  1 (19)

 ,n  m
 sinc (2Wt  n) sinc (2Wt  m) dt=  2W
 0, n  m

 Eq.(15) represents the expansion of the signal g (t ) as an infinite sum of orthogonal functions
with the coefficients of the expansion, defined by
 (20)
 n 
g   2w  g (t ) sinc (2Wt  n) dt
 2W  

 The coefficients g (n / 2W ) of this expansion are coordinates in an infinite-dimensional signal

space.
 In this space each signal corresponds to precisely one point and each point to one signal.

(2) Statement of the Sampling Theorem:

5. Give the statement of sampling theorem. (Nov 2013, Dec 2010, May 2012)

 The sampling theorem* for band-limited signals of finite energy in two separate parts
1. If a finite-energy signal g (t ) contains no frequencies higher than W hertz, it is completely
determined by specifying its ordinates at a sequence of points spaced 1/2W seconds apart.
2. If a finite-energy signal g (t ) contains no frequencies higher than W hertz, it may be
completely recovered from its ordinates at a sequence of points spaced 1/2W seconds
apart.
 Part 1 is a restatement of Eq. (10), and part 2 is restatement of Eq. (15).
 Nyquist rate:The minimum sampling rate of 2W samples per second, for a signal bandwidth of
W hertz, iscalled the Nyquist rate.
 Nyquist interval :The reciprocal, 1/2W, is called the Nyquist interval.
 The sampling theorem is the beginning for the interchangeability of analog signals and
digital sequences, which is so valuable in digital communication systems.
5.4.2 Types of sampling (Practical Sampling):
6. What are the types of sampling? (or)What is natural sampling and flat top sampling? (May 2010)
1. Ideal Sampling (or)Instantaneous sampling (or) Impulse sampling:

Fig 5(a) Functional diagram of a Fig 5(b) Message x(t ) and sampled x (t )

10
 switching sampler signals

 Ideal sampling is same as instantaneous sampling.

 Fig.5(a)shows the switching sampler.
 If closing time't' of the switch approaches zero the output x (t ) gives only

instantaneous value. The waveforms are shown in Fig. 5(b).

 Since the width of the pulse approaches zero, the instantaneous sampling gives train of
impulsesin x (t ) . The area of each impulse in the sampled version is equal to

instantaneous value of input signal x(t ) .

2. Natural Sampling (or) Chopper Sampling:

Figure6. Natural sampling

 Although instantaneous sampling is a convenient model, a more practical way of
sampling a band-limited analog signal m(t) is performed by high-speed switching
circuits.
 An equivalent circuit employing a mechanical switch and the resulting sampled signal
are shown in Fig. 6(a) and (b),respectively.
 The sampled signal xns (t ) can be written as

xns (t )  m(t ) x p (t )  (1)

Where x p (t ) is the periodic train of rectangular pulses with period Ts, and each

rectangular pulse in x p (t ) has width d and unit amplitude.

 The sampling here is termed natural sampling, since the top of each pulse in xns (t )
retains the shape of its corresponding analog segment during the pulse interval.
3. Flat-Top Sampling (or) Rectangular Pulse Shaping:

11
 Figure 7.Flat-top Sampling
 The simplest and thus most popular practical sampling method is actually performed
by a functional block termed the sample-and-hold (S/H) circuit [Fig. 7(a)].
 This circuit produces a flat-top sampled signal xs (t ) [Fig. 7(b)].

5.4.3 Comparison of Various Sampling Techniques

7. Compare the types of sampling.

12
5.10 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
Discuss about the generation of PAM and its demodulation. [Nov/Dec 2010]
Introduction
 The amplitude of the pulse carrier is changed in proportion with the instantaneous amplitude
of the modulating signal.
Types of PAM
Depending upon the shape of the PAM pulse, there are two types of PAM. They are:
(i) Natural PAM
(ii) Flat top PAM
The flat top pulses have constant amplitude within the pulse interval.
Why flat top PAM is widely used?
 During the transmission, the noise interferes with the flat top of the transmitted pulses and this
noise can be easily removed.
 In natural samples PAM, the pulse has varying top in accordance with the signal variation.
 When such type of pulse is received by the receiver, it always seems to be contaminated by
noise.
 Then it becomes quite difficult to determine the shape of the top of the pulse and therefore
amplitude detection of those pulses is not exact.
 As a result of this, errors are introduced in the received signal.
 The electronic circuitry needed to perform natural sampling is somewhat complicated because
the pulse top shape is to be maintained. These complications are reduced by flat-top PAM.
Natural PAM
Generation of natural PAM
 The modulating signal x (t) is passed through a low pass filter which will band limit this signal
to fm.
 That means all the frequency components higher than the frequency fm are removed.
 Band limiting is necessary to avoid the “aliasing” effect in the sampling process.
 The pulse train generator generates a pulse train of frequency fs, such that fs > 2 fm. Thus the
Nyquist criterion is satisfied. This is nothing but sampling signal.

29
 Fig : Generation of PAM

Fig : Waveforms of natural PAM generation

 The continuous time signal x (t) is applied at the input of a multiplier.
 The other input is a sampling signal s (t), which is a periodic train of pulses with unit
amplitude and a period of “T s” seconds.
 The uniform sampling takes place at the multiplier block to generate the PAM signal.
 The information in the modulating signal is contained in the “amplitude variations” of the
pulsed carrier.
Detection of Natural PAM
 The PAM signal can be detected by passing it through a low pass filter, which is tuned to fm.
 So all high frequency ripples is removed and original modulating signal is recovered back.

Fig : Detection of natural PAM

30
 Fig : Waveforms of natural PAM detection
Flat top PAM
Generation of flat top PAM
 A sample and hold circuit is used to produce flat top sampled PAM. This consists of the two
field effect transistors (FET) switches and a capacitor.
 Flat top PAM signals are generated by applying the input modulating signal x (t) to charging
(sampling) switch.
 At the sampling instant, sampling switch is closed for a short duration by a short pulse applied
to a gate G1 of the transistor.
 During this period, the capacitor “C” quickly charged up to a voltage equal to the
instantaneous sample value of the incoming signal x (t).
 Now, the sampling switch is opened and capacitor „C‟ holds the charge.
 The discharge switch is then closed by a pulse applied to gate G2.
 Due to this, the capacitor “C” is discharged to zero volts.
 The discharges switch is then opened and thus capacitor has no voltage.

