shrāvan (the tenth month) and during the
Purushottama (or the intercalatory) month, men and women observe a
number of vows, in respect of which, every morning and evening, they take
turns round holy images and objects.133

People observing the chāturmās-vrat (or monsoon vow), called Tulsi-

vivāha (marriage of Tulsi), worship that plant and take turns round it on
every eleventh day of both the bright and the dark halves of each of the
monsoon months.133 The gautrat-vrat (gau = cow) necessitates
perambulations round a cow, and the Vat-Sāvitri-vrat round the Vad or
banyan tree. The banyan tree is also circumambulated on the Kapilashashthi
day (the sixth day of the bright half of Mārgashīrsha, the second month) and
on the Amāvāsyā or the last day of Bhādrapada (the eleventh month).134

Women who are anxious to prolong the lives of their husbands take turns
round the Tulsi plant or the banyan tree. At each turn they wind a fine
cotton thread. At the end of the last turn, they throw red lac and rice over
the tree and place a betelnut and a pice or a half-anna piece before it.135

The Shāstras authorise four pradakshinās (or perambulations) for Vishnu,

three for the goddesses, and a half (or one and a half)136 for Shiva.137 But
the usual number of pradakshinās is either 5, 7, 21 or 108. In taking turns
round the image of Vishnu, one must take care to keep one’s right side
towards the image, while in the case of Shiva, one must not cross the
jalādhari138 or the small passage for conducting water poured over the
Shiva-linga.137

Sometimes in pradakshinās the votary repeats the name of the deity round
which the turns are taken while the priest recites the names of the gods in
Shlokas.139 Sometimes the following verse is repeated.140

पापोऽहं पापकर्माऽहं पापात्मा पापसंभवः ।

त्राहि मां पुण्डरीकाक्ष सर्वपापहरो भव ॥
यानि कानि च पापानि जन्मांतरकृ तानि च ।
तानि तानि विनश्यन्तु प्रदक्षिणपदेपदे ॥

‘I am sinful, the doer of sin, a sinful soul and am born of sin. O lotus-eyed
One! protect me and take away all sins from me. Whatever sins I may have
committed now as well as in my former births, may every one of them
perish at each footstep of my pradakshinā.’

The recitation and the turns are supposed to free the soul from the pherā of
lakh-choryasi141. Alms are given many times to the poor after
pradakshinās.142

The reason why pradakshinās are taken during the day is that they have to
be taken in the presence of the sun, the great everlasting witness of all
human actions.143

As all seeds and vegetation receive their nourishment from solar and lunar
rays, the latter are believed in the same way to help embryonic
development.144

The heat of the sun causes the trees and plants to give forth new sprouts,
and therefore he is called ‘Savita’ or Producer.145 Solar and lunar rays are
also believed to facilitate and expedite delivery.146 The medical science of
the Hindus declares the Amāvāsya (new-moon day) and Pūrnima (full-
moon day) days—on both of which days the influence of the sun and the
moon is most powerful—to be so critical for child-bearing women as to
cause, at times, premature delivery.147 Hence, before delivery, women are
made to take turns in the sunlight and also in moonlight, in order to
invigorate the fœtus, thus securing that their delivery may be easy. [The
assistance rendered by solar rays in facilitating the delivery is said to impart
a hot temperament to the child so born, and that by the lunar rays a cool
one.]148 After delivery, a woman should glance at the sun with her hands
clasped, and should offer rice and red flowers to him.149 Sitting in the sun
after delivery is considered beneficial to women enfeebled by the effort.150
It is a cure for the paleness due to exhaustion,151 and infuses new vigour.152
The Bhils believe that the exposure of a new-born child to the sun confers
upon the child immunity from injury by cold and heat.153

The practice of making recently delivered women sit in the sun does not
seem to be widespread, nor does it prevail in Kathiawar. In Kathiawar, on
the contrary, women are kept secluded from sunlight in a dark room at the
time of child-birth, and are warmed by artificial means.154 On the other
hand, it is customary in many places to bring a woman into the sunlight
after a certain period has elapsed since her delivery. The duration of this
period varies from four days to a month and a quarter. Sometimes a woman
is not allowed to see sunlight after child-birth until she presents the child to
the sun with certain ceremonies, either on the fourth or the sixth day from
the date of her delivery.155

