1.

LEXICOLOGY, WORD
LEXICOLOGY - deals with words and phrases, describes a vocabulary (lexicon) of a language
(science of words)
• Lexical semantics - the linguistic study of word meaning and the sense relations
between words (lexemes, lexical units)
• Lexical morphology - word formation, the way words are created
• Phraseology - idiom research, set expressions (not all are idiomatic-in front of, but
idiom=take the bull by the horns)
• Diachronic studies - etymology, origin and development of words
• (Lexicography) - not a subfield, but relevant to lexicology

General lexicology - general study of words and vocabulary, because there are general rules
to every language (language doesn’t matter, no matter the language)
Special lexicology - describes characteristics of a given language, for example things like
conversion or word-formation e.g. English used to be a highly inflectional language, used to have 7
cases

Historical or diachronic lexicology - deals with evolution of any vocabulary in the course of
time (decide >> decision - usually wordds are formed from verbs, but for example: television >>
(10 years later) televise, because television was a new invention, people started the need of a verb
to it, this is called BACKFORMATION)
Descriptive or synchronic lexicology - deals with vocabulary of a given language at given
stage of its development, at a certain period of time of its development, without considering
historical changes

WORD - basic given unit of a given language, unit of form and content
• FORMAL: word-form - minimal free form in the language isolatable in text or speech,
every single word is a word-form
• SEMANTIC: lexical unit - minimal free form that which has particular meaning and is
semantically indivisible into smaller pieces - particular realisation of lexeme, it is
ABSTRACT when isolated (if two meanings are related they are lexical units of one
lexeme - table - furniture/chemical table/chart/pebble/meals)
- concrete lexical unit = There's stars in the sky >>> one meaning, grammatical +
semantic meaning
• lexeme - an abstract entity that we carry in our minds, unit of lexical meaning which
includes a set of word-forms by which it can be realised
• simple lexeme - (one word / morpheme unit)
• complex lexeme - free syntactic groups, derivates, compounds, phrases, idioms
(blackbird (kos) / black bird (černý pták))

full words (lexical words) - full meaning on their own, content words
functions words - grammatical words, form words (auxiliary verb, copula, pronouns, particle..)
 • purely grammatical words - no meaning, auxiliary verbs which only serve to make
structures (other examples: There are 20 students in the classroom. - There-formal
subject,purely grammatical; Anticipatory it - It is good!)
• synsemantic words words - have meaning but only in realisation with other word (on
the table, on holiday, close by, and = addition, but = contrast)

Word equivalent - set of words that is treated like a single word - idioms, set expressions,
phrases

Derivational paradigm = lexical suffixation / prefixation of a base word (touch, touchy,

untouchable, touchables)

Inflectional paradigm = set of grammatical possibilities of a specific word (speak, speaks,

spoke, spoken speaking)

NONC words = used situationally (burglar > taken from French, backformation To burgle)

Dimunitives (zdrobněliny) = suffixes for smaller size / age - duckling, kitchenette, piglet

2. CONCEPT, MEANING
MEANING - reflection of the extra-linguistic reality (external point of view) | set of semantic
elements (semes) that make up the whole meaning (internal point of view)
• Meaning is conveyed by signs - sign is something that represents something else,
anything that conveys infromation from person A to B (semiotics - science of signs)
There are verbal (words) and non-verbal signs (fingers crossed, nodding)
• An icon - not arbitrary, imitation, picture of reality
• An index - not fully arbitrary, there is causal relation (e.g. symptom, cloud as a
symptom of rain)
• A symbol - completely arbitrary (traffic lights, warning: a siren or flashing light)

Linguistic meaning - content carried by the words or signs by people when communicating
• Bilateral model - a signifier (the form) and the signified (the concept)
• Three-part model - word -> concept -> thing; this view denies a direct link between
words and things, arguing that the relationship can be made only through the concepts
of our minds >>> for every word there is a concept (semiotic triangle - people
conventionally decide what a thing is called - KEY)

CONCEPT (notion) - is a symbolised by a symbol (word-form) and at the same time refers to
part of reality. A word is linguistic realisation of a concept
• Concept - abstraction in human mind, general features of reality, understanding the
essential features for effective communication
 • Notion - more subjective, depends on personal experience, under the concept of "chair"
each of us will imagine a different "piece of furniture to sit on", although we all have the
same concept in our minds

