Word Formation Processes

In linguistics, there are many ways for creating a new word, and this is known as word-formation
processes in the English language.
As languages evolve and develop all the time, new words emerge to help speakers communicate better.
This is a list of common word-formation processes in English:
Loan-word Compounding Blending Clipping Back-formation Conversion
Coinage Eponym Affixation Infixes Abbreviation Analogy
Loan-word
Borrowing or loan word refers to the process where a foreign word is used in the language without being
translated. The English language has adopted a large number of words from other languages.
Foreign words with the same spelling in English
ballet from (French) to (English)
patio from (Spanish) to (English)
hamster from (German) to (English)
cookie from (Dutch) to (English)
yogurt from (Turkish) to (English)
Foreign words with different spelling
chauffeur from (French) to (Spanish) chofer
football from (English) to (Hungarian) futbal
check from (English) to (Finnish) sˇekki
Calque
Loan-translation, also known as calque, is a translation method in which a word or phrase is
translated literally, word-for-word, into another language. It's important to note that calques are
usually semantic or syntactic translations, meaning that they retain the meaning or structure of the word
in the original language, rather than being phonetically matched.
Compounding
When two separate words are combined together to form a single new word,
Compounding: Types
There are three types of compound words:
 Open compounding: When there is a space between two elements.
ice cream peanut butter first aid
 Hyphenated compounding: When there is a hyphen between two compounded elements.
never-ending in-depth left-handed
 Closed compounding: When the two elements are written together.
bookcase fishbowl fingerprint
Blending
Blending is when a word is formed by mixing two other words together.
brunch : breakfast + lunch
smog: smoke + fog
 Clipping
Clipping or shortening involves cutting down some parts of a word and forming a shorter word that is
a synonym for the original word. Clipping is different from abbreviation as it is the shortened form of
written words.
gasoline = gas condominium = condo
examination = exam mathematics = math
laboratory = lab veteran = vet
captain = cap manicure = mani
pedicure = pedi Fantasy = Fancy
madam = ma’am forecastle = fo'c'sle
science-fiction: Sci-fi situation comedy: sitcom
Alexander= 'Alex' Moving picture: movie
Television: telly Sick leave: sickie
Bookmarker: bookie

Backformation
This word-formation process happens when a word (usually a noun) is reduced to another part of speech
(normally a verb). This word-formation process originated in Latin nouns ending with '-ion' that entered the
English language. Take a look at some examples:
Option (noun) → to opt
Insertion (noun) → to insert
opinion (noun) → to opine
resurrection (noun) → to resurrect
worker → to work
editor → to edit

NOTE:
Back-formation is different from clipping. Back-formation may change the word's class or meaning,
whereas clipping makes shortened words from longer words, but does not change the class or meaning of
the word.

Conversion
This word-formation process is also called zero derivation and happens when we create a new word with
another part of speech without changing its form. For example:
green (noun) → green (adjective)
The adjective 'green' is derived from the noun 'green' that means a grass land.
cheat (verb): cheat (noun)
phrasal verb to noun
to print out → a printout
to take over → a takeover
  verb to noun
must (verb) → must (noun)
hit (verb): hit (noun)
 noun to verb
bottle (noun) → to bottle
mail (noun) → to mail
 adjective to verb
clean (adjective) → clean (verb)
empty (adjective) → empty (verb)

Coinage
Coinage is a type of word-formation process in which a new word is created, either by inventing a
completely new word or by adapting an existing word in a new way. This can happen because of advances
in technology, movies, literature, music, and popular culture. For instance:
google teflon aspirin

Note:
Words that are formed by coinage are usually written in lowercase letters when they are used in context,
but when we want to refer to the source of the word, it becomes a proper noun and has to be written
in uppercase letters.

Eponyms
This is a type of coinage where the word is derived from the names of people or places. Eponyms are
usually written in lowercase letters, but when they are used as proper nouns, they must be written
in uppercase letters. Like:
jeans
Here, 'jeans' comes from the Italian city of Genoa where this type of cloth was first made
parkinson
Here, The condition is named after James Parkinson who described the shaking palsy.

Affixation
Affixation involves the use of prefixes and suffixes which are small words put before or after some words
to change their meaning and part of speech. Here are some examples:
create → creation
Here, the suffix -ion shows the result of a process.
agree → disagree
Here, the prefix dis- shows the opposite meaning of the word.
Infixes
Infixes are affixes inserted into the word stems. There are a few infixes in English and they are normally
used in informal speech or technical texts. Here are some examples:
sophistimacated (sophisticated)
saxomaphone, (saxophone)
edumacation (education)
hizouse (house)
Here, -iz- is an infix from hip-hop culture.
shiiznit (shit)
Here, -izn- is an infix from hip-hop culture.

