Unit II

Electromagnetic Relays
Unit – II ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS
• Operating principles of relays

• Universal relay – Torque equation

• Electromagnetic Relays –
• Over current,

• Directional,

• Distance: R-X diagram

• Differential,

• Negative sequence and

• Under frequency relays.

Protective Relays
• It is an electrical device connected between the main circuit
and the circuit breaker that detects the fault and initiate the
operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the defective
section from the rest of the system.

• The devices that detect abnormal conditions in electrical

circuits by constantly measuring the electrical quantities
which are different under normal and fault conditions.
Terms Related to Relays
• Operating Torque
This is a torque which tends to close the contacts of relay.
• Restraining force or torque
It opposes the operating torque and tends to prevent the closure of
relay contacts.
• Operating or Pick-up (level)
It is the threshold value of current or voltage above which the relay
will close its contacts.
• Drop out or Reset (level)
It is the value of current or voltage below which the relay will open its
contacts and return to normal position
Terms Related to Relays
• Flag or Target
It is a device for indicating the operation of a relay
• Power Consumption (Burden)
It is the power consumed by the relay which is expressed in Volt-
amperes with AC and watts in DC
• Operating time
It is the time between the moment the actuating quantity attains
equal value to the pick-up and the instant at which the relay operates
its contacts.
• Over Reach
A relay is said to over reach when it operates at a current which is
lower than its setting.
 Terms Related to Relays
• Under Reach
A relay is said to under reach when it opens the trip coil at a current which
is higher than its setting.
• Plug Setting Multiplier (P.S.M)
It is the ratio of fault current in relay coil to its pick up current.
𝐹𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝐹𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑃. 𝑆. 𝑀 = =
𝑃𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑢𝑝 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶. 𝑇 × 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔

• Time Setting Multiplier

– Generally a relay is provided with a control to adjust the time of operation
which is known as time setting multiplier
– Time is adjusted from 0 to 1 sec in steps of 0.05 sec
Various Currents
• Normal Current
It is the current designed to be drawn by a load under normal
operating conditions.
• Overload Current
It is greater in magnitude than the normal current and flows only in
the normal current path.
• Short Circuit Current
It is greater in magnitude than the normal current of thousands of
amperes due to the short circuit between lines.
• Ground Fault Current
It flows outside the normal circuit path (i.e. through neutral
grounding).
Classification of Relays

Relays
Construction
Time of Digital Numerical
& principle of Application Static relays
operation operation relays relays
 Classification based on application
Functional Relay Types
Regardless of the principle involved ,relays are generally classified
according to the function they are called upon to perform in the
protection of electric power circuits.

A relay which recognises overcurrent in a circuit and initiates corrective

measures would be termed as an over current relay irrespective of the
relay design.

Similarly an over voltage relay is one which recognises over-voltage in a

circuit and initiates the corrective measures.
 • Electromagnetic relays
Construction &
• Induction relays

Principle of • Electro thermal relays

• Physico – electric relays
Operation
• Electro – dynamic relays
 • Under voltage/current, Over
voltage/current relays
Application • Directional relays
• Differential relays
• Distance relays

• Instantaneous relays
Time of • Definite time lag relays
operation • Inverse time lag relays
• Inverse definite minimum time lag relays
Non Directional Overcurrent Relay