Methods of explaining relation between form and the concept

• Onomasiology - we look for a name by describing the meaning (a piece of furniture to sit on
> chair), from concept to word (realised in synonymy, hyponymy)
• Semasiology - we look for a meaning of a particular word (race > a sports competition, a group
of people with particular similar physical characteristics,...) , from word to concept (realised in
polysemy, homonymy) - most dictionaries are semasiological

3. TYPES OF MEANING, MOTIVATION

Types of lexical meaning
• Conceptual meaning (denotativem obligatory) - the meaning that the word actually
has, dictionary meaning, we have to understand
• Connotative meaning (not obligatory, can be neutral) - the extra meaning the word
carries
• Expressive - carries some emotionally charged meaning, affective element
(derogatory - brat, taboo, euphemistic - bathroom>toilet)
• Stylistic - stylistic value (formal-usually from French, technical - specific field> flat
(music), poetic-steed(oř), colloquial-telly, learn-it words - come from Latin>initiate...)
• Associative - reminder of other related meanings, typical properties of the thing,
subjective for people (hospital - neutral for doctor, negative for patient, positive
for architect) - CONNOTATION IS REFLECTED IN THE WORD ITSELF, ASSOCIATIVE
WORDS ARE NEUTRAL
• Collocative meaning - associations acquired via the meaning of the co-occuring words,
words which are habitually used in connection to other words - not strict (pretty woman,
we usually don't say handsome - in 60s of th 20th century feminism started the political
correctness movement)
• Collocativity - ability of the meaning to enter syntagmatic patterns
• Fading = some words are considered to be more politically correct > so they get
replace (negro>black>african american [even though not all black americans are african])

MOTIVATION - the connection between the form and content is not arbitrary in some cases (4
exceptions)
• Expressive (Emotional) - words that illustrate emotions (Hurray!, Ouch!)
• Phonetic - motivated by certain similarity between sounds it makes up and the meaning
(sizzle, splash, bang, buzz, cuckoo)
• Morphological - secondary motivation - word motivated by added affix or forming
compound (rethink, self–propelled, a stone bridge)
• Semantic - extension of the main meaning
Eg: mouth - part of human face (non motivated), mouth of a river (mouth - any
opening - motivated)
Non-Motivated words = if connection between the structure and meaning of the word is
completely arbitrary (there's no reason for that word to have that very structure)

4. CHANGES OF MEANING, SENSE RELATIONS

Changes of meaning = some words disappear, new words com einto the language, from other
languages (borrowings, loan words)
• Widening - shift from specific meaning to more general (pig used to mean young swine,
dog used to be a specific breed and hound was the general term)
• Narrowing - from generic to more specific - (deer used to mean any wild animal, now
specific one)
• Deterioration (pejoration) - from neutral or positive to negative, development in
negative way (silly used to mean blessed, now it means foolish)
• Amelioration - from negative to positive (nice used to mean ignorant)
• Transfer - process of word becoming polysemous - it uses metaphor, metonymy,
synecdoche (gay used to mean happy, now it refers to sexuality)
• Synecdoche - whole is represented by the part of the whole and vice versa
(wheels as a car, heads/souls as people)
• Metaphor - the use of word for another based on some features (she is an angel,
his hands were shovels)
• Metonymy - Primary concept referred to by another related concept (crown for
queen/king, white house for president)

Sense relations between lexical units

• Paradigmatic relationship - vertical dimension, one word can contrast or substitute for
another, held between the same grammatical category - realised by synonymy,
antonymy, hyponymy, hypernymy, meronymy (more in paradigmatic relations)
e.g.: My car - substitute car with: automobile(synonym),
vehicle(hypernym), ford (hyponym). My with your
• Syntagmatic relationship - horizontal dimension - the relationship occurs in a
sequence, elements are not contrasted or substituted but combined
e.g.: in a sentence (turn the light on) or in a word (jailbreak, postwar, useless)