Tip!
Tmesis is quite different from infixes. Infixes are tiny meaningless words but tmesis is a meaningful word
inserted into another noun. For example:
Hallebloodylujah!
Absogoddamnlutely!
Unf^^kinbelievable!

Abbreviation
An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase that is used to represent the full form of the word
or phrase. Here are some examples:
USA (United States of America)
CEO (Chief Executive Officer)
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)
km (kilometer)
St. (street)
Abbreviation: Types
There are five types of abbreviations. Let’s take a look at each type:

Acronyms: When we put the initial letters of a set of words together or separate the initial letters of a
word, we make an acronym. An acronym is always pronounced as a word.
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
sonar (sound navigation and ranging)
UNICEF (United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund)
 Initialism: An initialism is formed by the first letters of a group of words that are pronounced letter
by letter, not as a word.
HR (Human Resources)
UN (United Nations)
URL (uniform resource locator)
FYI (for your information)
  Contraction: When we reduce the size of the word, by omitting the middle letters.
Sgt. (Sergeant)
Mr. (Mister)
amt. (amount)
 Shortening: when only the first letters or first syllables of a word are kept.
Prof. (Professor)
approx. (approximately)
Sun. (Sunday)
Co. (Company)
 Syllabic abbreviations: When an abbreviation is formed from the initial syllables of a group of
words and pronounced as a word.
Interpol (International Police)
Comintern (Communist International)

Letter writing
Letter is a form of written, printed or typed communication which serves different purposes based on who
is writing, what he is writing about and who the recipient is.

Types of letters
This is divided into three types: The formal, the informal and the semi-formal. Formal letters are official
letters written to recipients based on the official capacity. Informal letters are letter written to friends,
families and those close to us. Semi-formal letters are written to acquaintances like our teachers,
Principals and HoDs’ but not based on their official capacity It is midway between formal and informal in
style but must show respect

The informal letter: This is a personal letter written to one’s family or friends. It expressed cordial
relationship and the language is informal. It uses concentrated form of languages, slangs

Features of Informal Letter

1. One address i.e. writer’s address (top right)
2. Personal issues and gossips
3. Informal language use i.e. colloquial, slang, contracted forms
4. Date, salutation, body and complimentary close
5. Salutation could be “Dear + First name or nickname
6. Complimentary Close: Your son/daughter, your love, (your name),
The Semi-Formal Letter: The semi-formal letter is so called because it draws from features of both
informal and formal letters.
Features of Semi-Formal Letter
1. One address
2. Salutation: Dear Mr. or Mrs. (surname)
3. Complimentary Close: Yours sincerely, ever, etc.
4. Language is neither too formal or informal but respectful.
5. The languages can be contracted

Formal Letter: This is also known as official letter or business letter. It conveys a sense of formality in
tone and language. It is a letter addressed to offices rather than individuals or officers.

Features of formal Letter

(1) Date Line: Different countries of the world write dates in different ways, ranging from: day-
month-year or month-day-year or year-month-day. For obvious reasons, months and year must be
fully written out to avoid misunderstanding
Month- day-year/ day-Month-Year / Year-day-Month
e.g. March 12, 2017; 12th March, 2017/ 2017, 3 12
2. Address: Official letters have the recipients address at the left hand side double-spacing after the
date. It contains name/title, company, address i.e. street, city, country (where applicable), zip code.
3. Reference line: Ref: -----------------------------------
4. Salutation: Dear Sir / Madam, but in a situation where you do not want to sound sexist. You can
use the recipient’s name – Dear Mrs. Mogo, Dear Manager.
5. Title
6. Body: This contains the message of the letter. Language must be formal; no contractions
7. Complimentary Close: Yours sincerely, Yours faithfully, Regards, Best wishes.
8. Signature: Signature, Name, Designation.
9. Enclosure: (where applicable). It comes after the designation on complimentary close.
10. Copy Notation: Cc or Xc – used to indicate that the copy of the letter has been sent to other
individuals (where applicable)
11. No contracted form of words. Words are to be fully spelt.

There are basically three types of letter formats and two types of address style. The letter formats include:
block format, semi-block and modified format while the address format include: block and slant.

Sample of Block Letter Format

----------------------------
---------------------------- Sender’s address
----------------------------
---------------------------- Date
----------------------------
---------------------------- Receiver’s address
----------------------------
----------------------------Salutation
-----------------------------Title
Body 1st paragraph

2nd paragraph

3rd paragraph

--------------------------------------- Complimentary close

---------------------------------------
---------------------------------------

Sample of Semi-Block Letter Format

----------------------------
Sender’s address ----------------------------
----------------------------
Date: ----------------------------
----------------------------
---------------------------- Receiver’s address
----------------------------
----------------------------Salutation
-----------------------------Title
Body 1st pragraph
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2nd paragraph
3rd paragraph
Complimentary close
----------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------
Sample of Modified Letter Format

---------------------------- Sender’s address

----------------------------
Date: -------------------
----------------------------
---------------------------- Receiver’s address
----------------------------
----------------------------Salutation
----------------------------Title
Body 1st paragraph
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2nd paragraph
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3rd paragraph
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------
Complimentary close ------------------
-------------------

Address formats

Block address format slant address format

--------------------------------- --------------------------
--------------------------------- -------------------------
--------------------------------- ------------------------
--------------------------------- -----------------------

Block address is conventional for formal letter writing.