Fig (a): Circuit to generate flat top PAM

31
 Fig (b): Flat top PAM signal
Fig : Generation of flat top PAM
Detection of flat top PAM

Fig : Detection of flat top PAM

 Detector contains a low-pass reconstruction filter with cut off frequency slightly higher than
the maximum frequency present in the message signal x (t).
 The equalizer compensates for the aperture effect. It also compensates for the attenuation by a
low pass filter.
Transmission Bandwidth of PAM Signal
 In a PAM signal, the pulse duration τ is considered to be very small in comparison to the time

period (sampling period) Ts between any two samples.

τ << Ts ……..(1)

From sampling theorem,

fs ≥ 2 fm

1
 2 fm
Ts
1
Ts 
2 fm
From (1),
1
  Ts 
2 fm
 If the ON and OFF time of PAM pulse is same, then maximum frequency of the PAM pulse
will be,
1 1
f max  
  2

32
 τ τ
Fig: ON and OFF pulses of PAM
 Therefore, the bandwidth required for the transmission of a PAM signal would be equal to the

maximum frequency fmax.

BW  f max

1

2
1
But,  
2 fm
1
BW   f m
2
BW  f m

Advantage: Simple generation and detection

Disadvantages:
 Effect of additive noise is high in PAM.
 Transmission bandwidth required is too large.
 The transmission power is not constant due to the changes in amplitudes of PAM pulses.
**********************************************************************
5.11 Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)
Explain the concept of pulse time modulation in detail.
Explain the concept and method of generating of PWM. What are the advantages and application
of PTM? (May – 2013) [Nov/Dec 2013]
 In pulse time modulation, amplitude of pulse is held constant, whereas position of pulse is
made proportional to the amplitude of signal at the sampling instant.
 There are two types of pulse time modulation. They are:
 Pulse width modulation
 Pulse position modulation [Apr - 2019]

Explain the generation and detection of PWM with neat diagram. (April / May – 2011)
With neat diagram, explain the generation and detection of PPM.
5.11.1 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
Introduction

33
  The width of the carrier pulses varies in proportion with the amplitude of modulating signal.
 The amplitude and frequency of the PWM wave remains constant.
 Only the width changes.
 The information is contained in the width variation.
 The additive noise, changes the amplitude of the PWM signal.
 Using the limiter circuit at the receiver, unwanted amplitude variations are easily removed.

Fig: PWM signal

 Amplitude variations due to noise do not affect the performance. Thus PWM is more immune
to noise than PAM.
PWM signal generation
 A saw tooth signal acts as a sampling signal which is applied to inverting terminal of a
comparator.
 The modulating signal x (t) is higher than that of the saw tooth signal. This gives to a PWM
signal.

Fig : Block diagram of PWM and PPM generation

34
 Fig : PWM and PPM waveforms
PWM signal detection
 The PWM signal received at the input of the detection circuit contains noise.
 It is applied to pulse generator which regenerates the PWM signal and remove noises.
 The regenerated pulses are applied to a reference pulse generator.
 The reference pulse generator produces reference pulses with constant amplitude and pulse
width.
 These pulses are delayed by specific amount of delay.

Fig: Block diagram of PWM detection circuit

 The regenerated PWM pulses are also applied to a ramp generator.
 The ramp generator produces ramps for the duration of pulses such that height of ramp is
proportional to the widths of PWM pulses.
 The maximum ramp voltage is retained till the next pulse.
 The delayed reference pulses and the output of ramp generator is added with the help of adder.

35
 Fig : Waveform for PWM detection circuit
 The output of the adder is then clipped off at a threshold level to generate PAM signals at the
output of the clipper.
 A low pass filter is used to recover the original modulating signal from PAM signal.
Advantages
 In PWM noise is less because here amplitude is constant.
 No synchronization required between transmitter and receiver.
 It is easy to separate the signal from noise.
Disadvantages
 Variable pulse width causes variable power contents. So, transmission must be powerful
enough to handle the maximum width.
 Bandwidth requirement is higher than PAM.

5.11.2 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

 The amplitude and width of the pulses are kept constant but the position of each pulse is
varied in accordance with the amplitude of the sampled values of the modulating signal.

36
PPM signal generation

Fig : Generation of PPM signal

 To generate pulse position modulation, the PWM pulses obtained at the output of the
comparator are used as the trigger input to a monostable multivibrator.
 The monostable is triggered on negative (falling) edge of PWM.
 The output of monostable goes high. This voltage remains high for the fixed period then goes
low.
 As a result of shifting the trailing edges of PWM signal in proportion with the modulating
signal x (t), the PPM pulses also results in keep shifting.
PPM signal demodulation
 The received PPM signal is noise corrupted.
 The pulse generator develops a pulsed waveform at its output of fixed duration and applies
these pulses to reset pin (R) of a SR flip flop.

Fig : PPM demodulator circuit

 A fixed period reference pulse is generated from the incoming PPM.
 The SR flip flop is set by the reference pulses.
 Due to the set and reset signals applied to the flip-flop, a PWM signal is obtained in the output
which can be demodulated with a PWM demodulator.
Advantages
 Due to constant amplitude of pulses, the transmitted power always remains constant.
 It is easy to reconstruct PPM signal from the noise contaminated PPM signal.
Disadvantages
 Synchronization required between the transmitter and receiver.
 Large bandwidth requirement.

37
Difference Between PAM, PWM, and PPM
Difference Between PAM, PWM, and PPM

The below table gives the detailed difference between PWM, PAM, and PPM.

