1.

1 Lithostratigraphic framework

The sediments of the South Caspian Basin have a total thickness of

approximately 20 km (Mangino and Priestley, 1998). The oil and gas bearing

Productive Series (PS) is part of the Pliocene sequence and has a thickness of >5000

m (Abrams and Narimanov; 1997). Based on the microfauna composition, the PS is

divided into a Lower and Upper division (Fig. 1.3). According to its lithological

composition, the PS has been subdivided into nine stratigraphic units (Reynolds et al.,

1998). The Lower Division consists of Kala Suite, Pre Kirmaky Suite, Kirmaky Suite,

Post Kirmaky Sand Suite and Post Kirmaky Clay Suite. The Upper Division comprises

Fasila Suite, Balakhany Suite, Sabunchy Suite and Surakhany Suite. Balakhany Suite

can further be subdivided into six sub-suites (Fig. 1.3). In general, the series is built-up

by alternating sandstone-siltstone-shale layers (Hinds et al., 2004; Reynolds et al.,

1998).

The Kala Suite (Fig. 1.4) on the Absheron Peninsula and Absheron Archipelago

comprises sandstones, siltstones, shales, chlidolites (unsorted sediment consisting of

equal amounts of quartz grains, feldspars grains and various rock fragments) and sand

loam. Based on seismic data the thickness of the Kala Suite reaches at least 350 m

near the Guneshli field (Fig. 1.2) in the northern part of the Absheron Archipelago

(Narimanov et al., 1998). In the Baku Archipelago, the suite consists of shales with

interbeds of sandstones and siltstones (Buryakovsky et al., 2001).

The Pre Kirmaky Suite (Fig. 1.4) on Absheron Peninsula and Absheron

Archipelago is built-up by sands, sandstones, siltstones and shale. The Pre Kirmaky

Suite is only poorly exposed on Absheron Peninsula. Its thickness is locally over 150 m

on the Absheron Peninsula (Abramovich and Mekhtiev, 1954), and 80 m in wells of the

10
Fig. 1.4. Simplified lithological column of the Productive Series on the Absheron
Peninsula (Hinds et al., 2004).

11
Bahar field. In the Baku Archipelago sandstones dominate the suite (Narimanov et al.,

1998).

The Post Kirmaky Sand Suite (Fig. 1.4) consists of sandstones with minor

interbeds of shale. On Absheron Peninsula the thickness of the suite is 35-40 m, in

Bahar field it increases to 60-70 m, with 60 % of the suite consisting of sandstones

(Narimanov et al., 1998).

The Post Kirmaky Clay Suite (Fig. 1.4) is built-up by shales and loams, with

some thin sandstone and siltstone beds in the lower part (Buryakovsky et al., 2001).

The thickness of the suite is 30-35 m on the Absheron Peninsula. In Bahar field, it

increases to 154 m (Narimanov et al., 1998).

The Fasila Suite (Fig. 1.4) is made up by shale and unsorted coarse-grained

rocks consisting of sandstone. In Kirmaky Valley, only the basal 35 m are well

exposed. The suite consists of sandstones (Fig.1.4; Reynolds et al., 1998). In Bahar

field its thickness is 167 m (Abdullayev et al., 1998) and in the Guneshly, Chirag and

Azeri fields (Fig. 1.2), the thickness of the suite is 110 m (Reynolds et al., 1998). In the

Baku Archipelago, the suite is built up mainly by shale (Buryakovsky et al., 2001).

The Balakhany Suite (Fig. 1.4) can be divided into Balakhany X-V subunits from

bottom to top (Kroonenberg et al., 2005). It consists of sandstones, siltstones, shales,

childolites, loams, and loamy sand (Buryakovsky et al., 2001). The lower sandy parts,

as exposed in Kirmaky Valley, show channelized, often cross bedded sandstones with

2-5 m thickness, displaying varying degrees of lateral accretion, and amalgamation and

intraformational mudclast conglomerates at the base (Fig.1.4). The suite is locally more

than 300 m thick, in the Bahar field even 586 m (Narimanov et al., 1998).

The Sabunchy Suite (Fig. 1.4) consists of siltstones, sandstones and shales. In

Yasamal Valley, the thickness of the suite is 220 m (Kroonenberg et al., 2005), in the

Bahar field, the thickness increases to 477 m (Narimanov et al., 1998).