Paradigmatic relations
• Based on meaning: Primary lexical relationships
• Synonymy (identity) - bilateral entailment - He plays the violin well. entails / is
entailed by He plays the fiddle well.
• Hyponymy (inclusion) - asymmetrical entailment (dog entails animal, but animal
does not entail dog)
• Compatibility (overlap) - no entailment - independent - Bob is a husband
doesn’t entail Bob is a policeman (members in common but not connected, not
every husband is a police man, but can be)
• Incompatibility (disjunction) - entailment of negation. if it's a cat it's not a dog,
if it's thursday it can't be any other day of the week
 •Complementarity - incompatibility between two members (male-female, king-
queen)
• Antonyms - gradable, not contradictory by the polar opposites. He isn’t short
doesn't entail He is tall - he can be average height
• Converseness - reciprocal relationship, describe the same relationship from
different angle: buy-sell, throw - catch, teacher - student
• Meronymy - whole-part relation (part-of)
• Based on form - polysemy, homonymy

5. POLYSEMY AND HOMONYMY (=two relations which are similar, identical forms of words)
Ambiguity - a word, phrase or sentence with more meanings is ambiguous (meaning is
understood from context, connotation etc.)
• Grammatical (syntactic) - realised by syntactic homonymy=comes from how sentence
is structured (The lamb is too hot to eat.; The shooting of the man.)
• Lexical - realised by lexical polysemy/homonymy=comes from a words(equivalents)
having multiple meanings (She missed the man. The helicopter landed on the bank.)

Polysemy - words with more than one meaning and all of the meanings are connected to the
main one, all are related in a way
• Semantic inclusion - more general term is subordinate to a specific one
Eg: Cat - all cats (generic - tiger, lion, cheetah) | cat - specific animal
Man (human being gender neutral | man - person of a male sex
• Semantic transfer - metonymy(=the meanings are connected through their internal relations), metaphor
(=the use of the word for another referent is based on exterior features - similarity in shape or function or location or colour
or extent)

Homonymy - purely external coincidence of two or more words with no connected meanings
• Homonyms - words identical in sound-form and spelling but different meaning,
distribution and often origin
• Partial - identical in a specific form - usually different part of speech and their
paradigm isn’t identical (a match - wooden stick to light on fire x to match - to
combine well, verb)
• Full - identical in all forms and in inflectional paradigm (match - wooden stick X
match - competition in sport)
• Complete (lexical) - identical in all forms - including sound-form, grammatical
form and spelling
• Types based on medium
• Homonyms proper - two words identical in both spoken and written form
• Homophones - identical sound, different spelling
• Homographs - identical spelling, different sound

6. SYNONYMY AND ANTONYMY

Synonymy - sources of synonymy are: external (borrowing), internal (word-formation), semantic
shift, word combination in English often 3 words based on origin (French, English, Latin/Greek)
• Synonyms - two or more words different in their form but identical or similar in their
meaning - are interchangeable at least in some contexts
• Absolute synonyms - identical in all their meanings, in all contexts and in all
dimension of meaning - very rare ( eg: kind - sort)
• Partial synonyms - identical only in denotative meaning - they differ in
expressive meaning and in stylistic level (big house, large house | big sister,
large sister x)
• Near synonyms - similarity of meaning (mist x fog, stream x brook)
• Synonymic group - set of words that have the same or similar meaning
• Synonymic dominant - most general term in the group, of english native origin,
monosyllabic
• Eg: get - obtain - acquire - gain - win - earn
ask - inquire - question - interrogate
• Variants - synonymous words from different dialects, slangs (American: sidewalk,
British: pavement) - by some not synonyms but tautonyms
- spelling variants (colour-color); pronunciation (diaphones);
morphological (brothers-brethen)

Antonymy - relationship of binary contrast, implies semantic incompatibility based on contrast