Sr. No. Parameter PAM PWM PPM

1 Type of Carrier Train of Pulses Train of Pulses Train of Pulses

Variable Characteristic
2 of the Pulsed Carrier Amplitude Width Position

Bandwidth
3 Requirement Low High High

4 Noise Immunity Low High High

Information Contained Amplitude Position

5 in Variations Width Variations Variations

6 Power efficiency (SNR) Low Moderate High

Varies with Varies with Remains

7 Transmitted Power amplitude of pulses variation in width Constant

Need to transmit
8 synchronizing pulses Not needed Not needed Necessary

Bandwidth Bandwidth
Bandwidth depends depends on the depends on the
on the width of the rise time of the rise time of the
9 Bandwidth depends on pulse pulse pulse

Instantaneous
Instantaneous Instantaneous transmitter
transmitter power transmitter power power remains
varies with the varies with the constant with
amplitude of the amplitude and the width of the
10 Transmitter power pulses width of the pulses pulses

Complexity of
generation and
11 detection Complex Easy Complex

Similarity with other

12 Modulation Systems Similar to AM Similar to FM Similar to PM

********************************************************

38
 5.12 Pulse-Code Modulation

15. Explain the operation of PCM in detail with proper block diagrams.
(May 2013, Nov 2013)(or)
Describe PCM waveform coder and decoder with neat sketch and list the merits
compared with analog coders. [Dec 2015] (or)
Explain in detail about temporal waveform encoding scheme. (or)
Explain pulse code modulation system with neat block diagram. [May 2016] [Apr - 2019]

 PCM is the most basic form of digital pulse modulation.

 In pulse-code modulation (PCM), a message signal is represented by a sequence of coded
pulses, this is accomplished by representing the signal in discrete form in both time and
amplitude.
 The basic operations performed in the transmitter of a PCM system are
 Sampling
 quantization, and
 encoding, as shown in Fig.;

Operations in the transmitter

 The low-pass filter, prior to sampling, is included just to prevent aliasing of the message
signal.
 In practice, an anti-alias (low-pass) filter is used at the front end of the sampler to reject
frequencies greater than Wbefore sampling,Figure14(a).

 The quantizing and encoding operations are usually performed in the same circuit, which is
called an analog-to-digital converter.

(i) Sampling
 The incoming message (baseband) signal is sampled with a train of rectangular pulses, narrow
enough to closely approximate the instantaneous sampling process.
 For perfect reconstruction of the message signal at the receiver, the sampling rate must be
greater than twice the highest frequency component Wof the message signal (in accordance
with the sampling theorem).
 Function of sampling: Sampling permits the reduction of the continuously varying message
signal (of some finite duration) to a limitednumber of discrete values per second.

39
 Figure14. The basic elements of a PCM system
(a) Transmitter, (b) transmission path,connecting the transmitter to the receiver, and (c) receiver.

(ii) Nonuniform Quantization

 The sampled version of the message signal is then quantized.
 It provides a newrepresentation of the signal that is discrete in both time and amplitude.

(iii) Encoding
 **The use of an encoding process to convert the discrete set of sample values to a more
suitable form of signal.
 **Code: Plan for representing this discrete set of values as a particular arrangement of
discrete events is called a code. One of the discrete events in a code is called a code element or
symbol.
 **Code word: A particular arrangement of symbols to represent a single value of the discrete
set is called a code word or character.
 In a binary code, each symbol may be either of two distinct values, such as a negative pulse or
positive pulse.

The two symbols of the binary code are customarily denoted as 0 and 1. In practice, a binary
code is preferred over other codes (e.g., ternary code) for two reasons:
1. The maximum advantage over the effects of noise in a transmission medium is
obtained by using a binary code, because a binary symbol withstands a relatively
high level of noise.
2. The binary code is easy to generate and regenerate.

40
Regeneration along the Transmission Path

 This capability is attained by reconstructing the PCM signal by means of a chain of

regenerative repeaters located at sufficiently close spacing along the transmission route.
 As illustrated in Figure15, three basic functions are performed by a regenerative repeater:
 Equalization, Timing and Decision making.
 **Equalizer: The equalizer shapes the received pulses so as to compensate for the effects of
amplitude and phase distortions produced by the transmission characteristics of the channel.
 **Timing circuitry:The timing circuitry provides a periodic pulse train, derived from the
received pulses; this is done for renewed sampling of the equalized pulses at the instants of
time where the signal-to-noise ratio is a maximum.
 **Decision-making device:The sample so extracted is compared to a predetermined threshold
in the decision-making device. In each bit interval, a decision is then made on whether the
received symbol is a 1 or 0 on the basis of whether the threshold is exceeded or not.
 If the threshold is exceeded, a clean new pulse representing symbol 1 is transmitted to the next
repeater.
Otherwise, another clean new pulse representing symbol 0 is transmitted.

 In this way, the accumulation of distortion and noise in a repeater span is removed.
 In practice, however, the regenerated signal departs from the original signal for two main
reasons:
1. The unavoidable presence of channel noise and interference causes the repeater to make
wrong decisions occasionally, thereby introducing bit errors into the regeneratedsignal.
2. If the spacing between received pulses deviates from its assigned value, a jitter is
introduced into the regenerated pulse position, thereby causing distortion.

Figure15. Block diagram of Regenerative repeater

41
 Operations in the Receiver

(i) Decoding and Expanding

 The first operation in the receiver is to regenerate (i.e., reshape and clean up) the received
pulses.
 These clean pulses are then regrouped into code words and decoded (i.e., mapped back) into
a quantized PAM signal.

 Decoding: The decoding process involves generating a pulse whose amplitude is the linear
sum of all the pulses in the code word; each pulse is weighted by its place value
(20 ,21 ,2 2 ,.........,2 R1 ) in the code, where R is the number of bits per sample.

 The sequence of decoded samples represents an estimate of the sequence of compressed

samples produced by the quantizer in the transmitter.
 In order to restore the sequence of decoded samples to their correct relative level, a subsystem
is used in the receiver called an expander (complementary to the compressor, used in the
transmitter).
 The combination of a compressorand an expander is referred to as a compander.