spring loaded jaw of the bridge socket

50%
200%

• also called earth leakage induction type

relay
• operates when the current in the circuit
exceeds a certain preset value
• similar to a watthour meter, with slight
modification
Inside of an Overcurrent Relay
 Non Directional Overcurrent Relay
spring loaded jaw of the bridge socket
• The upper magnet has two windings: primary and secondary.
200% • The primary is connected to the secondary of C.T on the line to be
50%
protected. This winding is tapped at intervals. The tappings are connected
to plug setting bridge. With the help of this bridge, the number of turns of
the primary winding can be adjusted. Thus, the desired current setting for
the Non-directional Induction Overcurrent Relay can be obtained.
There are usually seven sections of tappings to have the overcurrent range
from 50% to 200% in steps of 25%.
• These values are percentages of the current rating of the relay. Thus a relay
current rating may be 10 A i.e. it can be connected to C.T. with the
secondary current rating of 10 A but with 50 % setting the relay will start
operating at 5A.
• So adjustment of the current setting is made by inserting a pin between
spring loaded jaw of the bridge socket, at the proper tap value required.
When the pin is withdrawn for the purpose of changing the setting while
Non-Indirectional Induction Overcurrent Relay is in service then relay
automatically adopts a higher current setting thus secondary of C.T. is not
open circuited.
• So relay remains operative for the fault occurring during the process of changing the setting. The secondary
winding on the central limb of upper magnet is connected in series with winding on the lower magnet. This
winding is energized by the induction from the primary. By this arrangement of secondary winding, the
leakage fluxes of upper and lower magnets are sufficiently displaced in space and time to produce a rotational
torque on the aluminum disc.

• The control torque is provided by the spiral spring. When current exceeds its preset value, the disc rotates and
moving contacts on spindle make the connection with trip circuit terminals. The angle through which the disc
rotates is between 0° to 360°. The travel of the moving contacts can be adjusted by adjusting the angle of
rotation of the disc.

• This gives the Non-directional Induction Overcurrent Relay any desired time setting which is indicated by
a pointer on a time setting dial. The dial is calibrated from 0 to 1. This does not give direct operating time but
it gives multiplier which can be used along with the time-plug setting multiplier curve to obtain the actual
operating time of the relay. The time-plug setting multiplier curve is provided by the manufacturer.
 • Parts of the rotor in which rotor currents flow –
negligible self-inductance → rotor currents

Torque Production
(induced eddy currents) are in phase with the
respective induced voltages.
• The induced voltages are proportional to the rate
of change of fluxes and hence the eddy currents
also are proportional to the rate of change of
fluxes.

induced eddy currents

• The forces are produced due to the interaction

of φ1 with i2 and φ2 with i1
F1 ∝ φ1 i2
F2 ∝ φ2 i1
The directions of F1 and F2 can be obtained by Flemings left-hand
rule. It can be seen from the above figure that the two forces are
acting in the opposite directions and hence the net force acting on
the disc is proportional to the difference between the two forces.

∴ F ∝ F2 - F1
∴ F ∝ φ2 i1 - φ1 i2
Torque Production
Substituting the proportional expressions of φ1, φ2, i1, i2 in the
above equation we get,
induction-type-relays-working-principle-construction-types

The equation above gives the net force acting on the disc which is
proportional to sin ∝.
Time – Current Characteristics
• Substituting the r.m.s values of the fluxes instead of maximum values we
get,

F ∝ φ1 φ2 sin ∝

• It is important to note that the net force or torque acting on the disc is same
at every instant.

• The action of Induction relay under such force is free from vibrations.

• It can be observed from the above equation that if ∝ is zero then the net
force is zero and disc cannot rotate. Hence there must exist a phase
difference between the two fluxes. The torque is maximum when the phase
difference ∝ is 90°.

• The direction of the net force which decides the direction of rotation of disc
depends on which flux is leading the other. In practice, various
constructions are used to produce phase displacement between the two
fluxes.
 Non Directional Overcurrent Relay
• Characteristics show the inverse relation between time
and current for small values of currents.
• As current increases, some definite time is required by
the relay. So the characteristics becomes straight line
for higher values of currents. Such IDMT
characteristics can be obtained by saturating the iron in
the upper magnet so that there cannot be increase in the
flux once current achieves certain high value.