within similarity (have to be in the same semantic field to be considered antonyms e.g.
temperature)
Antonyms based on morphology
• Absolute (root) - love - hate, right - wrong, big - small
• Derivational - created by affixes which deny the quality - appear - disappear, pleasant -
unpleasant
Antonyms based on semantic relationships
• Gradable - gradable quality, mostly adjectives, contrary to each other: hot-cold, high-low
• Complementary ungradable - binary opposites, two mutually exclusive words without a
3rd: dead-alive, false - true, attack - defend
• Directional opposition - concrete/figurative motion in on or two opposed directions,
ungradable > lock - unlock, above - below, start - finish
• Converseness - reciprocal two place relationship, obvious relation - existence of one
member means existence of other one: husband - wife, above - below, children - parents
• Contextual complementaries/antonyms - by certain context, words which usually
wouldn't be direct antonyms: red-white (wine), black - brown (coal)
• Polyantonomy - antonymy of polysemantic words - in different meanings a word may
have different antonyms: short story - long story | short man - tall man; long=/=tall
• Enantiosemy - polysemous lexeme whose meanings can be mutually opposite - rent
(dust a furniture - dust a face)
• Multiple incompatibilities - Non-binary opposition - polar structure some scale
• One-dimensional - gradable (Boiling, hot tepid, cool, cold) ungradable (field
Marshal, General, Colonel, Captain), cyclic (spring-summer-autumn-winter)
 • Multidimensional - directional opposites, more words are not added to this
category (north, north-east, east, south-west), incompatibilities (earth - fire -
water - air | mother - father - daughter - son)

Paronyms - words that are written or produced in similar way but with different meaning (excise
and exercise)

7. HYPONYMY AND MERONYMY

Hyponymy (Hypernymy) - type/kind-of hierarchical relationship
• hyponym - the type/kind of
• hypernym - the superordinate term
eg: colour(hypernym) -> red(hyponym) (red is type of colour)
Animal(hypernym) -> bird (<- hyponym || hypernym ->) ->
crow/stork/eagle(hyponyms)
• co-hyponyms = words that have the same hypernym, mutually incompatible exclusive
• troponymy/troponyms = type of hyponym, but they specifically refer to verbs,
describing more specific ways of performing an action (consume > drink > down; eat >
chew > munch)
Taxonomy - scientific classification of the same hierarchy, way of classification of things that
have groups within the same system
strict, well-formed hyponymy = X is kind of Y - taxonomy is within same class
• Folk taxonomies - generated from social knowledge, more general knowledge
• Special taxonomies - technical, scientific definitions
Not every hyponymy is taxonomy but every taxonomy is hyponymy
eg: Horse(hypernym) -> mare/stallion (hyponyms) - Not a taxonomy
Mare and stallions are not types of horse but genders
creature -> animal -> horse -> Andalusian / Arab / Mustang Is
taxonomy

Meronymy (Holonymy) - the part of / part-to-whole hierarchical relationship

• Meronym - denotes part (opposed to hyponymy which KIND of)
• Congruent m.- is always there, needed for the whole to function (head: nose,
mouth, ear; car: wheels, engine)
• Segmental - have clear limit, easily identifiable (human body: head,
trunk, limbs)
• Systematic - inter-penetrating the whole, more integrated in the system ,
we don't really know where it starts and ends (human body: skeleton,
nerves, blood vesels)
• Semi–meronyms - sometimes items of the same class do not have it, not
alwasy necessary (head: beard, hair; car: sunroof, navigation, radio; door:handle;
shoe:lace; blouse:collar)
• Holonym - denotes the whole, whole-to-part
eg: Finger(meronym) -> hand (its holonym)
hand(meronym) -> arm(its holonym)
 arm (meronym) -> body(its holonym)
Differences: hyponymy is a hierarchy of classes while meronymy is a class of hierarchies,
meronymy is less well-defined, less well-structured, often not displaying clear levels

Kinds of meronymy:
• Integral object + component = clear structural or functional relation between the whole
and its parts (a cup + handle; linguistics + phonology; state + provinces; table + leg;
house + brick)
• Set or group + member = structural or functional relation is unnecessary but the parts
are distinct from each other (forest + tree)
• Mass + portion = a complete similarity between the parts and the whole (sugar + lump,
bread + slice; eggs + jumbled eggs)
• Object + material = describes material from which an object is constructed (car + steel,
table + wood; plate + porcelain)
• Activity or process + sub-activity = describes different sub-activities that form the
main activity in a structured way (to teach + to give exams; clean + dust; study + take
notes)
• Area + precise place = parts that do not contribute to the whole in a functional way but
it describes spatiality (Europe + the Alps, a desert + an oasis; Great Lakes + Ontario)