(ii) Reconstruction
 The final operation in the receiver is to recover the message signal.
 This operation isachieved by passing the expander output through a low-pass
reconstruction filterwhose cutoff frequency is equal to the message bandwidth.
 Recovery of the messagesignal is intended to signify estimation rather than exact
reconstruction.

5.13 Time Division Multiplexing:

16. Explain in detail about the process of Time division multiplexing. [May 2010, Nov 2011] (or)
What is TDM? Explain the difference between analog TDM and digital TDM. [May 2016]

 Concept of TDM:The transmission of the message samples engages the communication

channel for only a fraction of the sampling interval on a periodic basis, and in this way some
of the time interval between adjacent samples is cleared for use by other independent message
sources on a time-shared basis.

42
 ***Thetime-division multiplex (TDM) system, enables the joint utilization of a common
communication channel by a plurality of independent message sources without mutual
interferenceamong them.

FIGURE 16 Block diagram of TDM system.

 The concept of TDM is illustrated by the block diagram shown in Fig. 16.

Transmitting system:

Low-pass (anti-aliasing) filter:

 Each input message signal is first restricted in bandwidth by a low-pass anti-aliasing filter.
 It removes the frequencies that are non-essential to a satisfactory signal representation.

Commutator:

 The low-pass filter outputs are then applied to a commutator.

 It is usually implemented using electronic switching circuitry.
 The function of the commutator is twofold(dual):
(1) to take a narrow sample of each of the N input messages at a rate that is slightly higher
than 2W, where W is the cutoff frequency of the anti-aliasing filter, and
(2) to sequentially interleave these N samples inside the sampling interval Indeed, this latter
function is the essence of thetime-division multiplexing operation.

Pulse modulator:
 Next to the commutation process, the multiplexed signal is applied to a pulse modulator.
 Pulse modulator transforms the multiplexed signal into a form suitable for transmission over
the common channel.
 The use of time-division multiplexing introduces a bandwidth expansion factor N, because the
scheme must squeeze N samples derived from N independent message sources into a time slot
equal to one sampling interval.

43
Receiving System
Pulse Demodulator:
 At the receiving end of the system, the received signal is applied to a pulse demodulator,
which performs the reverse operation of the pulse modulator.

Decommutator:
 The narrow samples produced at the pulse demodulator output are distributed to the
appropriate low-pass reconstruction filters through a decommutator.
 Decommutator operates in synchronism with the commutator in the transmitter.
 This synchronization is essential for a satisfactory operation of the system.
 Synchronization depends on the method of pulse modulation used to transmit the multiplexed
sequence of samples.

Equalization:
 The TDM system is highly sensitive to dispersion in the common channel.
 A non-constant magnitude response of the channel and a nonlinear phase response, both being
measured with respect to frequency.
 Accordingly, equalization of both magnitude and phase responses of the channel is necessary
to ensure a satisfactory operation of the system; in effect, equalization compensates for
dispersion in the channel.
 However, unlike frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), to a first-order
approximation TDM is immune to nonlinearities in the channel as a source of cross-
talk.
 The reason for this behavior is that different message signals are not simultaneously
applied to the channel.

Synchronization
 For a PCM system with time-division multiplexing to operate satisfactorily, it is necessary that
the timing operations at the receiver, except for the time lost in transmission and regenerative
repeating, follow closely the corresponding operations at the transmitter.
 In a general way, this amounts to requiring a local clock at the receiver to keep the same time
as a distant standard clock at the transmitter, except that the local clock is delayed by an
amount equal to the time required to transport the message signals from the transmitter to the
receiver.

44
5.14 Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
[Apr - 2019]
Explain in detail about Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) .

 Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a scheme in which numerous signals are

combined for transmission on a single communications line or channel.
 It is analog multiplexing technique. Each signal is assigned a different frequency (sub
channel) within the main channel. its requires channel synchronization.
 FDM multiplexing technique is based on orthogonality of sinusoids.
 FDM requires that the bandwidth of a link should be greater than the combined bandwidths of
the various signals to be transmitted.
 Thus each signal having different frequency forms a particular logical channel on the link and
follows this channel only.
 These channels are then separated by the strips of unused bandwidth called guard bands.

These guard bands prevent the signals from overlapping as shown in Fig.

In FDM, signals to be transmitted must be analog signals. Thus digital signals need to be converted to
analog form, if they are to use FDM.

A typical analog Internet connection via a twisted pair telephone line requires approximately three
kilohertz (3 kHz) of bandwidth for accurate and reliable data transfer.

Twisted-pair lines are common in households and small businesses. But major telephone cables,
operating between large businesses, government agencies, and municipalities, are capable of much
larger bandwidths.

Advantages of FDM:
1. A large number of signals (channels) can be transmitted simultaneously.
2. FDM does not need synchronization between its transmitter and receiver for proper operation.
3. Demodulation of FDM is easy.
4. Due to slow narrow band fading only a single channel gets affected.

Disadvantages of FDM:
1. The communication channel must have a very large bandwidth.
2. Intermodulation distortion takes place.
3. Large number of modulators and filters are required.

45
4. FDM suffers from the problem of crosstalk.
5. All the FDM channels get affected due to wideband fading.

Applications of FDM
1. FDM is used for FM & AM radio broadcasting. Each AM and FM radio station uses a different
carrier frequency. In AM broadcasting, these frequencies use a special band from 530 to 1700 KHz.
All these signals/frequencies are multiplexed and are transmitted in air. A receiver receives all these
signals but tunes only one which is required. Similarly FM broadcasting uses a bandwidth of 88 to
108 MHz

2. FDM is used in television broadcasting.

3. First generation cellular telephone also uses FDM.

PROBLEMS

17. A PCM sinusoidal has a uniform quantizer followed by a ‘v’ bit encoder. Show that the rms
signal to noise ratio is approximately given by 1.8 + 6 v dB, assuming a sinusoidal input.
[April/May 2018]
Solution:
Assume that the modulating signal be a sinusoidal voltage, having peak amplitude Am. Let the
signal cover the complete excursion os representation levels.