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 The Surakhany Suite (Fig. 1.4) consists of silty shales, argillaceous siltstones,

sandstones, unsorted rocks, and rare gypsum interbeds (Buryakovsky et al., 2001). On

Absheron Peninsula its thickness is over 500 m (Kroonenberg et al., 2005) and in the

Bahar field, the thickness is 1647 m (Narimanov et al., 1998).

1.2 Provenance of the sediments of the Productive Series

During the Early Pliocene the western flank of the South Caspian Basin was

supplied with freshwater and terrigenous materials by the rivers Palaeo-Volga from the

north and Palaeo-Kura and Palaeo-Samur from the west (Fig. 1.5; Khalifazade and

Mursalov, 2007). Sedimentation rates of the PS were between 2000 and 3000 m/Ma in

the western flank of the South Caspian Basin (Khalifazade and Mursalov, 2007).

Previous studies showed that according to the mineralogical components, the

PS comprises two different type facies, the “Absheron facies” which is primarily derived

from the Palaeo-Volga river system and the “Kura Facies” which is primarily derived

from the Palaeo-Kura river system. The Russian Platform and the Greater Caucasus

are the potential source for the “Absheron Facies” and the Lesser Caucasus is the

potential source for the “Kura Facies” (Khalifazade and Mursalov, 2007). “Absheron

Facies” is characterised by a higher percentage of sand which is dominated by high

proportions of well sorted and well-rounded quartz delivered from the Russian Platform

and the Greater Caucasus (Buryakovsky et al., 2001). “Kura Facies” is characterised

by a higher amount of feldspars and lithic fragments (Morton et al., 2003).

The following characterization of the source rocks in the hinterland of the

research area is based on literature (Buryakovsky et al., 2003 and Mammadov and

Karimov, 1987).

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Fig. 1.5. Sketch of drainage systems during deposition of the Productive Series (after

Smith-Rouch, 2006).

Russian platform: The Palaeo-Volga drained the Russian Platform, which is

characterized by Precambrian, Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rocks. The Precambrian

sequences consists of biotite-garnet-gneiss, garnet-gneiss, amphibolite, amphibolite-

gneiss, beds of kaolinite, conglomerates and sandstones. The Cambrian sequences

consist of quartz sandstone with clay lenses. The Ordovician deposits are represented

by carbonate, schist, dolomite and limestone. The Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous

and Permian deposits consist mainly of limestone, dolomite and marl. The Triassic,

Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits consist of sandstones and shale.

14
 Greater Caucasus: The Palaeo-Volga also drained areas of the Greater

Caucasus, which are built up by Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits. Lower Jurassic

rocks (thickness ≥ 2000 m) are widely distributed in the Greater Caucasus. They are

composed of sandstones, diabase and gabbro-diabase. The middle Jurassic deposits

of the Greater Caucasus are divided into two parts: The lower part is characterized by

argillaceous rocks with rare interbeds of sandstones. The upper part is characterized

by quartz sandstones with rare shale. The Upper Jurassic deposits are mainly

composed of calcarenites and reef limestones, whereas the Lower and Upper

Cretaceous deposits consist of terrigenous-carbonaceous flysch.

Lesser Caucasus: The Palaeo-Kura mainly drained Jurassic and Cretaceous

deposits of the Lesser Caucasus. Lower Jurassic deposits are sparsely represented in

the Lesser Caucasus. The lower part of the Middle Jurassic deposits consists of lava

sheets and diabasic volcanics. The upper part of the Middle Jurassic deposits is

composed of quartz-porphyry with their volcanoclastic sequences. The Upper Jurassic

deposits are represented by reef limestones and volcanoclastic intervals. The Lower

Cretaceous deposits of the Lesser Caucasus consist of tuffaceous-terrigenous and

carbonaceous rocks. The Upper Cretaceous deposits consist of terrigenous-

carbonaceous flysch.

1.3 Depositional environment

Based on systematical sedimentological investigations on Absheron Peninsula,

Hinds et al. (2004) distinguished three types of deposits in the Lower Division of the

PS: sheetflood fluvial deposits, channelized fluvial deposits and lacustrine muds. They

recognized a cyclic deposition. Each cycle begins with a phase of maximum aridity

15
(Fig. 1.6.A). In this phase distal sheetflood and poorly channelized sediments were

deposited, mainly mudstones. Then a sheetflood-dominated terminal fluvial system

established and indicates increasing humidity. Channelized sandstones and floodplain

mudstones indicate this fluvial system (Fig.1.6.B). In the upper part of a cycle,

lacustrine mudstones indicate lacustrine expansion and inundation of the alluvial plain

caused by maximum humidity (Fig. 1.6.C).