Fault current in relay coil = Line fault current × C.T Ratio

The torque is produced due to induction principle, as explained in Non directional Induction Type
Overcurrent Relay. This torque is opposed by restraining force produced by spiral springs. Under normal
conditions, the restraining force is more than driving force hence disc remains stationary. Under fault
conditions when the current becomes high, the disc rotates through the preset angle and makes contact with
the fixed contacts of the trip circuit. The trip circuit opens the circuit breaker, isolating the faulty part from
rest of the healthy system
Practically, it is necessary to calculate the actual operating time of the relay, under the specific fault current levels. For these
calculations, the following parameters related to the Non-directional Induction Overcurrent Relay must be known.

1. Time/P.S.M. curve or tabular data.

2. Current setting.

3. Time setting multiplier.

4. Level of fault current.

5. Corresponding C.T. ratio.

Non-directional Induction Overcurrent Relay operating time can be obtained as,

1. Using the C.T ratio, convert the fault current level to relay coil current level.

2.Calculate the plug setting multiplier from the relay coil current and current setting.

3. From the Time/P.S.M curve on data, obtain the time corresponding to the plug setting multiplier calculated above.

4. Multiplying the time obtained by time multiplier setting, the actual relay time can be obtained.
Necessity of Directional Relays
• Consider a radial system fed at both ends.
• If only one relay is installed, then fault current may be supplied from the
other source.

• Hence, relays are also installed at other end of line to detect fault and
disconnect transmission line from the other end as well.
Necessity of Directional Relays
• Additional discrimination feature is to be provided to distinguish
between faults that it should respond to, and others that it should
not respond to.

• The relay R2 should operate if fault is at F1 because it is on primary

feeder but not behind i.e. at F2.
Directional power relay

Equation
Directional Overcurrent Relay
It consists of two relay elements mounted on a common case viz.
1.Directional element and
2.Non-directional element.

1. Directional element:
It is essentially a directional power relay which operates when power
flows in a specific direction. The potential coil of this element is
connected through a potential transformer (P.T.) to the system voltage.
The current coil of the element is energised through a C.T. by the circuit
current. This winding is carried over the upper magnet of the non-
directional element. The trip contacts (1 and 2) of the directional element
are connected in series with the secondary circuit of the overcurrent
element. Therefore, the latter element cannot start to operate until its
secondary circuit is completed. In other words, the directional element
must operate first (i.e. contacts I and 2 should close) in order to operate
the overcurrent element.
Directional Overcurrent Relay
• Non-directional element: It is an overcurrent element similar in all
respects to a non-directional overcurrent relay. The spindle of the disc
of this element carries a moving contact which closes the fixed
contacts (trip circuit contacts) after the operation of directional
element.
• It may be noted that plug-setting bridge is also provided in the relay
for current setting but has been omitted in the figure for clarity and
simplicity. The tappings are provided on the upper magnet of
overcurrent element and are connected to the bridge.
Operation
• Under normal operating conditions, power flows in the normal direction in the
circuit protected by the relay. Therefore, Induction Type Directional Overcurrent
Relay (upper element) does not operate, thereby keeping the overcurrent
element (lower element) unenergised. However, when a short-circuit occurs,
there is a tendency for the current or power to flow in the reverse direction.
Should this happen, the disc of the upper element rotates to bridge the fixed
contacts 1 and 2. This completes the circuit for overcurrent element.
• The disc of this element rotates and the moving contact attached to it closes the
trip circuit. This operates the circuit breaker which isolates the faulty section. The
two relay elements are so arranged that final tripping of the current controlled by
them is not made till the following conditions are satisfied :
1.current flows in a direction such as to operate the directional element.
2.current in the reverse direction exceeds the pre-set value.
3.excessive current persists for a period corresponding to the time setting of
overcurrent element.
Case Study: Behaviour of Directional Relays
Source : Left side
Load : Right side
CB 2 & 8 : Open

The current flows into the polarity mark of the CT on Breaker 3, and into the Directional Overcurrent (67)
Relay using the same direction. Any current flowing into the polarity mark is considered to be the
forward direction.