The power of the signal will be,

v2
P
r
2
A 
 m 
 2
When R=1, the power P is normalized, i.e.,
Normalized power:
Am2
P
2 , with R=1 in the above equation
Therefore, The signal to quantization noise ratio is given by
P
( SNR) O 
 Q2
3P 2 R
 2
2
mmax

Substitute:
Am2
P mmax  Am
2 ,

46
 Am2
3
3P 2 R 3
( SNR) O  2
2  22 2 2 R  2 2 R  1.5  2 2 R
mmax Am 2

Expressing signal to noise ratio in dB,

(SNR)dB  10 log110.5  10 log10  1.76  (2v  10  0.3)
2R
2

( SNR)dB in PCM  1.8  6v; for sinusoidal signal

18. Show that the signal to noise power ratio of a uniform quantizer is PCM system increases
significantly with increase in number of bits per sample. Also determine the signal to
quantization noise ratio of an audio signal S t   4 sin(2 500t ) , which is quantized using a
10 bit PCM. [April/May 2018, Nov 2017]
Given:
S t   4 sin(2 500t )

Solution:
For 10 bit PCM
L  2n
n  10
 Number of levels = 1024
The amplitudeAmof sinusoidal waveform means that mp = 4 volts.
The total signal swing possible (-mpto +mp )will be 2mp= 8 volts.
The average signal power is
  Am 2   42 
Pave      8 watts
 2   2 
The interval,
2mp
V 
L
8

1024 levels
 7.81103 volt
Quantization noise,

Nq 
V 2
12
SNR:
 S   Pave 
SNR      8  12
 N   N  V 2
 q  q 

96

6.10  105

 15,73,770

SNRdB  10 log1573770
10  61.96dB

47
 UNIT V - SAMPLING & QUANTIZATION
TWO MARKS
1. What is Communication system?
The Communication System is the system which is used to transport an
information bearing signal from a source to a user destination via a communication
channel.
2. What are different categories of Communication Systems?
 Analog Communication Systems are designed to transmit analog information
using analog modulation methods.
 Digital Communication Systems are designed for transmitting digital information
using digital modulation schemes, and
 Hybrid Systems that use digital modulation schemes for transmitting sampled and
quantized values of an analog message signal.
3. How can BER of an system be improved? [NOV/DEC2012]
Increasing the transmitted signal power Employing modulation and demodulation
technique Employing suitable coding and decoding methods Reducing noise interference with
help of improved filtering.
4. Which parameter is called figure of merit of a digital communication systemand why?
[NOV/DEC 2010]
The ratio Eb/No or bit energy to noise power spectral density is called figure of merit
of a digital communication system
5. Define half power bandwidth. [NOV/DEC2011]
Half power bandwidth is the bandwidth where PSD of the signal drops to half (3dB) of
its maximum value.It is called 3dB bandwidth.
6. What is channel? Give examples. [Nov/Dec 2013]
A channel is used to convey an information signal, for example a digital bit stream,
from one or several senders (or transmitters) to one or several receivers. A channel has a
certain capacity for transmitting information, often measured by its bandwidth in Hz or its
data rate in bits per second.
Ex: Physical transmission medium such as a wire, logical connections over
multiplexed medium such as a radio channel.
7. Draw a typical digital communication system. [Nov/Dec 2012], [Nov/Dec 2011]

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 8. What are the Advantages of Digital Communication? [Nov/Dec 2013]
 The effect of distortion, noise and interference is less in a digital
communication system.
 Regenerative repeaters can be used at fixed distance along the link, to identify and
regenerate a pulse before it is degraded to an ambiguous state.
 Digitalcircuits are more reliableand cheaper compared to analog circuits.
 Signal processing functions like encryption, compression can be employed to maintain
the secrecy of the information.
 Error detecting and Error correcting codes improve the system performance by
reducing the probability of error.
9. What are Disadvantages of Digital Communication? (or)
State the demerits of digital communication. [May/June 2014]
 Large System Bandwidth:- Digital transmission requires a large system
bandwidth to communicate the same information in a digital format as compared
to analog format.
 System Synchronization:- Digital detection requires system synchronization
whereas the analog signals generally have no such requirement.
10. What is sampling process?
 SAMPLING: A message signal may originate from a digital or analog source. If the
message signal is analog in nature, then it has to be converted into digital form before
it can transmit by digital means.
 The process by which the continuous-time signal is converted into a discrete–time
signal is called Sampling.

SAMPLING THEOREM FOR LOW-PASS SIGNALS:-

11. Define sampling.rate. [Apr - 2019]
The bandpass signal g (t ) whose maximum bandwidth is 2W can be completely
represented into and recovered from its samples if it is sampled at the minimum rate of twice
the bandwidth.

12. Why prefilterring done before sampling? [AUC NOV/DEC 2010]

The signal must be limited to some highest frequency W Hz before sampling. Then the
signal is sampled at the frequency of fs=2W of higher. Hence the single should be prefiltered
at higher that W Hz.If the signal is not prefiltered, then frequency component higher that W
Hz will generate aliasing in the sampled signal spectrum.

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13. Draw the circuit theoretic representation of ideal sampling process.
This circuit-theoretic interpretation of g (t ) is depicted in Fig. (2)

Figure:Circuit-theoretic interpretation of the ideal sampling process as impulse modulation

where, g (t ) - Modulatiing wave, T s
-Carrier wave and g (t ) -Instantaneously sampled

value

14. Draw the spectrum of (a) analog signal g (t ) (b) Spectrum of sampled signal g (t ) for a

sampling rate f s  2W . (c) Ideal amplitude response of reconstruction filter.

Figure: (a) Spectrum of signal g (t ) . (b) Spectrum of sampled signal g (t ) for a sampling

rate f s  2W . (c) Ideal amplitude response of reconstruction filter.