Fig. 1.6. Palaeogeographic and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction for the Absheron

Peninsula and surrounding areas during deposition of the Lower Division of the
Productive Series (Hinds et al., 2004). A- time of maximum aridity, B- time of increasing
humidity and C-maximum humidity. Greenline represents the present day coastline.

Also the deposits of the Upper Division of the PS show a cyclic organization

(Hinds et al., 2004). The deposits of the Upper Division of the PS are regarded to

represent a terminal fluvial system which repeatedly expanded and contracted across

its alluvial plain but experienced only moderate lacustrine influence. The
16
palaeogeographic reconstruction suggests that a depositional cycle started during a

time of aridity and deposition of mudstones derived from distal sheetfloods, and some

poorly channelized sandstones (Fig. 1.7. A). This kind of deposit occurs in the

Balakhany IX sub-suite.

Fig. 1.7. Palaeogeographic and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction for the Absheron

Peninsula and the surrounding areas in the Upper Division of the Productive Series
(Hinds et al., 2004). A- time of maximum aridity, B- time of increasing humidity, C- time
of decreasing humidity.Green line represents the present day coastline.

Then humidity increases and fluvial expansion takes place. This results in the

establishment of braided, sand-rich deltas with sheet sandstones and floodplain

mudstones (Fig. 1.7.B). This type of sediment occurs in the Balakhany VIII sub-suite

and in the Fasila Suite. Then climate became again more arid, discharge decreased

and therewith also sand deposition decreased in favour for alluvial plain mudstones

17
(Fig. 1.7.C). This situation was realised in the upper part of the Balakhany VIII and in

the Balakhany VII sub-suites.

According to the studies of Hinds et al. (2004) these cycles are superimposed

on a long-term climatic trend from more humid conditions during deposition of the

Lower Division of the Productive Series to more arid conditions during deposition of the

Upper Division (Fig.1.8). The increasing aridity is possibly due to an increased evolving

influence of the Greater Caucasus (Hinds et al. 2004).

Fig. 1.8 Schematic diagram showing the climatic trend and cyclicity in the Productive
Series (after Hinds et al., 2004).

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 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS

2.1 Samples

144 samples from the Productive Series in Kirmaky Valley and Yasamal Valley,

which are located in the central part of the Absheron Peninsula, were collected in

stratigraphic order in August 2011 and June 2013 and were transported to the Institute

for Geophysics and Geology at the University of Leipzig. 178 samples from drill cores

recovered from the oil-gas-bearing zone from offshore site on the western flank of the

South Caspian Basin (Absheron Archipelago and Baku Archipelago) were shipped

from the core storage of the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republic to the institute.

Samples were collected from all suites of the Productive Series (Tab. 1), although with

uneven coverage, and come mainly from the fine-grained lithologies. The samples from

Absheron Archipelago and Baku Archipelago come from a number of different wells,

and thus they cannot be brought into a strict stratigraphic order.

2.2 X-ray diffraction (XRD)

The samples were crushed and then split for two different analyses, X-ray

analysis of clay minerals and X-ray analysis of bulk sediments. For X-ray analysis of

the clay minerals 2.0-2.5 gram sediment was taken and for X-ray analysis of bulk

sediments 1.0-2.0 g sediment was taken. The samples were X-rayed with a

19
 Productive Series

Kala Pre Kirmaky Post Post Fasila Balakhany Sabunchy Surakhany

Suite Kirmaky Kirmaky Kirmaky
Sand Clay

Absheron
5 31 7 8 4 23 66
Peninsula

Absheron
Archipelago 7 4 7 1 1
(Western

20
Absheron)
South Absheron
Offshore Zone 44 69

(Shah Deniz)

South Absheron
Offshore Zone 1 1 3 2 12 2

(Bahar)

Baku
1 2 3 11 4 3
Archipelago

Table 1. Distribution of samples from the Productive Series investigated for clay mineralogy.