The phasor diagram for this situation might

look like the following. Every load is a
combination of resistance and inductance, so
the normal operating range for this line is the
green shaded region when the current flows
into Circuit Breaker 3.
Case Study: Behaviour of Directional Relays

Directional Overcurrent (67) relay connected to Circuit

Breaker 4 sees under the same conditions. This relay is
designed to protect the same transmission line from the
other direction. The current enters the non-polarity mark of
the CT, and the relay determines that current is leaving the
transmission line; or the reverse direction.

The current is flowing in the reverse direction and the

orange/red shaded area displays the normal region when
the current flows into a load behind the relay.
Case Study: Behaviour of Directional Relays
Both fault currents flow into the transmission
line, so the directional overcurrent relays
connected to Circuit Breakers 3 and 4 will see
the current in the forward direction because the
current flows into both CT polarity marks.
If we pretend that the fault is exactly 50%
down the line, both sources are identical, and
If Circuit Breaker 8 is closed and a Phase A-to-Ground fault the impedance between the sources and the
is applied on 50% down the line. fault are also identical, we can use the same
• The faulted voltage should drop in proportion to the phasor diagram for both relays. Obviously this
severity of the fault won’t be true in the real world and the current
• The fault current should be significantly larger than the magnitudes would be different. The typical
normal load current. region for a fault in the forward direction
• The fault current should lag the voltage by 40-89.9 occurs in the green shaded area for both relays.
degrees depending on the line characteristics, voltage,
and severity of the fault.
• The non-faulted phases should stay relatively the same.
Case Study: Behaviour of Directional Relays
Fault is not on the transmission line.

The fault current flows into the polarity mark of the

CT connected to Circuit Breaker 3, so the
Directional Overcurrent (67) relay sees the fault in
the forward direction. If the fault current is larger
than the overcurrent setting, the relay will trip.
 Differential Relay
• It is a relay that operates when the phasor difference between two or more
currents exceeds a predetermined value.

• It is a method of protection in which an internal fault is identified by

comparing the currents at the terminals of the protected equipment.

• It is based on the fact that any internal fault in an electrical equipment would
cause the current entering it to be different from the current leaving it.

• Differential protection is applicable to all elements of power system such as

generators, transformers, motors and busbars.
 Differential
Relays

Simple Percentage Balanced Voltage

Differential Differential Differential
Relay Relay Relay
Simple Differential Relay – During No Fault
Simple Differential Relay – External Fault
Simple Differential Relay – Internal Fault
 Disadvantages of Differential Relay
• A relay should not operate instantaneously for the faults occurring beyond its
protected zone.

• But a simple differential relay may operate unnecessarily for an external or

through fault condition or even during no fault conditions. The reasons are,

❖ CTs may not have identical secondary currents due to their

constructional errors.

❖ During heavy external fault, the fault current may saturate the CTs and
cause unequal secondary currents.
Percentage or Biased Differential Relay

§ Advanced form of differential protection relay

§ Only difference between them is the restraining

coil – for overcoming the trouble arising out of

differences in the current ratio for the high value

of an external short circuit current.

Percentage or Biased Differential Relay
• Ampere Turns on the left side of the
restraining coil
Nr
= I1
2
• Ampere Turns on the right side of the
restraining coil
Nr
= I2
2
• Total Ampere turns on the restraining
coil
Nr Nr
AT r = I1 + I2
2 2
I1 + I2
AT r = Nr
2
Percentage or Biased Differential Relay
• Ampere − turns on the operating coil, AT o = No I1 − I2
• Current through operating coil, Id = I1 − I2
• The relay will operate when,
AT o > AT r

I1 + I2
No I1 − I2 > Nr
2

Nr I1 + I2
I1 − I2 >
No 2

Id > 𝐾Ir
Percentage or Biased Differential Relay
• The relay will be on the verge of operation when,
Id = KIr
• For the operation of the relay, the differential current must be greater than
this fixed percentage of the restraining current. Hence this relay is called
percentage differential relay.
• Under normal condition or through fault condition, the restraining toque will
be more than the operating torque. Hence the relay is inoperative.
• During any internal fault condition, the operating torque will be more than
the restraining torque. Hence relay will operate.
Percentage or Biased Differential Relay
Balanced Voltage Differential protection
Normal condition & External Fault
Balanced Voltage Differential protection
Internal Fault
Distance Relays
• It is used widely for the protection of HV and EHV transmission
lines.