15. Write about sinc function.

The sinc function exhibits an important property known as the interpolatory property,
which is describes as follows:
1, x  0
sincx = 
0, x  1,2,....

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16. Draw the block diagram of Reconstruction filter.
Reconstruction filter.

Figure: Reconstruction filter

17. Give the complete statement of sampling theorem. (or)

State sampling theorem for lowpass signals. [May/June 2009] (or)
State sampling theorem. [May/June 2014], [May/June 2012](or)
Define Band pass sampling. [April/May 2018]
Statement of the Sampling Theorem:
1. If a finite-energy signal contains no frequencies higher than W hertz, it is completely
determined by specifying its ordinates at a sequence of points spaced 1/2W seconds apart.
2. If a finite-energy signal contains no frequencies higher than W hertz, it may be completely
recovered from its ordinates at a sequence of points spaced 1/2W seconds apart.
18. Define Nyquist rate and Nyquist interval.
The minimum sampling rate of 2W samples per second, for a signal bandwidth of W
hertz, is called the Nyquist rate.Correspondingly, the reciprocal, 1/2W, is called the Nyquist
interval.
19. What are the different types of sampling?
Types of sampling (Practical Sampling):
1. Ideal sampling
2. Natural sampling
3. Flat top sampling
20. Wirte in short about Ideal Sampling (or)Instantaneous sampling (or) Impulse sampling.
Ideal Sampling (or)Instantaneous sampling (or) Impulse sampling:

Fig (a) Functional diagram of a Fig (b) Message x(t ) and sampled x (t ) signals
switching sampler

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  Ideal sampling is same as instantaneous sampling.
 Fig. (a)shows the switching sampler.
 If closing time 't' of the switch approaches zero the output x (t ) gives only
instantaneous value. The waveforms are shown in Fig. (b).
 Since the width of the pulse approaches zero, the instantaneous sampling gives train of
impulses in x (t ) . The area of each impulse in the sampled version is equal to
instantaneous value of input signal x(t ) .

21. Write about Natural Sampling (or) Chopper Sampling.

Natural Sampling (or) Chopper Sampling:

Fig. 5.3. Natural sampling

 Although instantaneous sampling is a convenient model, a more practical way of
sampling a band-limited analog signal m(t) is performed by high-speed switching
circuits.
 An equivalent circuit employing a mechanical switch and the resulting sampled signal
are shown in Fig. 5-3(a) and (b),respectively.
 The sampled signal xns (t ) can be written as
xns (t )  m(t ) x p (t ) (5.4)
Where x p (t ) is the periodic train of rectangular pulses with period Ts, and each
rectangular pulse in x p (t ) has width d and unit amplitude.
 The sampling here is termed natural sampling, since the top of each pulse in xns (t )
retains the shape of its corresponding analog segment during the pulse interval.
22. Write about Flat top sampling (or) rectangular pulse shaping.
Flat-Top Sampling (or) Rectangular Pulse Shaping:

Fig. 5.4.Flat-top Sampling

 The simplest and thus most popular practical sampling method is actually performed
by a functional block termed the sample-and-hold (S/H) circuit [Fig. 5-4(a)].
 This circuit produces a flat-top sampled signal xs (t ) [Fig. 5-4(b)].

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23. Compare Instantaneous, Natural and flat top sampling techniques.
Comparison of Various Sampling Techniques:

24. What is aliasing in sampling process? [May/June 2016], [Nov/Dec 2012]

Aliasing Phenomenon

Fig. (a) Spectrum of a signal. (b) Spectrum of an undersampled version of the signal,
exhibiting the aliasing phenomenon.

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  Aliasing refers to the phenomenon of a high-frequency component in the spectrum of the
signal seemingly taking on the identity of a lower frequency in the spectrum of its sampled
version, as illustrated in Fig.

25. What are the corrective measures of aliasing effects?[Nov/Dec 2012]

To combat the effects of aliasing in practice, we may use two corrective measures:
1. Prior to sampling, a low-pass anti-alias filter is used to attenuate the high-
frequencycomponents of a message signal that are not essential to the information..
2. The filtered signal is sampled at a rate slightly higher than the Nyquist rate.

26. Draw the spectrum of (a) Anti-alias filtered spectrum of an information-bearing signal.
(b) Spectrum of instantaneously sampled version of the signal, assuming the use of a
sampling rate greater than the Nyquist rate. (c) Idealized amplitude response of the
reconstruction filter.

Fig 5.4 (a) Anti-alias filtered spectrum of an information-bearing signal. (b) Spectrumof
instantaneously sampled version of the signal, assuming the use of a sampling rate greaterthan the
Nyquist rate. (c)Idealized amplitude response of the reconstruction filter.
Reconstruction of a message process from its samples:

27. Write about the nature of reconstruction of samples.

If a stationary message process contains no frequencies higher than W hertz, it may be
reconstructed from its samples at a sequence of points spaced 1/2Wseconds apart with zero
mean squared error (i.e., Zero error power).

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Quantization
28. What is meant by amplitude quantization?
Amplitude quantization is defined as the process of transforming the sample amplitude
m(nTs) of a message signal m(t) at time t = nTs into a discrete amplitude v(nTs) taken from a
finite set of possible amplitudes.
The discrete amplitudes mk,k = 1, 2, ... , L, at the quantizer input are called decision
levels or decision thresholds.

29. Compare uniform and non uniform quantization. [AUC NOV/DEC 2011]
S.NO UNIFORM QUANTIZATION NON QUANTIZATION
1 The quantization step size remains The quantization step size varies with the
samethroughout the dynamic range amplitude of the input signal
of the signal
2 SNR ratio varies with input signal amplitude SNR ratio can be maintained constant

30. What are the types of quantizers?

Quantizers can be of a uniform or nonuniform type. In a uniform quantizer,
therepresentation levels are uniformly spaced; otherwise, the quantizer is nonuniform.