8. SET EXPRESSIONS, PROVERBS

larger blocks of language consisting of more than one word yet function as a whole lexical units
e.g: learn the ropes, put someone on the carpet, cold war. They are stable syntagmatic relations
GRADIENT = based on degree of tightness existing in individual elements of syntagmatic
phrase
It goes like this: Free word groups > Collocations > Phrasal verbs > Set expressions
1. Loosest: FREE WORD GROUPS (also called syntactic couples)
- permits substitution of any of its elements without semantic change, each
element has a great semantic independence (attribute-noun: a new/blue/old
bag/jeans/...; subject-verb: bake/cut/eat a cake/bread/...)
2. A little tighter: COLLOCATIONS
- habitual use of two words/items which in a different context may be part of a
different collocation (pretty woman / pretty awful; heavy smoker / heavy problem)
3. Even tighter: PHRASAL VERBS = meaning of some of these can be guessed from the
meanings of their parts, but not always
- prepositional verbs- i'll aply for the job
- prepositional particle only occurs before the object-(X i'll for the job apply O-
i'll apply for the job)
- pronouns only occur after the verb + prepositional particle
- adverbial verbs-turn off the light
- adverbial particle can occur after or before the object (O-turn the light
off / turn off the light)
 - short pronouns occur between the word and the particle (turn it off)
- adverbial-prepositional verbs-we must cut down on the expenses
4. Tightest: SET EXPRESSIONS = called SE because of their stability, they are ready-
made>refer to one meaning, but they don't have to all be idiomatic, dependent on the degree of
transparency
- usually described as word equivalents, function as one member of a sentence (act
like a single word)
- their meaning is not derived from the meaning of other components
- they may be semantically non-motivated (as soon as; in front of ), but most of
them ARE, they have figurative meaning, called IDIOMS

As equivalents to classes of words

• Nominal phrases - the root of the trouble, the golden rule
• Verbal phrases - take the bull by the horns, whipe the floor with sb
• Adjectival phrases - as good as new, sick to the teeth of sb
• Adverbial phrases - from head to foot, up to the ears in something
• Preposition phrases - except for, because of, by means of
• Conjunction phrases - as long as, as soon as, even if
• Interjectional phrases - You bet!, on earth
• Stereotyped sentences - Take your time., Never say never., Take it easy., It depends.,
Here you are., You must be joking!, I see!

Idiom - semantically motivated set expression with figurative meaning

Proverbs - short familiar saying expressing popular wisdom, a truth or a moral lesson,
expressed by a complete sentence, carried over several generations (Ex. Actions speak louder than
words, The last straw breaks the camel's back)

Quotations - different from proverbs in origin. They come from literature but became part of the
language(=lexicalized), which means many people don't even know what/who they are quoting
(To be or not to be-Hamlet; What doesn't kill us makes us stronger-Nietzsche; All that glitters is not gold-The
Merchant of Venice)

Clichés - some quotations are so oftenly used they come to be considered clichés, phrases
which have lost their original expressiveness and are constantly and mechanically repeated
(astronomical figures, the irony of fate, to break the ice, to read between the lines, a shot in the dark)