• It employs a number of relays which measure the impedance of

the line at relay location.

• The measured impedance is proportional to the line length

between the relay and fault.

• The relay operates when the impedance is less than a

predetermined value.
 Distance Relays

Impedance Admittance
Relays Reactance Relays Relays
Distance or Impedance Relay

• The relay operates depending upon the impedance between the

point of fault and the point where relay is installed.

• There is one voltage element from potential transformer and a

current element fed from current transformer of the system. The
deflecting torque is produced by secondary current of CT and
restoring torque is produced by voltage of potential transformer.
Operation
• In normal operating condition,
• Restoring torque is more than deflecting torque. Hence relay will not operate.

• But in faulty condition,

• Current becomes quite large whereas voltage becomes less.

• Deflecting torque becomes more than restoring torque and dynamic parts of
the relay starts moving which ultimately close the Normally Open contact of
relay.
Impedance Relays – Definite Distance Relay
• One beam is placed horizontally and supported by hinge on the middle.
• One end of the beam is pulled downward by the magnetic force of voltage coil, fed from
potential transformer attached to the line. Other end of the beam is pulled downward by the
magnetic force of current coil fed from current transformer connected in series with line. Due
to torque produced by these two downward forces, the beam stays at an equilibrium
position. The torque due to voltage coil, serves as restraining torque and torque due to
current coil, serves as deflecting torque.
 Time Distance Impedance Relays
This relay automatically adjusts its operating time according to the
distance of the relay from the fault point. The time distance impedance
relay will not only be operated depending upon voltage to current
ratio, its operating time also depends upon the value of this ratio. That
means,

The relay mainly consists of a current driven element like double

winding type induction over current relay. The spindle carrying the
disc of this element is connected by means of a spiral spring coupling
to a second spindle which carries the bridging piece of the relay
contacts. The bridge is normally held in the open position by an
armature held against the pole face of an electromagnet excited by the
voltage of the circuit to be protected.
 Operating Principle of Time Distance Impedance
Relay
During normal operating condition the attraction force of armature fed from PT is more than force generated by
induction element, hence relay contacts remain in open position when a short circuit fault occurs in the
transmission line, the current in the induction element increases. Then the induction in the induction element
increases. Then the induction element starts rotating. The speed of rotation of induction elements depends upon
the level of fault i.e. quantity of current in the induction element. As the rotation of the disc proceeds, the spiral
spring coupling is wound up till the tension of the spring is sufficient to pull the armature away from the pole
face of the voltage excited magnet.
The angle through which the disc travels the disc travel before relay operate depends upon the pull of the voltage
excited magnet. The greater the pull, the greater will be the travel of the disc. The pull of this magnet depends
upon the line voltage. The greater the line voltage the greater the pull hence longer will be the travel of the disc
i.e. operating time is proportional to V.

Again, speed of rotation of induction element approximately proportional to current in this element. Hence, time
of operation is inversely proportional to current.

Therefore time of operation of relay,

Basic Principle of Impedance Relays
• The relays in which the operation is based on the ratio of applied voltage to
the current in the protected circuit are called impedance relays.