Uniform & non-uniform quantization:

31. Write about uniform quantizer.

a. Uniform quantizer
b. Nonuniform quantizer

FIGURE.Two types of quantization: (a) midtread and (b) midrise.

 In a uniform quantizer, the representation levels are uniformly spaced; otherwise, the
quantizer is nonuniform.

32. Write a note on uniform quantizer.

Uniform Quantization
 The quantizer characteristic can also be of a midtread or midrise type.

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 Figure (above) shows the input–output characteristic of a uniform quantizer of the midtread
type,which is called as uniform, because the origin lies in the middle of a tread of the
staircase-like graph.

33. Write about Nonuniformquantizer.

Nonuniform Quantization
 The nonuniformquantizer with the feature that the step size increasesas the separation from the
origin of the input–output amplitude characteristic isincreased, the large end-step of the
quantizer can take care of possible excursions ofthe voice signal into the large amplitude
ranges that occur relatively infrequently.
34. Write about   law .
A particular form of compression law that is used in practice is the so called   law defined
by

(01)
where the logarithm is the natural logarithm; m and are respectively the normalized input and
output voltages, and  is a positive constant.

35. Write about A  law .

 One of the compression law that is used in practice is the A-law, defined by

(03)
which is shown plotted in Fig. 5.12(b). Typical values of A used in pratice tend to be in the
vicinity of 100. The case of uniform quantization corresponds to A  1 .

 The reciprocal slope of this second compression curve is given by the derivative of m with

respect to v as shown by

(04)

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Quantization noise

36. Draw the diagram to illustrate Quantization process.

Fig. 3.11. Illustration of Quantization process

37. Write about Quantization noise.
 The use of quantization introduces an error defined as the difference between the input signal
m and the output signal v. The error is called quantization noise.
 Figure 3.11 illustrates a typical variation of the quantization noise as a function of time,
assuming the use of a uniform quantizer of the midtread type.
38. Write about the quantizer step-size.
 Consider then an input m of continuous amplitude in the range (-mmax, mmax).
 Assuming a uniform quantizer of the midrise type, we find that the step-size of the quantizer is
given by

2mmax
 (04)
L

where L is the total number of representation levels.

 For a uniform quantizer, the quantization error Q will have its sample values bounded by
 / 2  q  / 2.
39. What will happen if the quantization step size is smaller?
If the step-size  is sufficiently small (i.e., the number of representation levels L is
sufficiently large), it isreasonable to assume that the quantization error Q is a uniformly
distributed random variable, and the interfering effect of the quantization noise on the
quantizer input is similar to that of thermal noise.

40. Write the expression for probability density function. (or)

Derive the expression for quantization noise of a PCM system. [Nov 2017]
The expression for the probability density function of the quantization error Q as follows:

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 41. Write the expression for the output SNR of a uniform quantizer.
Let P denote the average power of the message signal m(t). We may then express the
output signal-to-noise ratio of a uniform quantizer as
P
( SNR)O =
 Q2
3P 2 R
= 2
2
mmax
Logarithmic Companding of speech signal

42. What is companding? [May/June 2016]

 Companding is simply a system in which information is first compressed, transmitted through
a bandwidthlimited channel, and expanded at the receiving end.
 It is frequently used to reduce the bandwidth requirements for transmitting telephone quality
speech, by reducing the 13-bit codewords to 8-bit codewords.

Pulse Amplitude Modulation

43. What is PAM?write its types.

 The amplitude of the pulse carrier is changed in proportion with the instantaneous amplitude
of the modulating signal.
Types of PAM
Depending upon the shape of the PAM pulse, there are two types of PAM. They are:
(iii) Natural PAM
(iv) Flat top PAM

44. Why flat top PAM is widely used? [Dec – 2016]

 During the transmission, the noise interferes with the flat top of the transmitted pulses and this
noise can be easily removed.
 In natural samples PAM, the pulse has varying top in accordance with the signal variation.
 When such type of pulse is received by the receiver, it always seems to be contaminated by
noise.
 Then it becomes quite difficult to determine the shape of the top of the pulse and therefore
amplitude detection of those pulses is not exact.
 As a result of this, errors are introduced in the received signal.
 The electronic circuitry needed to perform natural sampling is somewhat complicated because
the pulse top shape is to be maintained. These complications are reduced by flat-top PAM.

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 45. What are the advantages and disadvantages of PAM?
Advantage: Simple generation and detection
Disadvantages:
 Effect of additive noise is high in PAM.
 Transmission bandwidth required is too large.
 The transmission power is not constant due to the changes in amplitudes of PAM
pulses.
Pulse-Time Modulation
46. What is Pulse-Time Modulation and its types?
 In pulse time modulation, amplitude of pulse is held constant, whereas position of
pulse is made proportional to the amplitude of signal at the sampling instant.
There are two types of pulse time modulation. They are:
 Pulse width modulation
 Pulse position modulation
47. Define Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
 The width of the carrier pulses varies in proportion with the amplitude of modulating signal.
 The amplitude and frequency of the PWM wave remains constant.
 Only the width changes.
 The information is contained in the width variation.
 The additive noise, changes the amplitude of the PWM signal.
 Using the limiter circuit at the receiver, unwanted amplitude variations are easily removed.
48. Draw the waveform of PWM.

Fig: PWM signal

 Amplitude variations due to noise do not affect the performance. Thus PWM is more immune
to noise than PAM.

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49. Draw the block diagram and waveform of PWM and PPM.

Fig : Block diagram of PWM and PPM generation

Fig : PWM and PPM waveforms

50. Draw the Block diagram of PWM detection circuit.

Fig: Block diagram of PWM detection circuit

51. List the advantages and disadvantages of PWM.
Advantages
 In PWM noise is less because here amplitude is constant.
 No synchronization required between transmitter and receiver.
 It is easy to separate the signal from noise.
Disadvantages
 Variable pulse width causes variable power contents. So, transmission must be powerful
enough to handle the maximum width.
 Bandwidth requirement is higher than PAM.