Letter of Application
The main reason for writing a letter of application is to ask for special consideration, and in this regard,
the reasons why it must be granted you are adequately and clearly stated. Depending on the situation,
certain expectations must be met. A letter of application for a job can be influenced by the prospective
employer in a way that you may be required to write the letter and attach curriculum vitae or include such
information as part of your letter. A third style may require an applicant to complete an application form
for a job online. Whatever the style, the way the application is composed can make a difference between
acceptance and rejection.
Letter of application needs to be carefully written, meticulously proofread for spelling errors, typo
and grammatical mistakes. Words should not be crowded, margins must be maintained and paragraphs
kept short and readable. The “you attitude” should not be an empty boast. That is, convincingly establish
how your qualifications meet the employer’s need that makes you the right candidate for the job.
The first paragraph states why you are writing, how you learnt of the vacancy/company and what
your most important qualification for the job is. Don’t use questions to start an application letter, (avoid
unconventional or arrogant openings) e.g. “Are you looking for a talented and dynamic young lady?”
Don’t say “I want to apply…”, rather go straight to say: “I am applying for…”, “I hereby apply for…”
Mention the job and quote the source from which you learnt of the vacancy,-where it applies.
There may be one or two paragraphs after the first that provide evidence based on the information from
your resume to prove that you are qualified for the job. You can state your educational qualification on
one paragraph and your experience on another paragraph or you may choose to combine both in a
paragraph. Avoid long complex sentences, use active voice for emphasis.
Below are samples of the contents of application letters.
Writer’s Address
Date
Recipient’s address
Sir,
APPLICATION FOR THE POST OF AN ELECTRICAL ENGINEER

I am applying for… OR, I am interested in the position of…. OR,

In reply to your advertisement in The Punch newspaper of 10th October, 2018, I hereby apply…
(in reference to a situation where you saw the advert from a media)
On the other hand, if you were informed by someone, the name of your informant and the place
may be necessary. E.g.
At a recent meeting, seminar/ workshop at Idogba, the managing director of your company (who
was in attendance) mentioned to us that your company will be hiring …. Based on this information, I am
applying for the position of a ….
This should be followed by education, training and experience. e.g.
I attended …. (Schools and dates) and graduated with … (qualifications) I have successfully completed …
(additional qualification (s))

Having worked as … (brief mention of your work experience/duties and the places) (state your
conviction)
Attached with this application are photocopies of my certificates, credentials and curriculum vitae for
further….
(Make a reassuring statement to further persuade the employer to see reasons why you deserve the job)
e.g. I believe strongly…., I am confident that with my experience….
Complimentary close: Yours faithfully/Yours sincerely, signature, name, designation
 CURRICULUM VITAE / RÉSUMÉ

The British call it curriculum vitae while the Americans call it resume. It is a document that sells a job
seeker to the employers of labour, hence, it needs serious attention and careful articulation. The C.V. as it
is popularly called bears details of your personal data, educational qualifications and dates; work
experiences and establishments, positions, duties and dates, extra-curricular activities, publications and
referees.

Qualities of a Good Résumé by Kolin (2007)

1. Honesty: This requires that you are honest in the records of your educational qualifications, skills
and job experiences. Be as truthful as possible so that you do not cost yourself your job in future.
2. Attractiveness: Use appropriate font face, spacing and other document designs e.g. Bold face
where necessary, well planned subheadings.

3. Logicality: This calls for orderly and careful arrangement of information flow. Unattractive
resume will be a barrier to getting a job.

4. Be Concise: Use action packed words in short sentences to provide your information. As a
beginner, as much as possible, limit your resume to one page.

5. Correctness: Make sure your grammar, spellings, names, titles, dates, programmes and contacts
are correct.

6. Relevance: Make sure your skills, job experiences and educational qualifications are relevant to
the job requirement.

Samples of Curriculum Vitae

A.

GODSENT FAVOUR ANOINTED

72, Mahakwe Street, Dibo, Yaha State, Nigeria

Career Objective:
State your skill and strength in relation to the job. You can adapt your objective to the required skills as
advertised in the job vacancy. In other words, state the kind of job you are looking for and what skills you
have that qualifies you for the job. Example:

Objective: Full-time position as a computer engineer with IT/ICT consult.