• This type of relay operates whenever the impedance (V/I) of the protected
zone falls below a predetermined value.
Impedance Relays
• The relay will only operate when this voltage to current ratio
becomes less than its predetermined value. Hence, it can be said
that the relay will only operate when the impedance of the line
becomes less than predetermined impedance (voltage/current).
• As the impedance of a transmission line is directly proportional to
its length, it can easily be concluded that a distance relay can only
operate if fault is occurred within a predetermined distance or
length of line.
Impedance Relays
• Torque produced by voltage element is α K1.V2
• Torque produced by current element is α K1.I2
• The equation for the operating torque is given by,
𝑇 = 𝐾1 𝐼 2 − 𝐾2 𝑉 2 − 𝐾3
𝑇 = 𝐾1 𝐼 2 − 𝐾2 𝑉 2
• Hence the relay will operate when
𝐾1 𝐼 2 > 𝐾2 𝑉 2

𝑉 2 𝐾1 𝑉 𝐾2
2
< 𝑜𝑟 <
𝐼 𝐾2 𝐼 𝐾1
𝑍<𝐾
Operating Characteristics
• We know that 𝑍 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋 2 is the equation
of a circle having a radius of Z.

• When the value of measured impedance ZL is

less than the radius Z, the relay will produce
a positive torque.

• If it is greater, the relay will produce negative

torque.

• The region outside the circle is the blocking

zone. If a fault occurs in this zone, the relay
will not operate.
Directional Unit with Impedance Relays
• It is always desired that the
relay operates for the faults
lying only in the forward
direction.

• Hence a directional unit is

included with the distance
relays.
Protective Scheme using Impedance relays
• At any location, three impedance relays and a directional unit are
employed.
• 1st relay protects up to 90% of the primary line.
• 2nd relay protects the whole primary line and a 50% of the
adjacent line.
• 3rd relay protects the entire primary line + adjacent line + 25% of
the 3rd line.
Reactance Relays
• A reactance relay is similar to an overcurrent relay. It does not
have directional feature in it.
• It measures the reactance of the line at the relay location.
• Hence the performance of the relay will not be affected by
variations in impedance of the line due to arcing ground.
• Whenever a fault occurs in the line, the measured reactance will
be less than that of the preset reactance and hence the relay
operates.
 Operation of Reactance Relays
• Torque produced on the relay,
T = K1 I 2 − K 2 VI cos 90 − α − K 3
T = K1 I 2 − K 2 VI sinα
• For a positive torque,
K1 I 2 > K 2 VI sinα
K 2 VI sinα < K1 I 2
K 2 V sinα < K1 I

𝑉 K1
sinα < ; 𝑍 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 < 𝐾
𝐼 K2
𝑋<𝐾
Operating Characteristics of Reactance relay
Mho Relays
• Impedance relays normally not used because it requires an
additional directional relay.
• Mho relays naturally have the directional feature and hence they
are used widely.
• This relay measures the admittance of the line and operates when
the measured value of line admittance is less than the pre-set
value of admittance.
 Operation of Mho Relays
• Flux produced in the operating coil
interacts with the polarizing coil flux
to produce an operating torque.
𝑇𝑜 = 𝐾1 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃 − 𝛼

• Flux produced in the restraining coil

interacts with the polarizing coil flux
to produce a restraining torque,
𝑇𝑟 = 𝐾2 𝑉 2
 Operation of Mho Relays
• Torque produced in the relay, T = K1 VI cos θ − α − K 2 V 2

• Now the relay will operate when the torque T is positive. i.e. when,
K1 VI cos θ − α > K 2 V 2
K1 I cos θ − α > K 2 V

I K2
>
V K1 cos θ − α

K
Y>
cos θ − α
Operating Characteristics of Mho relay
Frequency Relay
Negative Sequence Relays
• Negative sequence relays are generally used to give protection to
generators and motors against unbalanced currents.

• Unbalanced current results from line to line or line to ground

faults.

• These unbalanced currents are dangerous from generators and

motors point of view as these currents can cause overheating.
Negative Sequence Relay - Operation
• Currents from R phase divide into two equal components IZ1 and IZ3 at
point A. IZ1 leads IZ3 by 600.
IZ1 IR

𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑍1 = 𝐼𝑍3 =
3
300
600 300
IZ3

• Currents from B phase divide into two equal components IZ2 and IZ4 at
point C. IZ2 leads IZ4 by 600.
• The current entering the relay at point B = IZ1 + IZ4 + IY
IR 0
IB
= leading IR by 30 + lagging IB by 300 + IY
3 3
Relay Operation for Positive sequence current
-
IY

I IZ IZ
4
I
B 1 R

30 30
0 0
30 30
IZ 0 0 IZ
2 3

It means that the current in the relay is zero

when the positive sequence current flows .