A ceremony called the Shashthi-Karma is performed on the sixth day after

the birth of a child, and the Nāmkaran ceremony—the ceremony of giving a
name—on the twelfth day. The mother of the child is sometimes not
allowed to see the sun before the completion of these ceremonies.156
Occasionally, on the eleventh day after child-birth, the mother is made to
take a bath in the sun.157

Exactly a month and a quarter from the date of delivery a woman is taken to
a neighbouring stream to offer prayers to the sun and to fetch water thence
in an earthen vessel. This ceremony is known as Zarmāzaryan.158 Seven
small betel-nuts are used in the ceremony. They are carried by the mother,
and distributed by her to barren women, who believe that, by eating the nuts
from her hand, they are likely to conceive.159

In difficult labour cases, chakrāvā water is sometimes given to women. The

chakrāvā is a figure of seven cross lines drawn on a bell-metal dish, over
which the finest white dust has been spread. This figure is shown to the
woman in labour: water is then poured into the dish and offered her to
drink.160 The figure is said to be a representation of Chitrangad.161 It is
also believed to be connected with a story in the Mahābhāarata.162
Subhadrā, the sister of god Krishna and the wife of Arjuna, one of the five
Pāndavas, conceived a demon, an enemy of Krishna. The demon would not
leave the womb of Subhadrā even twelve months after the date of her
conception, and began to harass the mother. Krishna, the incarnation of god,
knowing of the demon’s presence and the cause of his delay, took pity on
the afflicted condition of his sister and read chakrāvā, (Chakravyūha) a
book consisting of seven chapters and explaining the method of conquering
a labyrinthine fort with seven cross-lined forts. Krishna completed six
chapters, and promised to teach the demon the seventh, provided he came
out. The demon ceased troubling Subhadrā and emerged from the womb.
He was called Abhimanyu. Krishna never read the seventh chapter for then
Abhimanyu would have been invincible and able to take his life. This
ignorance of the seventh chapter cost Abhimanyu his life on the field of
Kuru-kshetra in conquering the seven cross-lined labyrinthine forts. As the
art of conquering a labyrinthine fort when taught to a demon in the womb
facilitated the delivery of Subhadrā, a belief spread that drinking in the
figure of the seven cross-lined labyrinthine fort would facilitate the delivery
of all women who had difficulties in child-birth.162

The figure Swastika (literally auspicious), drawn as shown below, is an

auspicious sign, and is believed to be a mark of good luck and a source of
blessings. It is one of the sixteen line-marks on the sole of the lotus-like feet
of the god Ishwar, the Creator of the Universe.163 The fame of the good
effects of the Swastika figure is said to have been first diffused throughout
society by Nārad-Muni, as instructed by the god Brahma.164
Various conjectures have been made concerning the origin of this figure.
The following explanation is found in a work named Siddhāntsar. The
Eternal Sat or Essence, that has neither beginning nor end nor any maker,
exhibits all the religious principles in a chakra or a wheel-form. This round
shape has no circumference; but any point in it is a centre; which being
specified, the explanation of the whole universe in a circle is easy. Thus the
figure ☉ indicates the creation of the universe from Sat or Essence. The
centre with the circumference is the womb, the place of creation of the
universe. The centre then expanding into a line, the diameter thus formed
represents the male principle, linga-rūp, that is the producer, through the
medium of activity in the great womb or mahā-yoni. When the line assumes
the form of a cross, it explains the creation of the universe by an
unprecedented combination of the two distinct natures, animate and
inanimate. The circumference being removed, the remaining cross
represents the creation of the world. The Swastika, or Sathia, as it is
sometimes called, in its winged form (卍) suggests the possession of
creative powers by the opposite natures, animate and inanimate.165

Another theory is that an image of the eight-leaved lotus, springing from the
navel of Vishnu, one of the Hindu Trinity, was formerly drawn on
auspicious occasions as a sign of good luck. The exact imitation of the
original being difficult, the latter assumed a variety of forms, one of which
is the Swastika.166

Some people see an image of the god Ganpati in the figure. That god being
the master and protector of all auspicious ceremonies has to be invoked on
all such occasions. The incapacity of the devotees to draw a faithful picture
of Ganpati gave rise to a number of forms which came to be known by the
name of Swastika.167
There are more ways than one of drawing the Swastika, as shown below,
but the original form was of the shape of a cross. The first consonant of the
Gujarati alphabet, ka, now drawn thus ક, was also originally drawn in the
form of a cross (+). Some persons therefore suppose that the Swastika may
be nothing more than the letter ક (ka), written in the old style and standing
for the word kalyān or welfare.168