9. WORD FORMATION
There are two ways of enriching and enlarging English Vocabulary system:
A. Borrowings from other languages (French, Latin, Greek, Ex. Training-Trénink)
B. Drawing upon native resources: word formation > the creation of new words
1. Affixation (derivation)
 • Affix - letter or sound (or group of) (morpheme) which is added to a word and changes
its meaning or function. Affixes are bound morphemes (can’t be used on their own, must
stand with another to make sense)
• Prefixes - before a base (kind => unkind), always DERIVATIONAL (lexical), they
give the base word a specific quality
- they don't change part of speech of words
• Suffixes - which are attached after a base (kind => kindness), can be either
DERIVATIONAL or INFLECTIONAL
- in most cases part of speech of words is changed (except kingdom,
friendship, childhood ...)
• Infixes - inside a base - not in english
• Suffixes
• Inflectional (grammatical) suffixes - formation of different grammatical
categories within one inflectional paradigm - (verbs: -s for 3rd person, -ing for
present participle | gerund; -ed for past tense | past participle)
• Derivational (lexical) suffixes - used for formation of a different part of speech
e.g. making adjectives from nouns (help => helpful) typically class changing but
not always (king => kingdom)
• As characteristic of individual parts of speech
• Noun-forming - experience, assistance, kingdom, shortage, friendship,
childhood, government, happiness
• Adjective-forming - formal, boring, hopeful, harmless, public
• Numeral - fourteen, seventh, sixty
• Verb-forming - shorten, criticise, assimilate, identify
• Adverb-forming - easily, coldly
• Lexico-grammatical meaning
• Diminutives (slighter degree of root) - booklet, kitchenette, auntie
• Agent-nouns (nouns from action) - reader, translator, employee,
scientist, musician, vegetarian
• Abstract nouns - friendliness, kinship, boredom, reminder
• Feminine nouns - actor - actress, hero - heroine
Root, stem, base - the part of the word that remains when affixes have been removed
• Root - not further analysable, the part of the word that remains when both inflectional
and derivational affixes have been removed, basic part which is always present in a
lexeme (untouchables -> un touch able s)
• Stem - only in inflectional morphology, only inflectional affixes are added to it (when all
inflectional[grammatical] suffixes are removed)
Eg: government is a stem but root is govern because ment is derivation suffix, touched(-
ed is an inflectional suffix), untouchables(-s is inflectional suffix)
• Base - any form to which affixes of any kind can be added (overlaps with root and stem
but not all bases are stems or roots, touchable is a base)
2. Compounding - compound lexeme (compound) => lexeme containing two or more potential
stems => must contain at least two roots, they are either together, hyphenated, or separate,
e.g.: railway, taxi-driver, washing machine, polar bear
• Compound nouns (4 groups based on semantics)
• Endocentric compound - the head is hyperonym and the whole compound is a
hyponym for the head (beehive is a kind of hive, armchair is a kind of chair,
office hours)
• Exocentric compound - not a hyponym of the head (redskin is not a type of
skin, highbrow is not a kind of brow), hyponym of some unexpressed semantic
head > thus frequently seen as metaphorical or synecdochal
• Appositional compound - hyponym of both parts, either of the components
might act as a head (maidservant - type of maid and type of servant, student-
worker, girlfriend)
• Copulative compound - mainly proper nouns reffering to the combination or
unions, not based on hyponymy like three previous groups, but on
meronymy=part of (Austria-Hungary, Hewlett-Packard)
• Compound adjectives
• Made with participle or -ed - hot-blooded, pig-headed, man-made
• Made with present participles -ing (less common) - a fast-moving car, good-
looking man, quick-growing plant
• Groups of words - do-it-yourself shop, take-or-leave-it attitude
• Verbal compounds - often made by back-formation (play-acting -> to play-act |
housekeeper -> to housekeep), thought true verbal compounds are not the result of
back-formation, but based on analogy with existing ones (sugarcoat, guest-star)

3. Conversion (zero derivation) - extremely productive way of producing new new words in
Modern English, word changes word-class without changing its form (fish - to fish, poor - the
poor)
the major kinds of conversion:
• Noun > verb - bottle > to bottle, bridge > to bridge, mail > to mail, trash > to trash,
mushroom > to mushroom(rychle se rozvinout), shower > to shower
• Verb > noun - call > a call, command > a command, guess > a guess
• Adjective > verb - to better, to dirty, to empty, to faint, to open, to total
• Adjective > noun
• Full - the resultive noun gets substantive morphological features, (many of the
nouns created are only in plural): adult - adults, criminal - criminals, a roast, a crazy,
a double, a dyslexic, a gay, a given
• Partial - only on syntactic level
• Noun > adjective - when before another noun (mother tongue, press
conference)
• Adjective > noun - the poor, the young, the old, the blind, the good - to
denote abstract quality
• Prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs, interjections - to up, the hereafter, down
4. Change of stress - grammatical change (to a different part of speech) of homographic words
by shift of stress (object - to object; permit - to permit)

5. Gradation - Twin form of one morpheme repeated with different vowel, they imitate the real
sound (click-clack, flip-flop, zig-zag, tip-top)

6. Postposition - formation of words (mostly verbs) by adding particles and turning them into
phrasal verbs (give x give up, come on, take on, bring down, run up)

7. Back-formation - derivation of new words by subtracting affix and changing the part of
speech - (butler - to buttle, baby-sitter - to baby-sit, housekeeper - to housekeep)

8. Shortening (clipping) - lexeme is shortened, while still remaining the meaning and same part
of speech
- Beginning of lexeme is retained - jumbo-jet > jumbo, narcotics agent > narc,
cabriolet > cab, gentlemen > gents, bi > bisexual
- Final part is retained - omnibus > bus, violoncello > cello, aeroplane > plane
- Middle is retained - pyjamas > jams, head-shrinker > shrink
- Clipped parts also in compounds - optical art > op art