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 52. Define Pulse Position Modulation (PPM).
The amplitude and width of the pulses are kept constant but the position of each pulse is
varied in accordance with the amplitude of the sampled values of the modulating signal.
53. Draw PPM demodulator circuit.

Fig : PPM demodulator circuit

54. List the advantages and disadvantages of PPM.
Advantages
 Due to constant amplitude of pulses, the transmitted power always remains constant.
 It is easy to reconstruct PPM signal from the noise contaminated PPM signal.
Disadvantages
 Synchronization required between the transmitter and receiver.
 Large bandwidth requirement.
55. Difference Between PAM, PWM, and PPM.

The below table gives the detailed difference between PWM, PAM, and PPM.

Sr. No. Parameter PAM PWM PPM

1 Type of Carrier Train of Pulses Train of Pulses Train of Pulses

Variable Characteristic
2 of the Pulsed Carrier Amplitude Width Position

Bandwidth
3 Requirement Low High High

4 Noise Immunity Low High High

Information Contained Amplitude Position

5 in Variations Width Variations Variations

6 Power efficiency (SNR) Low Moderate High

Varies with Varies with Remains

7 Transmitted Power amplitude of pulses variation in width Constant

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Pulse-Code Modulation
56. What is Pulse code modulation?
Pulse code modulation:
In pulse-code modulation (PCM), a message signal is represented by a sequence of
coded pulses, which is accomplished by representing the signal in discrete form in both time
and amplitude.
57. What are the basic operations performed in PCM?
The basic operations performed in the transmitter of a PCM system are sampling,
quantization, and encoding; the low-pass filter prior to sampling is included merely to prevent
aliasing of the message signal.
58. Write about quantization process in PCM.
The quantizing and encoding operations are usually performed in the same circuit,
which is called an analog-to-digital converter.

59. What are the operations performed in PCM receiver?

 The basic operations in the receiver are regeneration of impaired signals, decoding,
and reconstruction of the train of quantized samples.
 Regeneration also occurs at intermediate points along the transmission path as
necessary.
60. Write about sampling in PCM.
Sampling in PCM
 The incoming message (baseband) signal is sampled with a train of rectangular pulses, narrow
enough to closely approximate the instantaneous sampling process.
 Thus the application of sampling permits the reduction of the continuously varying message
signal (of some finite duration) to a limitednumber of discrete values per second.
61. What is the purpose of ternary code used in PCM?
The two symbols of the binary code are customarily denoted as 0 and 1. In practice, a binary
code is preferred over other codes (e.g.,ternary code) for two reasons:
1. Binary symbol withstands a relatively high level of noise.
2. The binary code is easy to generate and regenerate.
62. Draw the block diagram of Pulse code modulation.

FIGURE. The basic elements of a PCM system

(a) Transmitter, (b) transmission path,connecting the transmitter to the receiver, and (c) receiver.

62
63. In a PCM system, the output of the transmitting quantizer is digital. Then why is it
further encoded. [Nov 2017, May 2018]
In a PCM system, the output of the transmitting quantizer is digital. It is required to
translate the discrete set of sample values to a more appropriate form of the signal. So it is
further encoded.

64. Write about the regeneration in the transmission path of PCM.

Regeneration along the Transmission Path
Three basic functions are performed by a regenerative repeater: equalization, timing, and
decision making.
 The equalizer shapes the received pulses so as to compensate for the effects of amplitude and
phase distortions produced by the transmission characteristics of the channel.
 The timing circuitry provides a periodic pulse train, derived from the received pulses.

65. What are reasons for the regenerated signal departs from the original signal?
 In practice, however, the regenerated signal departs from the original signal for two main
reasons:
1. The unavoidable presence of channel noise and interference causes the repeater to make
wrong decisions, thereby introducing bit errors into the regeneratedsignal.
2. If the spacing between received pulses deviates from its assigned value, a jitter is
introduced into the regenerated pulse position, thereby causing distortion.

Fig. 5.13. Block diagram of Regenerative repeater

66. Explain the reconstruction process in PCM.
Reconstruction
 The final operation in the receiver is to recover the message signal.
 This operation isachieved by passing the expander output through a low-pass
reconstruction filterwhose cutoff frequency is equal to the message bandwidth.
 Recovery of the messagesignal is intended to signify estimation rather than exact
reconstruction.

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Time Division Multiplexing:
67. What is the need for TDM system? [Apr - 2019]
A time-division multiplex (TDM) system, which enables the joint utilization of a common
communication channel by a plurality of independent message sources without mutual
interference among them.
68. Draw the block diagram of TDM system.

FIGURE 5.21 Block diagram of TDM system.

69. What is the function of commutator?

The function of the commutator is twofold:
(1) to take a narrow sample of each of the N input messages at a rate that is slightly higher
than 2W, where W is the cutoff frequency of the anti-aliasing filter, and
(2) to sequentially interleave these N samples inside the sampling interval Indeed, this latter
function is the essence of thetime-division multiplexing operation.

70. Define Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) .

 Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a scheme in which numerous signals are
combined for transmission on a single communications line or channel.
 It is analog multiplexing technique. Each signal is assigned a different frequency (sub
channel) within the main channel. its requires channel synchronization.
71. Draw the block diagram of FDM.

64
72. List the advantages and disadvantages of FDM.
Advantages of FDM:
1. A large number of signals (channels) can be transmitted simultaneously.
2. FDM does not need synchronization between its transmitter and receiver for proper
operation.
3. Demodulation of FDM is easy.
4. Due to slow narrow band fading only a single channel gets affected.

Disadvantages of FDM:
1. The communication channel must have a very large bandwidth.
2. Intermodulation distortion takes place.
3. Large number of modulators and filters are required.
4. FDM suffers from the problem of crosstalk.
5. All the FDM channels get affected due to wideband fading.

73. Mention the applications of FDM.

Applications of FDM
1. FDM is used for FM & AM radio broadcasting.
2. FDM is used in television broadcasting.
3. First generation cellular telephone also uses FDM.

****

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