Though the Swastika is widely regarded as the symbol of the sun, some
people ascribe the figure to different deities, viz., to Agni,169 to Ganpati,170
to Laxmi,171 to Shiva,172 besides the sun. It is also said to represent Swasti,
the daughter of Brahma, who received the boon from her father of being
worshipped on all auspicious occasions.173 Most persons, however, regard
the Swastika as the symbol of the sun. It is said that particular figures are
prescribed as suitable for the installation of particular deities: a triangle for
one, a square for another, a pentagon for a third, and the Swastika for the
sun.174 The Swastika is worshipped in the Ratnagiri district, and regarded
as the symbol as well as the seat of the Sun-god.175 The people of the
Thana district believe the Swastika to be the central point of the helmet of
the sun; and a vow, called the Swastika-vrat, is observed by women in its
honour. The woman draws a figure of the Swastika and worships it daily
during the Chāturmās (the four months of the rainy season), at the
expiration of which she presents a Brahman with a golden or silver plate
with the Swastika drawn upon it.176

A number of other ideas are prevalent about the significance of the

Swastika. Some persons believe that it indicates the four directions;177
some think that it represents the four mārgas—courses or objects of human
desires—viz., (1) Dharma, religion; (2) Artha, wealth; (3) Kām, love; (4)
Moksha, salvation.178 Some again take it to be an image of the ladder
leading to the heavens.179 Others suppose it to be a representation of the
terrestrial globe, and the four piles of corn placed in the figure, as shown
below (p. 16) represent the four mountains, Udayāchala, Astāchal, Meru
and Mandārāchala.180 The Swastika is also believed to be the foundation-
stone of the universe.181

The Swastika is much in favour with the gods as a seat or couch, and as
soon as it is drawn it is immediately occupied by some deity.182 It is
customary therefore to draw the Swastika on most auspicious and festive
occasions, such as marriage and thread ceremonies, the first pregnancy
ceremonies and the Divali holidays.183 In the Konkan the Swastika is
always drawn on the Antarpāt, or the piece of cloth which is held between
the bride and the bridegroom at the time of a Hindu wedding.184 And at the
time of the Punyāha-wāchan, a ceremony which precedes a Hindu wedding,
the figure is drawn in rice and is worshipped.184 Throughout the Chāturmās
some persons paint the auspicious Swastikas, either on their thresholds or at
their doors, every morning.185

On the sixth day from the date of a child’s birth, a piece of cloth is marked
with a Swastika in red lac, the cloth is stretched on a bedstead and the child
is placed upon it.186 An account of this ceremony is to be found in the
treatises Jayantishastra, Jātakarma, and Janakālaya.186

Before joining the village-school, little boys are made to worship Saraswati,
the goddess of learning, after having installed her on a Swastika, in order
that the acquisition of learning may be facilitated.187

A Brahman host, inviting a party of brother-Brahmans to dinner, marks the

figure one (૧) against the names of those who are eligible for dakshinā, and
a Swastika against the names of those who are not eligible. These latter are
the yajamāns or patrons of the inviting Brahman, who is himself their
pūjya, i.e., deserving to be worshipped by them. A bindu or dot, in place of
the Swastika, is considered inauspicious.188

The Swastika is used in calculating the number of days taken in pilgrimage

by one’s relations, one figure being painted on the wall each day from the
date of separation.188

It is said that the Swastika when drawn on a wall is the representation of

Jogmāya. Jogmāya is a Natural Power, bringing about the union of two
separated beings.189

The Jains paint the Swastika in the way noted below and explain the figure
in the following manner:—The four projectors indicate four kinds of souls:
viz., (1) Manushya or human, (2) Tiryach or of lower animals, (3) Deva or
divine, (4) Naraki or hellish. The three circular marks denote the three
Ratnas or jewels, viz., (1) Jnān or knowledge, (2) Darshana or faith, (3)
Charita or good conduct; and the semi-circular curve, at the top of the three
circles, indicates salvation.190
Every Jain devotee, while visiting the images of his gods, draws a Sathia
(Swastika)191 before them and places a valuable object over it. The sign is
held so sacred that a Jain woman has it embroidered on the reticule or
kothali in which she carries rice to holy places.192

‘I am the very light of the sun and the moon,’ observes Lord Krishna in his
dialogue with Arjuna,193 and the moon also receives divine honours like the
sun. Moon-worship secures wealth, augments progeny, and betters the
condition of milch-cattle.194 The suitable days for such worship are the
second and the fourth days of the bright half of every month (Dwitīya or Bīj
and Chaturthi or Choth, respectively) and every full-moon day (Purnima or
Punema). On either of these days the devotees of Chandra (the moon) fast
for the whole of the day and take their food only after the moon has risen
and after they have seen and worshipped her.195 Some dainty dish such as
kansār,196 or plantains and puris,197 is specially cooked for the occasion.