9. Blending - merging parts of words into one new word - breakfast + lunch = brunch, channel +
tunnel = chunnel, apple+plate = applate, sometimes they overlap= sex + expert = sexpert (ex
overlaps)

10. Acronyms - taking initial letters of the words in a title or phrase and using them as a new,
pronounced word (VAT - Value Added Tax, WASP - White Anglo-Saxon Protestant, Alza, IKEA,
WHO - World Health Organization)

11. Sound Imitation - formation of new words based on sounds in real word (bang, bump,
giggle, grumbl, whisper, bubble, splash, sizzle) These lexemes are icons, not arbitrary

10. LEXICOGRAPHY, TYPES OF DICTIONARIES, DICTIONARY ENTRY

Lexicography - close to lexicology (a "branch"), but not it's part, both deal with words from
different point of view => compiling, comparing, defining and grouping lexical items in book
form.
• It is a formal and functional description of all lexemes, which are presented in a
dictionary as individual entries(headwords)
• Entry - the whole section referring to one headword
• Headword - the first word in the entry, about which the information is given

Entry (headword) presents lexeme in

• Canonical form - unmarked base: verbs - bare infinitive, nouns - sg. Common case,
adjective, adv. - positive ungraded
 - Lemma = identical concept as a lexeme in lexicology, it's a neutral word devoid of any
modification, these are present in the dictionary
• Non-canonical form - irreg. Verbs, etc., redirection to the headword with words that
non-native speaker usually wouldn't know where to look after seeing them (feet > foot,
slept > sleep, went > go)
• Idiom - under the head (raining cats and dogs under entry rain > idioms with rain)
• Phrasal verbs - presented with various particles organized alphabetically, after the verb,
which is the base of the phrase
• Homonyms proper are presented as separate headwords >> they have nothing in
common so they have to be presented as such with index numbers

Two types of lexicography

• Theoretical lexicography - dictionary typology, history, metalanguage, principles of
description, decision about methods, "distincting dictionary"
• Practical lexicography = creating itself, lexicographers invite experts to consult with
them about the roll-out
• Pre-lexicography - determination of publishing specifications, funding,
examining sources, field-work
• Lexicography proper - dictionary-making, defining, grouping lexical items,
editing, publishing

Typology of dictionaries (types of dictionaries)

• Content - linguistic/encyclopaedic
• Linguistic dictionaries - word-books, the contain linguistic information of a
word, deal with vocabulary units (meaning, pronunciation, usage, etc.)
- General: most frequent (semasiology)
- Specific (focus on specific types of words): synonyms (onomasiology),
pronunciation, retrograde, Americanism, technical dictionaries
• Encyclopaedic dictionaries - thing-books dealing with concepts (objects and
phenomena) they contain non-linguistic information of a word
• Time - diachronic - etymological, historical
• Number of languages - monolingual - explanatory, bilingual - translational, multilingual
• Target - prescriptive - pedagogical, descriptive - scientific/explanatory
• Arrangement - alphabetical, subject, frequency, reverse (based on last letter)
• Area - general, special, technical
• Expressional aspect - onomasiological - from meaning to form - synonyms, antonyms,
hyponyms / semasiological - from form to meaning
• Medium - books, electronic

General linguistic dictionaries - deal with the form, meaning and the usage, they are
synchronic (just because there are some historical data inserted there doesn't make them diachronic)
• Microstructure - structure of an entry (headword>part of speech>pronuncation>list of
meaning and definitions (+stylistic notes: how to use words in some circumstances)
• Phonological - spelling and pronunciation (usually by means of IPA)
 • Grammatical - grammatical characteristics (parts of speech, irregularities,
countability of nouns, transitivity of verbs) derivatives, compounds
• Semantic - meaning, examples, phraseology, synonyms, antonyms
• Macrostructure - structure of dictionary as whole
• Sections apart from the dictionary proper (the body)
• Introduction and guide
• Key to pronunciation
• List of abbreviations used, etc
• after the dictionary proper there are often supplements to follow, which
are distinctly encyclopaedic (tables of weights and measures, proper
geographical names with pronunciation, maps)