Education:
This starts with the most recent qualification.
Dates (from-to) Name of schools Qualifications obtained
You can mention courses and grades you made (for beginners)

Experience:
This is your job history.
Start with the most recent job, provide a brief description of the duties or responsibilities you carried out at
whatever position you occupied. Leadership skills, accountability, integrity and team-spirit displayed at
your duty posts are important to highlight.
The items below can be part of the list of your experience from your previous jobs: You can bullet them.

Training skills
Management skills
Technical capabilities
Group leadership
Computer language you know
Computer programme you know or have designed
Maintenance / Service skills
People skills.

Conferences/Workshops/Presentations/Publications

Additional skills/Achievements: Language, certifications, membership of associations, travels, etc.

Honours/Awards: Academic – Dean’s list, department, school, grants, scholarships, honorary awards, etc.
Hobbies:

References: Not less than three persons, their names, titles, e-mails, phone numbers.

B.

PAUL THOMAS CHIMDIKE

(Surname plus other names either boldly written across the top page or by the left- hand side)

Contact information:
Address
Telephone/ Cell Phone No.
E-mail Address
Website:
Personal information
Place of Origin:
State of Origin:
Date of Birth:
Religion:
Nationality:
Others (Optional Personal Information)
Objective:
This is usually written to address the specific requirements of a particular job. You state what you want to
do on the job and the required skills and abilities you possess in that direction. In most cases, your
objective should build around the key skills/abilities contained in the job advert.
Education:
From the most recent, make a list of:
Schools attended with Dates
Qualifications obtained with Dates
Example:
Date School Degree
2008 – 2012 Babcock University, BSc Nursing
Ilishan Remo, Ogun State

Professional qualifications with dates (if any)

Job Experience
From the latest job, state positions held, the establishments, dates and a brief summary of the key
responsibilities and accomplishments. (Where applicable)
Example:
Position Establishments dates
Duties:
Accomplishments:

Papers Presented/ workshops attended with dates:

Works published/ projects supervised: (where applicable)

Hobbies:

Referees: 3 persons- with full names, address, contacts, email

The Parts to a Speech

1. The opening which is usually a greeting: The greeting starts by recognizing the most senior or the
highest ranked or position office to the least position and ends with ladies and gentlemen in most
cases.
2. The Introduction: This introduces the topic as well as the purpose of the speech.
3. The Body: All the points, supported with facts and figures are arranged into different paragraphs
at the body of the speech. Each paragraph is to make its point, supported with details, facts,
examples, illustration statistics etc. The paragraphs are to be linked together using transitional or
linking words. This gives the speech a coherent view or texture.
4. The Conclusion: This is to be introduced by a transitional that shows that you are summing up or
concluding. The concluding paragraph summarizes the points made and emphasizes or restates the
goal or purpose of the speech as stated in the introductory paragraph. In most cases, the highest
ranked person and the general audience are alluded to in the concluding paragraph, e.g. In
conclusion, Mr. Vice Chancellor sir, ladies and gentlemen, you will agree with me that... (recap the
points and state your logical conclusion or stand that is based on the points).
Forms of Speech Delivery
1. Manuscript: This is a form of speech delivery where the speaker reads out from a written
document or script to his/her audience. One of the advantages of manuscript delivery is that it
helps the speaker language to retain its formal structures. In other words, most of the informal
features of unwritten speech such as contraction, hedges, etc. are avoided.
2. Impromptu: The impromptu speech is a form of speech that is given on the spot without prior
preparation.
3. Extemporaneous: This has to do with a speech delivery where the speaker uses a short or itemised
points and draws illustration explanations, examples, etc. from his/her memory.
4. Memorized: Just as the name, the speaker memorises the script and recites what he/she has
memorised to the audience.

A report is a document that describes a situation or event; setting out the relevant information, findings,
recommendations and conclusions necessary for actions. The purpose of a report is to enable an authority
or an individual take decisions regarding certain matters under review.

Types of Report
a. Business report: This can be in form of a sales report or statutory report. It opens with
a formal statement of the place and date of the meeting. It is usually prepared by the
secretary of a company for Annual General Meetings of the shareholders or Board of
Trustees.
b. Committee Meeting Reports: The opening statement of such a meeting report also
contains details of date and place of the last meeting, the names of those who attended
the meeting and the person that chaired the meeting. It is usually written in the third
person with past tense
c. Situational/ Investigative report: This is a special report that could be written by an
individual or a group depending on the situation and the subject and its relevance to
 whosoever it is written to. It is written based on terms of reference; in other words, it is
written based on a guideline. It could be a meeting report that is drafted based on
request
d. Statutory Report: this is a legal document because its written I legally necessitated. It
is a mandatory document that must be written by an organization or government in a
particular form and with some particular information necessary for particular audience
consumption.