A sight of the moon on the second day of the bright half of every month is
considered auspicious. After seeing the moon on this day some people also
look at silver and gold coins for luck.198 The belief in the value of this
practice is so strong that, immediately after seeing the moon, people refrain
from beholding any other object. Their idea is that silver, which looks as
bright as the moon, will be obtained in abundance if they look at a silver
piece immediately after seeing the moon.199 Moon worship on this day is
also supposed to guarantee the safety of persons at sea.200 In the south,
milk and sugar is offered to the moon after the usual worship, and learned
Brahmans are invited to partake of it. What remains after satisfying the
Brahmans is divided among the community.199 On this day, those who keep
cattle do not churn whey nor curd milk nor sell it, but consume the whole
supply in feasts to friends and neighbours.201 The Ahirs and Rabaris
especially are very particular about the use of milk in feasts only: for they
believe that their cattle are thereby preserved in good condition.202

The fourth day of the dark half of every month is the day for the observance
of the chaturthi-vrat (or choth-vrat). This vrat is observed in honour of the
god Ganpati and by men only. The devotees fast on this day, bathe at night
after seeing the moon, light a ghi lamp, and offer prayers to the moon. They
also recite a pāth containing verses in honour of Ganpati, and, after
worshipping that god, take their food consisting of some specially prepared
dish. This vrat is said to fulfil the dreams of the devotees.203

The day for the chaturthi-vrat in the month of Bhādrapad (the 11th month
of the Gujarati Hindus) is the fourth day of the bright half instead of the
fourth day of the dark half,204 and on this day (Ganesh Chaturthi205) the
moon is not worshipped. The very sight of her is regarded as ominous, and
is purposely avoided.206 The story is that once upon a time the gods went
out for a ride in their respective conveyances. It so happened that the god
Ganpati fell off his usual charger, the rat, and this awkward mishap drew a
smile from Chandra (the moon). Ganpati, not relishing the joke, became
angry and cursed Chandra saying that no mortal would care to see his face
on that day (which happened to be the fourth day of the bright half of
Bhādrapad). If any one happens to see the moon even unwittingly on this
day, he may expect trouble very soon.207 There is one way, however, out of
the difficulty, and that is to throw stones on the houses of neighbours. When
the neighbours utter abuse in return, the abuse atones for the sin of having
looked at the moon on the forbidden night. The day is therefore called (in
Gujarat) Dagad-choth, i.e., the Choth of stones.208
On the fourth day of the dark half of Phālgun (the 5th month of Gujarati
Hindus) some villagers fast for the whole of the day and remain standing
from sunset till the moon rises. They break their fast after seeing the moon.
The day is, therefore, called ubhi (i.e., standing) choth.209

Virgins sometimes observe a vow on Poshi-Punema or the full-moon day of

Pausha (the 3rd month of the Gujarati Hindus). On this day a virgin
prepares her evening meal with her own hands on the upper terrace of her
house. She then bores a hole through the centre of a loaf, and observes the
moon through it, repeating while doing so a verse210 which means: O
Poshi-Punemadi, khichadi (rice and pulse mixed together) is cooked on the
terrace, and the sister of the brother takes her meal.211 The meal usually
consists either of rice and milk or of rice cooked in milk and sweetened
with sugar, or of kansār. She has to ask the permission of her brother or
brothers before she may take her food; and if the brother refuses his
permission, she has to fast for the whole of the day.212 The whole ceremony
is believed to prolong the lives of her brothers and her future husband. The
moon is also worshipped at the time of griha-shānti, i.e., the ceremonies
performed before inhabiting a newly-built house.213

If the moon is unfavourable to a man born under a particular constellation,

on account of his occupying either the 6th, the 8th or the 12th square in a
kundali214 (see below) prayers are offered to the moon; and if the occasion
is a marriage, a bell-metal dish, full of rice, is presented to Brahmans.215
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