IY
 Relay Operation for Negative sequence current
• The current entering the relay at point B = IZ1 + IZ4 + IY
IRelay = IZ1 + IZ4 + IY
IY
• From phasor diagram, it is clear that,
IZ1 = −IZ4
• Therefore, current flowing through relay is,
IRelay = −IZ4 + IZ4 + IY = IY
• Hence the relay will operate and trip the circuit breaker for
the flow of negative sequence current.
IZ IZ
4 1

I IZ IZ I
B 2 3 R
Types of Induction Relays

• Wattmeter type Induction Relay

• Shaded Pole Type
• Induction Cup Relay
Shaded Pole Type Induction Relay
φs = Flux in shaded portion
φu = Flux in unshaded portion
Eu lags behind φu by 90° while Es lags behind φs by 90°.The
Es = emf induced in the disc due to φs current Is lags Es by small angle β while Iu lags Eu by small
Eu = emf induced in the disc due to φu angle β. This angle is generally neglected. Is and Iu are assumed
to be in phase with Es and Eu respectively, in practice.
Is = Induced current due to Es Torque (T) ∝ φs φu sin ∝
Iu = Induced current due to Eu
Assuming fluxes φs and φu to be proportional to the current I in
the relay coil we can write,

T ∝ I² sin ∝
∴ T = kI²

As sin ∝ is constant for the given design. Thus the torque

is proportional to the Aare of the current through the coil.
Shaded Pole Type Induction Relay
Induction Cup Relay

• Similar to an induction motor

• Stator: two, four or more poles energized by relay coils.

• Rotor: Hollow cylindrical cup type in structure.

Compared to induction motor the difference is that in
induction cup relay the rotor core is stationary and only
rotor conductor portion is free to rotate about its axis.
Induction Cup Relay – working:
• The currents and respective fluxes produced by the two pairs of coils are displaced from each other by angle ∝. Thus the
resultant flux in the air gap is rotating. So rotating magnetic field is produced by two pairs of coils. Due to this, eddy currents
are induced in the cup type rotor. These currents produce the flux. The interaction of the two fluxes produce the torque and
the rotor rotates in the same direction as that of rotating magnetic field. A control spring and the back stop carried on an
arm attached to the spindle of the cup, are responsible to prevent continuous rotation

• Very fast in operation; Operating time: order of 10 milliseconds; This is because the rotor is light having very low moment of
(induction loop) inertia. The induction cup structure can be used for two quantity or single quantity relays. A single quantity
relay means both the coils are fed by the same actuating quantity with a fixed phase angle shift in between them. To reduce
the rotor inertia and to make the operation faster, double induction loop structure is used. (as shown in figure)

• In all, the induction relays are widely used for protective relays involving ac quantities. High, low and adjustable speeds are
possible in these relays. Various shapes of time against operating quantity curves can be obtained.
Universal Relay – Torque equation
• The universal torque equation explains the working of an electrical relay.
• Generally, electromagnetic relays consist current and voltage windings. The current through the winding
produces magnetic flux. The torque is produced by the interaction of the flux of the same winding or between
the flux of both the windings.

If both the current and voltage windings are used, the torque developed by the interaction between the fluxes is
given by the equation
universal-torque-equation-2

where θ is the angle between V and I and the τ is the relay maximum torque angle.

where K1, K2, K3 are the tap setting or constant of V and I. The K4 is the mechanical restraint due to spring or
gravity.

The operating characteristic of all types of relays is obtained by adding and subtracting all the other constants
and letting others be zero or by adding other similar terms.